1
|
Polis B, Cuda CM, Putterman C. Animal models of neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus: deciphering the complexity and guiding therapeutic development. Autoimmunity 2024; 57:2330387. [PMID: 38555866 DOI: 10.1080/08916934.2024.2330387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 03/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) poses formidable challenges due to its multifaceted etiology while impacting multiple tissues and organs and displaying diverse clinical manifestations. Genetic and environmental factors contribute to SLE complexity, with relatively limited approved therapeutic options. Murine models offer insights into SLE pathogenesis but do not always replicate the nuances of human disease. This review critically evaluates spontaneous and induced animal models, emphasizing their validity and relevance to neuropsychiatric SLE (NPSLE). While these models undoubtedly contribute to understanding disease pathophysiology, discrepancies persist in mimicking some NPSLE intricacies. The lack of literature addressing this issue impedes therapeutic progress. We underscore the urgent need for refining models that truly reflect NPSLE complexities to enhance translational fidelity. We encourage a comprehensive, creative translational approach for targeted SLE interventions, balancing scientific progress with ethical considerations to eventually improve the management of NPSLE patients. A thorough grasp of these issues informs researchers in designing experiments, interpreting results, and exploring alternatives to advance NPSLE research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Baruh Polis
- Azrieli Faculty of Medicine, Bar-Ilan University, Safed, Israel
- Research Institute, Galilee Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel
| | - Carla M Cuda
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Chaim Putterman
- Azrieli Faculty of Medicine, Bar-Ilan University, Safed, Israel
- Research Institute, Galilee Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel
- Division of Rheumatology and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Shbeer AM, Ahmed Robadi I. The role of Interleukin-21 in autoimmune Diseases: Mechanisms, therapeutic Implications, and future directions. Cytokine 2024; 173:156437. [PMID: 37972478 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2023.156437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 11/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
IL-21 is a multifunctional cytokine that regulates the functional activity of various immune cells. Initial studies have shown that IL-21 can influence the differentiation, proliferation and function of T and B cells, as well as promote the maturation and increase the cytotoxicity of CD8 + T cells and NK cells. During humoral immune responses, IL-21 has significant effects on B cell activation, differentiation and apoptosis. In addition, IL-21 promotes the differentiation of both naive and memory B cells, ultimately leading to the activation of plasma cells. The function of IL-21 in the immune system is complex, as it has the ability to either stimulate or inhibit immune responses. in addition, IL-21 facilitates the differentiation of naive and memory B cells into plasma cells. The functionality of IL-21 in the immune system is diverse, as it has the ability to stimulate or inhibit immune responses. This cytokine has been implicated in several diseases including cancer, allergies and autoimmune diseases. Research has suggested that this cytokine is involved in the development of autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis. Several studies have suggested that inhibition of IL-21 has a therapeutic effect on autoimmune diseases. Therefore, targeting both the cytokine's receptor and IL-21 in autoimmune diseases may be an effective approach to reduce the severity of the disease or to treat it. This review will examine the biological effects of IL-21 on various immune cells and the role of the cytokine in autoimmune diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abdullah M Shbeer
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Ibrahim Ahmed Robadi
- Department of pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Seth A, Yokokura Y, Choi JY, Shyer JA, Vidyarthi A, Craft J. AP-1-independent NFAT signaling maintains follicular T cell function in infection and autoimmunity. J Exp Med 2023; 220:e20211110. [PMID: 36820828 PMCID: PMC9998660 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20211110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Coordinated gene expression programs enable development and function of T cell subsets. Follicular helper T (Tfh) cells coordinate humoral immune responses by providing selective and instructive cues to germinal center B cells. Here, we show that AP-1-independent NFAT gene expression, a program associated with hyporesponsive T cell states like anergy or exhaustion, is also a distinguishing feature of Tfh cells. NFAT signaling in Tfh cells, maintained by NFAT2 autoamplification, is required for their survival. ICOS signaling upregulates Bcl6 and induces an AP-1-independent NFAT program in primary T cells. Using lupus-prone mice, we demonstrate that genetic disruption or pharmacologic inhibition of NFAT signaling specifically impacts Tfh cell maintenance and leads to amelioration of autoantibody production and renal injury. Our data provide important conceptual and therapeutic insights into the signaling mechanisms that regulate Tfh cell development and function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abhinav Seth
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Rheumatology, Allergy and Immunology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Yoshiyuki Yokokura
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Rheumatology, Allergy and Immunology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Jin-Young Choi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Rheumatology, Allergy and Immunology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Justin A. Shyer
- Department of Immunobiology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Aurobind Vidyarthi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Rheumatology, Allergy and Immunology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Joe Craft
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Rheumatology, Allergy and Immunology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Immunobiology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zhu J, Naughton S, Bowman N, LeRoith T, Luo X, Leeth C. Maternal antibody repertoire restriction modulates the development of lupus-like disease in BXSB offspring. Int Immunol 2023; 35:95-104. [PMID: 36190342 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxac049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex autoimmune disease that has a strong preference for women of child-bearing age. Maternal factors play an essential role in shaping the immune system of the newborn, yet it is unknown whether maternal factors could modulate the development of SLE in the offspring. Activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) is an enzyme required for somatic hypermutation and class switch recombination. Given that IgG and IgA isotypes account for the vast majority of passive immunity in rodents, our previously established AID-deficient BXSB mice provide a model in which maternal antibodies that can be transferred to the offspring are greatly diminished and have restricted repertoire. In this study, we compared genotypically identical mice born to either AID-sufficient dams or AID-deficient dams and evaluated the effects of maternal antibodies in disease progression. Offspring from knockout dams developed disease at a faster rate, as shown by more severe nephritis and elevated pathogenic autoantibodies compared to their counterparts born to wild-type dams. When immune competent pups were cross fostered onto AID-deficient dams, these mice exhibited more severe disease characteristics, including exacerbated lupus nephritis, increased levels of circulating antinuclear antibodies, and more activated T cells. These results suggest that a protective antibody effect contributes to the modulation of SLE progression in postnatal period. Overall, these findings highlight the importance of maternal antibodies in programming the immune system and altering SLE development in offspring.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhu
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Tech, 175 West Campus Drive, 3280 Litton Reaves Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.,Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Samantha Naughton
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Tech, 175 West Campus Drive, 3280 Litton Reaves Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Nina Bowman
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Tech, 175 West Campus Drive, 3280 Litton Reaves Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Tanya LeRoith
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Xin Luo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Caroline Leeth
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Tech, 175 West Campus Drive, 3280 Litton Reaves Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Hoseinzadeh A, Rezaieyazdi Z, Afshari JT, Mahmoudi A, Heydari S, Moradi R, Esmaeili SA, Mahmoudi M. Modulation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells-Mediated Adaptive Immune Effectors' Repertoire in the Recovery of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2023; 19:322-344. [PMID: 36272020 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-022-10452-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The breakdown of self-tolerance of the immune response can lead to autoimmune conditions in which chronic inflammation induces tissue damage. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a debilitating multisystemic autoimmune disorder with a high prevalence in women of childbearing age; however, SLE incidence, prevalence, and severity are strongly influenced by ethnicity. Although the mystery of autoimmune diseases remains unsolved, disturbance in the proportion and function of B cell subsets has a major role in SLE's pathogenesis. Additionally, colocalizing hyperactive T helper cell subgroups within inflammatory niches are indispensable. Despite significant advances in standard treatments, nonspecific immunosuppression, the risk of serious infections, and resistance to conventional therapies in some cases have raised the urgent need for new treatment strategies. Without the need to suppress the immune system, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), as ''smart" immune modulators, are able to control cellular and humoral auto-aggression responses by participating in precursor cell development. In lupus, due to autologous MSCs disorder, the ability of allogenic engrafted MSCs in tissue regeneration and resetting immune homeostasis with the provision of a new immunocyte repertoire has been considered simultaneously. In Brief The bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) lineage plays a critical role in maintaining the hematopoietic stem-cell microstructure and modulating immunocytes. The impairment of BM-MSCs and their niche partially contribute to the pathogenesis of SLE-like diseases. Allogenic MSC transplantation can reconstruct BM microstructure, possibly contributing to the recovery of immunocyte phenotype restoration of immune homeostasis. In terms of future prospects of MSCs, artificially gained by ex vivo isolation and culture adaptation, the wide variety of potential mediators and mechanisms might be linked to the promotion of the immunomodulatory function of MSCs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Akram Hoseinzadeh
- Immunology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Zahra Rezaieyazdi
- Department of Rheumatology, Ghaem Hospital, Mashhad University of Medical Science, Mashhad, Iran.,Rheumatic Diseases Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Jalil Tavakol Afshari
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Ali Mahmoudi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Nanotechnology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Sahar Heydari
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences, Sabzevar, Iran
| | - Reza Moradi
- Nanotechnology Research Center, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Seyed-Alireza Esmaeili
- Immunology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mahmoud Mahmoudi
- Immunology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran. .,Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran. .,Department of Immunology, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Azadi Square, Kalantari Blvd, Pardi's campusMashhad, Iran.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
King HW, Wells KL, Shipony Z, Kathiria AS, Wagar LE, Lareau C, Orban N, Capasso R, Davis MM, Steinmetz LM, James LK, Greenleaf WJ. Integrated single-cell transcriptomics and epigenomics reveals strong germinal center-associated etiology of autoimmune risk loci. Sci Immunol 2021; 6:eabh3768. [PMID: 34623901 DOI: 10.1126/sciimmunol.abh3768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
[Figure: see text].
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hamish W King
- Centre for Immunobiology, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Kristen L Wells
- Barbara Davis Center for Diabetes and RNA Bioscience Initiative, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.,Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Zohar Shipony
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Arwa S Kathiria
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Lisa E Wagar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Caleb Lareau
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Department of Pathology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Nara Orban
- Barts Health Ear, Nose and Throat Service, The Royal London Hospital, London, UK
| | - Robson Capasso
- Division of Sleep Surgery, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Mark M Davis
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Institute for Immunity, Transplantation and Infection, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Lars M Steinmetz
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Stanford Genome Technology Center, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Genome Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Louisa K James
- Centre for Immunobiology, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - William J Greenleaf
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Ren HM, Lukacher AE, Rahman ZSM, Olsen NJ. New developments implicating IL-21 in autoimmune disease. J Autoimmun 2021; 122:102689. [PMID: 34224936 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2021.102689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Elevated interleukin (IL)-21 is a common finding in the tissues and/or sera of patients with autoimmune disease. CD4 T cells are the primary producers of IL-21; often the IL-21 producing CD4 T cells will express molecules associated with follicular helper cells (TFH). Recent work has shown that the CD4 T cell-derived IL-21 is able to promote effector functions and memory differentiation of CD8 T cells in chronic infections and cancer. Autoimmunity has similarities to chronic infections and cancer. However, CD4 T cell-derived IL-21:IL21R signaling in CD8 T cells has not been fully appreciated in the context of autoimmunity. In this review, we assess the current knowledge regarding CD4 T cell-derived IL-21 and IL21R signaling within CD8 T cells and evaluate what implications it has within several autoimmune diseases including systemic lupus erythematous, rheumatoid arthritis, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, type 1 diabetes mellitus, psoriasis, Sjögren's syndrome, vitiligo, antiphospholipid syndrome, pemphigus, and giant cell arteritis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heather M Ren
- MD/PhD Medical Scientist Training Program at Penn State College of Medicine, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, 17033, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, 17033, USA.
| | - Aron E Lukacher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, 17033, USA
| | - Ziaur S M Rahman
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, 17033, USA
| | - Nancy J Olsen
- Devision of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Penn State MS Hershey Medical Center, Hershey, PA, 17033, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Elevated serum IL-21 levels are associated with stable immune status in kidney transplant recipients and a mouse model of kidney transplantation. Aging (Albany NY) 2020; 12:18396-18414. [PMID: 32991326 PMCID: PMC7585127 DOI: 10.18632/aging.103713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Allograft rejection after renal transplantation remains a challenge to overcome. Interleukin (IL)-21, a cytokine with pleiotropic effects, maintains immune homeostasis post-transplantation. Here, we report higher levels of IL-21 in kidney transplant recipients with non-rejection (NR) than in recipients with T cell-mediated rejection (TCMR, P < 0.001) and antibody-mediated rejection (ABMR, P = 0.005). We observed a negative correlation between IL-21 and creatinine (Cr) levels (P = 0.016). The receiving operating characteristic (ROC) curve showed a promising diagnostic value of IL-21 to identify acute rejection with an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.822 (P < 0.001). In contrast, exogenous administration of IL-21 accelerated acute rejection in a comparative translational kidney transplant (KT) mouse model. Reduced IL-21 levels in the peripheral blood were observed in KT mice after IL-21 injection. Further analysis revealed that increased IL-21 levels in the spleen induced proliferation of CD4+ T cells and CD19+ B cells after IL-21 treatment. Our findings suggest a critical function of IL-21 in kidney transplantation and the potential involvement of the IL-21/IL-21R pathway in acute rejection management.
Collapse
|
9
|
Tangye SG, Ma CS. Regulation of the germinal center and humoral immunity by interleukin-21. J Exp Med 2020; 217:132621. [PMID: 31821441 PMCID: PMC7037251 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20191638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Here we review the critical and non-redundant functions of IL-21 in regulating humoral immune responses. We particularly focus on studies in natura—from individuals from inborn errors of immunity that impact on IL-21 production and/or function. Cytokines play critical roles in regulating the development, survival, differentiation, and function of immune cells. Cytokines exert their function by binding specific receptor complexes on the surface of immune cells and activating intracellular signaling pathways, thereby resulting in induction of specific transcription factors and regulated expression of target genes. While the function of cytokines is often fundamental for the generation of robust and effective immunity following infection or vaccination, aberrant production or function of cytokines can underpin immunopathology. IL-21 is a pleiotropic cytokine produced predominantly by CD4+ T cells. Gene-targeting studies in mice, in vitro analyses of human and murine lymphocytes, and the recent discoveries and analyses of humans with germline loss-of-function mutations in IL21 or IL21R have revealed diverse roles of IL-21 in immune regulation and effector function. This review will focus on recent advances in IL-21 biology that have highlighted its critical role in T cell–dependent B cell activation, germinal center reactions, and humoral immunity and how impaired responses to, or production of, IL-21 can lead to immune dysregulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stuart G Tangye
- Immunology Theme, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, Australia.,St Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales Sydney, Darlinghurst, Australia.,Clinical Immunogenomics Consortium of Australasia, Darlinghurst, Australia
| | - Cindy S Ma
- Immunology Theme, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, Australia.,St Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales Sydney, Darlinghurst, Australia.,Clinical Immunogenomics Consortium of Australasia, Darlinghurst, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Hirahara S, Katsumata Y, Kawasumi H, Kawaguchi Y, Harigai M. Serum levels of soluble programmed cell death protein 1 and soluble programmed cell death protein ligand 2 are increased in systemic lupus erythematosus and associated with the disease activity. Lupus 2020; 29:686-696. [PMID: 32264742 DOI: 10.1177/0961203320916517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) pathway plays important roles in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). We aimed to elucidate the association of serum soluble PD-1 (sPD-1) and related molecules with SLE and to explore their usefulness as biomarkers. METHODS We retrospectively measured the serum levels of sPD-1, soluble PD-ligand 1 (sPD-L1), soluble PD-ligand 2 (sPD-L2) and interleukin (IL)-21 by ELISA in SLE patients, systemic sclerosis patients and healthy controls. Repeat sera samples were also obtained post treatment. RESULTS The serum levels of sPD-1 and sPD-L2 in SLE patients with high disease activity were significantly higher than those in SLE patients with low disease activity, systemic sclerosis patients and healthy controls (n = 58, 15, 20 and 21, respectively; p < 0.001). However, the serum levels of sPD-L1 and IL-21 were not elevated in SLE patients. The serum levels of sPD-1 and sPD-L2 were higher among active SLE patients who tested positive for anti-dsDNA antibodies than in those who tested negative (p = 0.002 and <0.001, respectively). There were moderate correlations between the serum levels of sPD-1 and sPD-L2 and the SLE Disease Activity Index 2000 scores, the titres of anti-dsDNA antibodies and the serum levels of complements. Furthermore, the serum levels of sPD-1 and sPD-L2 decreased significantly in accordance with disease amelioration following treatment (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION The present study demonstrated the association of serum sPD-1 and sPD-L2 with SLE and suggests their usefulness as disease activity biomarkers for SLE.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shinya Hirahara
- Department of Rheumatology, Tokyo Women's Medical University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Katsumata
- Department of Rheumatology, Tokyo Women's Medical University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hidenaga Kawasumi
- Department of Rheumatology, Tokyo Women's Medical University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yashushi Kawaguchi
- Department of Rheumatology, Tokyo Women's Medical University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masayoshi Harigai
- Department of Rheumatology, Tokyo Women's Medical University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Zhu J, Hay AN, Potter AA, Richwine MW, Sproule T, LeRoith T, Wilson J, Hasham MG, Roopenian DC, Leeth CM. Abrogated AID Function Prolongs Survival and Diminishes Renal Pathology in the BXSB Mouse Model of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 204:1091-1100. [PMID: 31988182 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1900501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2019] [Accepted: 12/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Almost a decade has passed since the approval of belimumab, an mAb directed against B lymphocyte stimulation and the first targeted therapy approved for systemic lupus erythematous (SLE) in over 50 y. Although well tolerated, the efficacy of belimumab remains limited and is not labeled for patients suffering from nephritis, the leading cause of patient mortality. We sought to explore alternative targets of autoreactive B lymphocytes through manipulation of affinity maturation. The BXSB/MpJ mouse, a well-established model of human SLE, develops elevated antinuclear Abs and immune complex-mediated nephritis along with other manifestations of SLE-like disease. To limit interfering with critical background genetics, we used CRISPR-Cas9 to disrupt activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID; Aicda) directly in BXSB zygotes. Homozygous null mice demonstrated significantly prolonged survival compared with wild-type. Although mice continued to develop plasma cells, splenic follicular structure was restored, and renal pathology was reduced. Mice developed expanded germinal center B lymphocyte populations as in other models of AID deficiency as well as increased populations of CD73+ B lymphocytes. Treatment with the small molecule inhibitor of RAD51, 4,4'-diisothiocyano-2,2'-stilbenedisulfonic acid, resulted in minimal changes in disease markers in BXSB mice. The prolonged survival in AID-deficient BXSB mice appears attributed primarily to the reduced renal pathology, warranting further exploration, as current therapeutics targeting lupus nephritis are limited and, thus, in great demand.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhu
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - Alayna N Hay
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - Ashley A Potter
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - Madison W Richwine
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | | | - Tanya LeRoith
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - John Wilson
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME 04609; and
| | | | | | - Caroline M Leeth
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061;
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Seth A, Craft J. Spatial and functional heterogeneity of follicular helper T cells in autoimmunity. Curr Opin Immunol 2019; 61:1-9. [PMID: 31374450 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2019.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Follicular helper T cells provide signals that promote B cell development, proliferation, and production of affinity matured and appropriately isotype switched antibodies. In addition to their classical locations within B cell follicles and germinal centers therein, B cell helper T cells are also found in extrafollicular spaces - either in secondary lymphoid or non-lymphoid tissues. Both follicular and extrafollicular T helper cells drive autoantibody-mediated autoimmunity. Interfering with B cell help provided by T cells can ameliorate autoimmune disease in animal models and human patients. The next frontier in Tfh cell biology will be identification of Tfh cell-specific pathogenic changes in autoimmunity and exploiting them for therapeutic purposes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abhinav Seth
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Rheumatology, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Joe Craft
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Rheumatology, New Haven, CT, United States; Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Wang N, Yigit B, van der Poel CE, Cuenca M, Carroll MC, Herzog RW, Engel P, Terhorst C. The Checkpoint Regulator SLAMF3 Preferentially Prevents Expansion of Auto-Reactive B Cells Generated by Graft-vs.-Host Disease. Front Immunol 2019; 10:831. [PMID: 31057553 PMCID: PMC6482334 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Absence of the mouse cell surface receptor SLAMF3 in SLAMF3-/- mice suggested that this receptor negatively regulates B cell homeostasis by modulating activation thresholds of B cell subsets. Here, we examine whether anti-SLAMF3 affects both B and T cell subsets during immune responses to haptenated ovalbumin [NP-OVA] and in the setting of chronic graft vs. host disease (cGVHD) induced by transferring B6.C-H2bm12/KhEg (bm12) CD4+ T cells into B6 WT mice. We find that administering αSLAMF3 to NP-OVA immunized B6 mice primarily impairs antibody responses and Germinal center B cell [GC B] numbers, whilst CXCR5+, PD-1+, and ICOS+ T follicular helper (TFH) cells are not significantly affected. By contrast, administering αSLAMF3 markedly enhanced autoantibody production upon induction of cGVHD by the transfer of bm12 CD4+ T cells into B6 recipients. Surprisingly, αSLAMF3 accelerated both the differentiation of GC B and donor-derived TFH cells initiated by cGVHD. The latter appeared to be induced by decreased numbers of donor-derived Treg and T follicular regulatory (TFR) cells. Collectively, these data show that control of anti-SLAMF3-induced signaling is requisite to prevent autoantibody responses during cGVHD, but reduces responses to foreign antigens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ninghai Wang
- Division of Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Burcu Yigit
- Division of Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Cees E van der Poel
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Marta Cuenca
- Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Michael C Carroll
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Roland W Herzog
- Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Pablo Engel
- Immunology Unit, Department of Cell Biology, Immunology and Neurosciences, Medical School, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cox Terhorst
- Division of Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Long D, Chen Y, Wu H, Zhao M, Lu Q. Clinical significance and immunobiology of IL-21 in autoimmunity. J Autoimmun 2019; 99:1-14. [PMID: 30773373 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2019.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-21 (IL-21), an autocrine cytokine predominantly produced by follicular helper T (Tfh) and T helper 17 (Th17) cells, has been proven to play an important role in the immune system, for example, by promoting proliferation and the development of Tfh and Th17 cells, balancing helper T cell subsets, inducing B cell generation and differentiation into plasma cells, and enhancing the production of immunoglobulin. These effects are mainly mediated by activation of the JAK/STAT, MAPK and PI3K pathways. Some IL-21 target genes, such as B lymphocyte induced maturation protein-1 (Blimp-1), suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS), CXCR5 and Bcl-6, play important roles in the immune response. Therefore, IL-21 has been linked to autoimmune diseases. Indeed, IL-21 levels are increased in the peripheral blood and tissues of patients with systematic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), type 1 diabetes (T1D), immune thrombocytopenia (ITP), primary Sjogren's syndrome (pSS), autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD) and psoriasis. This increased IL-21 even positively associates with Tfh cells, plasma cells, autoantibodies and disease activity in SLE and RA. Additionally, IL-21 has been utilized as a therapeutic target in SLE, RA, T1D and psoriatic mouse models. Profoundly, clinical trials have shown safety and improvement in RA patients. However, tolerance and long-term pharmacodynamics effects with low bioavailability have been found in SLE patients. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the latest progress on IL-21 function and its signaling pathway and discuss the role of IL-21 in the pathogenesis of and therapy for autoimmune diseases, with the hope of providing potential therapeutic and diagnostic strategies for clinical use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Di Long
- Department of Dermatology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, Changsha, Hunan, PR China
| | - Yongjian Chen
- Department of Dermatology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, Changsha, Hunan, PR China
| | - Haijing Wu
- Department of Dermatology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, Changsha, Hunan, PR China
| | - Ming Zhao
- Department of Dermatology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, Changsha, Hunan, PR China
| | - Qianjin Lu
- Department of Dermatology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, Changsha, Hunan, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Imam S, Prathibha R, Dar P, Almotah K, Al-Khudhair A, Hasan SAM, Salim N, Jilani TN, Mirmira RG, Jaume JC. eIF5A inhibition influences T cell dynamics in the pancreatic microenvironment of the humanized mouse model of Type 1 Diabetes. Sci Rep 2019; 9:1533. [PMID: 30733517 PMCID: PMC6367423 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-38341-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We have developed a transgenic mouse model of Type 1 Diabetes (T1D) in which human GAD65 is expressed in pancreatic β-cells, and human MHC-II is expressed on antigen presenting cells. Induced GAD65 antigen presentation activates T-cells, which initiates the downstream events leading to diabetes. In our humanized mice, we have shown downregulation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5 A (elF5A), expressed only in actively dividing mammalian cells. In-vivo inhibition of elF5A hypusination by deoxyhypusine synthase (DHS) inhibitor "GC7" was studied; DHS inhibitor alters the pathophysiology in our mouse model by catalyzing the crucial hypusination and the rate-limiting step of elF5A activation. In our mouse model, we have shown that inhibition of eIF5A resets the pro-inflammatory bias in the pancreatic microenvironment. There was: (a) reduction of Th1/Th17 response, (b) an increase in Treg numbers, (c) debase in IL17 and IL21 cytokines levels in serum, (d) lowering of anti-GAD65 antibodies, and (e) ablation of the ER stress that improved functionality of the β-cells, but minimal effect on the cytotoxic CD8 T-cell (CTL) mediated response. Conclusively, immune modulation, in the case of T1D, may help to manipulate inflammatory responses, decreasing disease severity, and may help manage T1D in early stages of disease. Our study also demonstrates that without manipulating the CTLs mediated response extensively, it is difficult to treat T1D.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shahnawaz Imam
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA.
- Center for Diabetes and Endocrine Research (CeDER), Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA.
| | - R Prathibha
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA
- Center for Diabetes and Endocrine Research (CeDER), Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Pervaiz Dar
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA
- Center for Diabetes and Endocrine Research (CeDER), Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA
- Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir (SKUAST-K), Shuhama, Srinagar, 190006, Jammu and Kashmir, India
| | - Khalil Almotah
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA
- Center for Diabetes and Endocrine Research (CeDER), Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Ahmed Al-Khudhair
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA
- Center for Diabetes and Endocrine Research (CeDER), Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Syed Abdul-Moiz Hasan
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA
- Center for Diabetes and Endocrine Research (CeDER), Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Nancy Salim
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA
- Center for Diabetes and Endocrine Research (CeDER), Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Talha Naser Jilani
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA
- Center for Diabetes and Endocrine Research (CeDER), Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Raghavendra G Mirmira
- Department of Pediatrics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Juan Carlos Jaume
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA.
- Center for Diabetes and Endocrine Research (CeDER), Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Abstract
Autoimmunity is a leading cause of chronic kidney disease and loss of native and transplanted kidneys. Conventional immunosuppressive therapies can be effective but are non-specific, noncurative, and risk serious side effects such as life-threatening infection and cancer. Novel therapies and targeted interventions are urgently needed. In this brief review we explore diverse strategies currently in development and under consideration to interrupt underlying disease mechanisms in immune-mediated renal injury. Because autoantibodies are prominent in diagnosis and pathogenesis in multiple human glomerulopathies, we highlight several promising therapies that interfere with functions of early mediators (IgG and complement) of the effector arm and with an epicenter (the germinal center) for induction of humoral immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mary Helen Foster
- a Department of Medicine , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA.,b Medical and Research Services , Durham VA Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
IL-21 Attenuates FITC-Induced Contact Hypersensitivity Response via Regulation of Dendritic Cell Function. J Invest Dermatol 2018; 138:2174-2184. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2018.03.1508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Revised: 03/01/2018] [Accepted: 03/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
|
18
|
Gensous N, Charrier M, Duluc D, Contin-Bordes C, Truchetet ME, Lazaro E, Duffau P, Blanco P, Richez C. T Follicular Helper Cells in Autoimmune Disorders. Front Immunol 2018; 9:1637. [PMID: 30065726 PMCID: PMC6056609 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
T follicular helper (Tfh) cells are a distinct subset of CD4+ T lymphocytes, specialized in B cell help and in regulation of antibody responses. They are required for the generation of germinal center reactions, where selection of high affinity antibody producing B cells and development of memory B cells occur. Owing to the fundamental role of Tfh cells in adaptive immunity, the stringent control of their production and function is critically important, both for the induction of an optimal humoral response against thymus-dependent antigens but also for the prevention of self-reactivity. Indeed, deregulation of Tfh activities can contribute to a pathogenic autoantibody production and can play an important role in the promotion of autoimmune diseases. In the present review, we briefly introduce the molecular factors involved in Tfh cell formation in the context of a normal immune response, as well as markers associated with their identification (transcription factor, surface marker expression, and cytokine production). We then consider in detail the role of Tfh cells in the pathogenesis of a broad range of autoimmune diseases, with a special focus on systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis, as well as on the other autoimmune/inflammatory disorders. We summarize the observed alterations in Tfh numbers, activation state, and circulating subset distribution during autoimmune and some other inflammatory disorders. In addition, central role of interleukin-21, major cytokine produced by Tfh cells, is discussed, as well as the involvement of follicular regulatory T cells, which share characteristics with both Tfh and regulatory T cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Noémie Gensous
- ImmunoConcept, UMR-CNRS 5164, Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Manon Charrier
- ImmunoConcept, UMR-CNRS 5164, Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Dorothée Duluc
- ImmunoConcept, UMR-CNRS 5164, Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | | | | | - Estibaliz Lazaro
- ImmunoConcept, UMR-CNRS 5164, Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Pierre Duffau
- ImmunoConcept, UMR-CNRS 5164, Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Patrick Blanco
- ImmunoConcept, UMR-CNRS 5164, Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Christophe Richez
- ImmunoConcept, UMR-CNRS 5164, Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Abstract
Acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) are worldwide public health problems affecting millions of people and have rapidly increased in prevalence in recent years. Due to the multiple causes of renal failure, many animal models have been developed to advance our understanding of human nephropathy. Among these experimental models, rodents have been extensively used to enable mechanistic understanding of kidney disease induction and progression, as well as to identify potential targets for therapy. In this review, we discuss AKI models induced by surgical operation and drugs or toxins, as well as a variety of CKD models (mainly genetically modified mouse models). Results from recent and ongoing clinical trials and conceptual advances derived from animal models are also explored.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yin-Wu Bao
- Kidney Disease Center, First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058, China. .,Institute of Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Yuan Yuan
- Kidney Disease Center, First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058, China. .,Institute of Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Jiang-Hua Chen
- Kidney Disease Center, First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058, China.
| | - Wei-Qiang Lin
- Kidney Disease Center, First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058, China. .,Institute of Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058, China
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The complexity and heterogeneity of the clinical presentation in systemic lupus of erythematosus (SLE), combined to the inherent limitations of clinical research, have made it difficult to investigate the cause of this disease directly in patients. Various mouse models have been developed to dissect the cellular and genetic mechanisms of SLE, as well as to identify therapeutic targets and to screen treatments. The purpose of this review is to summarize the major spontaneous and induced mouse models of SLE and to provide an update on the major advances they have contributed to the field. RECENT FINDINGS Mouse models of SLE have continued to contribute to understand the cellular, signaling and metabolic mechanisms contributing to the disease and how targeting these pathways can provide therapeutic targets. Whenever possible, we discuss the advantage of using one model over the others to test a specific hypothesis. SUMMARY Spontaneous and induced models of lupus models are useful tools for the study of the cause of the disease, identify therapeutic targets and screen treatments in preclinical studies. Each model shares specific subsets of attributes with the disease observed in humans, which provides investigators a tool to tailor to their specific needs.
Collapse
|
21
|
Abstract
Germinal centers (GCs) are dynamic microenvironments that form in the secondary lymphoid organs and generate somatically mutated high-affinity antibodies necessary to establish an effective humoral immune response. Tight regulation of GC responses is critical for maintaining self-tolerance. GCs can arise in the absence of purposeful immunization or overt infection (called spontaneous GCs, Spt-GCs). In autoimmune-prone mice and patients with autoimmune disease, aberrant regulation of Spt-GCs is thought to promote the development of somatically mutated pathogenic autoantibodies and the subsequent development of autoimmunity. The mechanisms that control the formation of Spt-GCs and promote systemic autoimmune diseases remain an open question and the focus of ongoing studies. Here, we discuss the most current studies on the role of Spt-GCs in autoimmunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Phillip P Domeier
- a Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Penn State College of Medicine , USA
| | - Stephanie L Schell
- a Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Penn State College of Medicine , USA
| | - Ziaur S M Rahman
- a Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Penn State College of Medicine , USA
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Marnik EA, Wang X, Sproule TJ, Park G, Christianson GJ, Lane-Reticker SK, Jain S, Duffy T, Wang H, Carter GW, Morse HC, Roopenian DC. Precocious Interleukin 21 Expression in Naive Mice Identifies a Natural Helper Cell Population in Autoimmune Disease. Cell Rep 2017; 21:208-221. [PMID: 28978474 PMCID: PMC5661890 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2017.09.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Revised: 08/23/2017] [Accepted: 09/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Interleukin 21 (IL-21) plays key roles in humoral immunity and autoimmune diseases. It is known to function in mature CD4+ T follicular B cell helper (TFH) cells, but its potential involvement in early T cell ontogeny is unclear. Here, we find that a significant population of newly activated thymic and peripheral CD4+ T cells functionally expresses IL-21 soon after birth. This naturally occurring population, termed natural (n)TH21 cells, exhibits considerable similarity to mature TFH cells. nTH21 cells originating and activated in the thymus are strictly dependent on autoimmune regulator (AIRE) and express high levels of NUR77, consistent with a bias toward self-reactivity. Their activation/expansion in the periphery requires gut microbiota and is held in check by FoxP3+ TREG cells. nTH21 cells are the major thymic and peripheral populations of IL-21+ cells to expand in an IL-21-dependent humoral autoimmune disease. These studies link IL-21 to T cell ontogeny, self-reactivity, and humoral autoimmunity.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Arthritis/genetics
- Arthritis/immunology
- Arthritis/pathology
- Autoimmunity/genetics
- B-Lymphocytes/immunology
- B-Lymphocytes/pathology
- Forkhead Transcription Factors/genetics
- Forkhead Transcription Factors/immunology
- Gastrointestinal Microbiome/immunology
- Gene Expression Regulation
- Immunity, Humoral
- Interleukins/genetics
- Interleukins/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 4, Group A, Member 1/genetics
- Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 4, Group A, Member 1/immunology
- Signal Transduction
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/pathology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/pathology
- Transcription Factors/genetics
- Transcription Factors/immunology
- AIRE Protein
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth A Marnik
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, USA; Genetics Program, Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Shweta Jain
- Virology and Cellular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease (NIAID), NIH, Rockville, MD, USA
| | | | - Hongsheng Wang
- Virology and Cellular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease (NIAID), NIH, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Gregory W Carter
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, USA; Genetics Program, Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Herbert C Morse
- Virology and Cellular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease (NIAID), NIH, Rockville, MD, USA.
| | - Derry C Roopenian
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, USA; Genetics Program, Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Jain S, Ward JM, Shin DM, Wang H, Naghashfar Z, Kovalchuk AL, Morse HC. Associations of Autoimmunity, Immunodeficiency, Lymphomagenesis, and Gut Microbiota in Mice with Knockins for a Pathogenic Autoantibody. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2017; 187:2020-2033. [PMID: 28727987 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2017.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
A number of mouse strains transgenic for B-cell receptors specific for nucleic acids or other autoantigens have been generated to understand how autoreactive B cells are regulated in normal and autoimmune mice. Previous studies of nonautoimmune C57BL/6 mice heterozygous for both the IgH and IgL knockins of the polyreactive autoantibody, 564, produced high levels of autoantibodies in a largely Toll-like receptor 7-dependent manner. Herein, we describe studies of mice homozygous for the knockins that also expressed high levels of autoantibodies but, unlike the heterozygotes, exhibited a high incidence of mature B-cell lymphomas and enhanced susceptibility to bacterial infections. Microarray analyses and serological studies suggested that lymphomagenesis might be related to chronic B-cell activation promoted by IL-21. Strikingly, mice treated continuously with antibiotic-supplemented water did not develop lymphomas or abscesses and exhibited less autoimmunity. This mouse model may help us understand the reasons for enhanced susceptibility to lymphoma development exhibited by humans with a variety of autoimmune diseases, such as Sjögren syndrome, systemic lupus erythematosus, and highly active rheumatoid arthritis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shweta Jain
- Virology and Cellular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Rockville, Maryland
| | - Jerrold M Ward
- Virology and Cellular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Rockville, Maryland
| | - Dong-Mi Shin
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hongsheng Wang
- Virology and Cellular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Rockville, Maryland
| | - Zohreh Naghashfar
- Virology and Cellular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Rockville, Maryland
| | - Alexander L Kovalchuk
- Virology and Cellular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Rockville, Maryland
| | - Herbert C Morse
- Virology and Cellular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Rockville, Maryland.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Sitrin J, Suto E, Wuster A, Eastham-Anderson J, Kim JM, Austin CD, Lee WP, Behrens TW. The Ox40/Ox40 Ligand Pathway Promotes Pathogenic Th Cell Responses, Plasmablast Accumulation, and Lupus Nephritis in NZB/W F1 Mice. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 199:1238-1249. [PMID: 28696253 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1700608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Ox40 ligand (Ox40L) locus genetic variants are associated with the risk for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE); however, it is unclear how Ox40L contributes to SLE pathogenesis. In this study, we evaluated the contribution of Ox40L and its cognate receptor, Ox40, using in vivo agonist and antagonist approaches in the NZB × NZW (NZB/W) F1 mouse model of SLE. Ox40 was highly expressed on several CD4 Th cell subsets in the spleen and kidney of diseased mice, and expression correlated with disease severity. Treatment of aged NZB/W F1 mice with agonist anti-Ox40 mAbs potently exacerbated renal disease, which was accompanied by activation of kidney-infiltrating T cells and cytokine production. The agonist mAbs also induced activation and inflammatory gene expression in splenic CD4 T cells, including IFN-regulated genes, increased the number of follicular helper T cells and plasmablasts in the spleen, and led to elevated levels of serum IgM and enhanced renal glomerular IgM deposition. In a type I IFN-accelerated lupus model, treatment with an antagonist Ox40:Fc fusion protein significantly delayed the onset of severe proteinuria and improved survival. These data support the hypothesis that the Ox40/Ox40L pathway drives cellular and humoral autoimmune responses during lupus nephritis in NZB/W F1 mice and emphasize the potential clinical value of targeting this pathway in human lupus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Sitrin
- Department of Human Genetics, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080;
| | - Eric Suto
- Department of Translational Immunology, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080
| | - Arthur Wuster
- Department of Human Genetics, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080.,Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080
| | | | - Jeong M Kim
- Department of Cancer Immunology, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080
| | - Cary D Austin
- Department of Pathology, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080; and
| | - Wyne P Lee
- Department of Translational Immunology, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080
| | - Timothy W Behrens
- Department of Human Genetics, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Gensous N, Schmitt N, Richez C, Ueno H, Blanco P. T follicular helper cells, interleukin-21 and systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2017; 56:516-523. [PMID: 27498357 DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/kew297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
SLE is a chronic systemic autoimmune disease characterized by a breakdown of tolerance to nuclear antigens and generation of high-affinity pathogenic autoantibodies. These autoantibodies form, with autoantigens, immune complexes that are involved in organ and tissue damages. Understanding how the production of these pathogenic autoantibodies arises is of prime importance. T follicular helper cells (Tfh) and IL-21 have emerged as central players in this process. This article reviews the pathogenic role of Tfh cells and IL-21 in SLE.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Hideki Ueno
- Baylor Institute for Immunology Research, Baylor Research Institute, Dallas, TX, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Zharkova O, Celhar T, Cravens PD, Satterthwaite AB, Fairhurst AM, Davis LS. Pathways leading to an immunological disease: systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2017; 56:i55-i66. [PMID: 28375453 PMCID: PMC5410978 DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/kew427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
SLE is a chronic autoimmune disease caused by perturbations of the immune system. The clinical presentation is heterogeneous, largely because of the multiple genetic and environmental factors that contribute to disease initiation and progression. Over the last 60 years, there have been a number of significant leaps in our understanding of the immunological mechanisms driving disease processes. We now know that multiple leucocyte subsets, together with inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and regulatory mediators that are normally involved in host protection from invading pathogens, contribute to the inflammatory events leading to tissue destruction and organ failure. In this broad overview, we discuss the main pathways involved in SLE and highlight new findings. We describe the immunological changes that characterize this form of autoimmunity. The major leucocytes that are essential for disease progression are discussed, together with key mediators that propagate the immune response and drive the inflammatory response in SLE.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olga Zharkova
- Singapore Immunology Network, 8A Biomedical Grove, Immunos.,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Teja Celhar
- Singapore Immunology Network, 8A Biomedical Grove, Immunos
| | | | - Anne B Satterthwaite
- Department of Immunology.,The Rheumatic Diseases Division, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Anna-Marie Fairhurst
- Singapore Immunology Network, 8A Biomedical Grove, Immunos.,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.,Department of Immunology
| | - Laurie S Davis
- The Rheumatic Diseases Division, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, TX, USA
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Rawlings DJ, Metzler G, Wray-Dutra M, Jackson SW. Altered B cell signalling in autoimmunity. Nat Rev Immunol 2017; 17:421-436. [PMID: 28393923 DOI: 10.1038/nri.2017.24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Recent work has provided new insights into how altered B cell-intrinsic signals - through the B cell receptor (BCR) and key co-receptors - function together to promote the pathogenesis of autoimmunity. These combined signals affect B cells at two distinct stages: first, in the selection of the naive repertoire; and second, during extrafollicular or germinal centre activation responses. Thus, dysregulated signalling can lead to both an altered naive BCR repertoire and the generation of autoantibody-producing B cells. Strikingly, high-affinity autoantibodies predate and predict disease in several autoimmune disorders, including type 1 diabetes and systemic lupus erythematosus. This Review summarizes how, rather than being a downstream consequence of autoreactive T cell activation, dysregulated B cell signalling can function as a primary driver of many human autoimmune diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David J Rawlings
- Seattle Children's Research Institute, 1900 9th Avenue, Seattle, Washington 98101, USA.,Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine.,Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, 750 Republican Street, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA
| | - Genita Metzler
- Seattle Children's Research Institute, 1900 9th Avenue, Seattle, Washington 98101, USA.,Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine
| | - Michelle Wray-Dutra
- Seattle Children's Research Institute, 1900 9th Avenue, Seattle, Washington 98101, USA.,Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine
| | - Shaun W Jackson
- Seattle Children's Research Institute, 1900 9th Avenue, Seattle, Washington 98101, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, 750 Republican Street, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Choi JY, Seth A, Kashgarian M, Terrillon S, Fung E, Huang L, Wang LC, Craft J. Disruption of Pathogenic Cellular Networks by IL-21 Blockade Leads to Disease Amelioration in Murine Lupus. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 198:2578-2588. [PMID: 28219887 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1601687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2016] [Accepted: 01/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus) is characterized by autoantibody-mediated organ injury. Follicular Th (Tfh) cells orchestrate physiological germinal center (GC) B cell responses, whereas in lupus they promote aberrant GC responses with autoreactive memory B cell development and plasma cell-derived autoantibody production. IL-21, a Tfh cell-derived cytokine, provides instructional cues for GC B cell maturation, with disruption of IL-21 signaling representing a potential therapeutic strategy for autoantibody-driven diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus. We used blockade of IL-21 to dissect the mechanisms by which this cytokine promotes autoimmunity in murine lupus. Treatment of lupus-prone B6.Sle1.Yaa mice with an anti-IL-21 blocking Ab reduced titers of autoantibodies, delayed progression of glomerulonephritis and diminished renal-infiltrating Tfh and Th1 cells, and improved overall survival. Therapy inhibited excessive accumulation of Tfh cells coexpressing IL-21 and IFN-γ, and suppressed their production of the latter cytokine, albeit while not affecting their frequency. Anti-IL-21 treatment also led to a reduction in GC B cells, CD138hi plasmablasts, IFN-γ-dependent IgG2c production, and autoantibodies, indicating that Tfh cell-derived IL-21 is critical for pathological B cell cues in lupus. Normalization of GC responses was, in part, caused by uncoupling of Tfh-B cell interactions, as evidenced by reduced expression of CD40L on Tfh cells and reduced B cell proliferation in treated mice. Our work provides mechanistic insight into the contribution of IL-21 to the pathogenesis of murine lupus, while revealing the importance of T-B cellular cross-talk in mediating autoimmunity, demonstrating that its interruption impacts both cell types leading to disease amelioration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Young Choi
- Section of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Abhinav Seth
- Section of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | | | | | - Emma Fung
- AbbVie Bioresearch Center, Worcester, MA 01605; and
| | - Lili Huang
- AbbVie Bioresearch Center, Worcester, MA 01605; and
| | - Li Chun Wang
- AbbVie Bioresearch Center, Worcester, MA 01605; and
| | - Joe Craft
- Section of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520; .,Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Interleukin-21 signaling in B cells, but not in T cells, is indispensable for the development of collagen-induced arthritis in mice. Arthritis Res Ther 2016; 18:188. [PMID: 27535236 PMCID: PMC4989522 DOI: 10.1186/s13075-016-1086-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Interleukin-21 (IL-21) is a T-cell-derived cytokine whose receptor is expressed on a variety of cells and therefore might have pleiotropic roles in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In this study, we investigated the involvement of IL-21 signaling in the development of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA), an animal model of RA, using IL-21 receptor knockout (Il21r KO) mice. Methods Il21r KO mice or wild-type (WT) C57BL/6 mice were immunized with chicken type II collagen (CII) emulsified in complete Freund adjuvant on day 0 and were given a boost injection on day 21. The production of anti-CII antibody, development of T-cell and B-cell subsets, and T-cell responses to CII were analyzed. CIA was induced in Rag2 KO mice to which combinations of WT or Il21r KO CD4 T cells and WT or Il21r KO B cells had been transferred, in order to examine the role of IL-21 signaling in each cell subset. Results Il21r KO mice were resistant to the development of CIA. CII-specific IgG but not IgM production was impaired in Il21r KO mice. This is consistent with a reduction of germinal center B cells in the draining lymph nodes. In contrast, CII-specific Th1 and Th17 responses were unaffected in Il21r KO mice. There was also no difference in the number of CII-specific follicular helper T cells between WT and Il21r KO mice. By analyzing the development of CIA in T-cell and B-cell mixed transfer experiments, we confirmed that IL-21 receptor expression on B cells, but not on T cells, was essential for the development of CIA. Conclusion IL-21 signaling in B cells, but not in T cells, plays essential roles in the production of pathogenic autoantibodies that induce CIA development.
Collapse
|
30
|
Dinallo V, Di Fusco D, Izzo R, Monteleone G. Therapy implications for the role of IL-21 in lupus. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2016; 12:487-8. [DOI: 10.1586/1744666x.2016.1152183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
|
31
|
Jain S, Park G, Sproule TJ, Christianson GJ, Leeth CM, Wang H, Roopenian DC, Morse HC. Interleukin 6 Accelerates Mortality by Promoting the Progression of the Systemic Lupus Erythematosus-Like Disease of BXSB.Yaa Mice. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153059. [PMID: 27050763 PMCID: PMC4822786 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
IL6 is a multifunctional cytokine that drives terminal B cell differentiation and secretion of immunoglobulins. IL6 also cooperates with IL21 to promote differentiation of CD4+ T follicular helper cells (TFH). Elevated serum levels of IL6 correlate with disease flares in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). We previously reported that IL21 produced by TFH plays a critical role in the development of the SLE-like disease of BXSB.Yaa mice. To examine the possible contributions of IL6 to disease, we compared disease parameters in IL6-deficient and IL6-competent BXSB.Yaa mice. We report that survival of IL6-deficient BXSB.Yaa mice was significantly prolonged in association with significant reductions in a variety of autoimmune manifestations. Moreover, B cells stimulated by co-engagement of TLR7 and B cell receptor (BCR) produced high levels of IL6 that was further augmented by stimulation with Type I interferon (IFN1). Importantly, the frequencies of TFH and serum levels of IL21 were significantly reduced in IL6-deficient mice. These findings suggest that high-level production of IL6 by B cells induced by integrated signaling from the IFN1 receptor, TLR7 and BCR promotes the differentiation of IL21-secreting TFH in a signaling sequence that drives the lethal autoimmune disease of BXSB.Yaa mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shweta Jain
- Virology and Cellular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States of America
| | - Giljun Park
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, United States of America
- Hematology Research Unit, University of Helsinki, Helsinki University Central Hospital Cancer Center, Biomedicum Helsinki 1, Haartmaninkatu, Helsinki, Finland
| | | | | | - Caroline M. Leeth
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States of America
| | - Hongsheng Wang
- Virology and Cellular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States of America
| | - Derry C. Roopenian
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, United States of America
- * E-mail: (HCM); (DCR)
| | - Herbert C. Morse
- Virology and Cellular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States of America
- * E-mail: (HCM); (DCR)
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Abstract
IL-21 is a type I cytokine produced by T cells and natural killer T cells that has pleiotropic actions on a wide range of immune and non-immune cell types. Since its discovery in 2000, extensive studies on the biological actions of IL-21 have been performed in vitro and in vivo. Recent reports describing patients with primary immunodeficiency caused by mutations of IL21 or IL21R have further deepened our knowledge of the role of this cytokine in host defense. Elucidation of the molecular mechanisms that mediate IL-21's actions has provided the rationale for targeting IL-21 and IL-21 downstream mediators for therapeutic purposes. The use of next-generation sequencing technology has provided further insights into the complexity of IL-21 signaling and has identified transcription factors and co-factors involved in mediating the actions of this cytokine. In this review, we discuss recent advances in the biology and signaling of IL-21 and how this knowledge can be potentially translated into clinical settings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Warren J Leonard
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology and the Immunology Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethseda, Maryland, 20892, USA
| | - Chi-Keung Wan
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology and the Immunology Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethseda, Maryland, 20892, USA
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Jandl C, King C. Cytokines in the Germinal Center Niche. Antibodies (Basel) 2016; 5:antib5010005. [PMID: 31557986 PMCID: PMC6698856 DOI: 10.3390/antib5010005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2015] [Revised: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytokines are small, secreted, glycoproteins that specifically affect the interactions and communications between cells. Cytokines are produced transiently and locally, acting in a paracrine or autocrine manner, and they are extremely potent, ligating high affinity cell surface receptors to elicit changes in gene expression and protein synthesis in the responding cell. Cytokines produced during the differentiation of T follicular helper (Tfh) cells and B cells within the germinal center (GC) niche play an important role in ensuring that the humoral immune response is robust, whilst retaining flexibility, during the generation of affinity matured antibodies. Cytokines produced by B cells, antigen presenting cells and stromal cells are important for the differentiation of Tfh cells and Tfh cell produced cytokines act both in an autocrine fashion to firm Tfh cell differentiation and in a paracrine fashion to support the differentiation of memory B cells and plasma cells. In this review, we discuss the role of cytokines during the GC reaction with a particular focus on the influence of cytokines on Tfh cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Jandl
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research, 384 Victoria Street, Darlinghurst, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia.
- St Vincents Medical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia.
| | - Cecile King
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research, 384 Victoria Street, Darlinghurst, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia.
- St Vincents Medical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Biological effects of IL-21 on different immune cells and its role in autoimmune diseases. Immunobiology 2016; 221:357-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2015.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Revised: 09/19/2015] [Accepted: 09/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
|
35
|
Nguyen V, Rus H, Chen C, Rus V. CTL-Promoting Effects of IL-21 Counteract Murine Lupus in the Parent→F1 Graft-versus-Host Disease Model. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 196:1529-40. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1501824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2015] [Accepted: 12/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
|
36
|
Arzi B, Mills-Ko E, Verstraete FJM, Kol A, Walker NJ, Badgley MR, Fazel N, Murphy WJ, Vapniarsky N, Borjesson DL. Therapeutic Efficacy of Fresh, Autologous Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Severe Refractory Gingivostomatitis in Cats. Stem Cells Transl Med 2015; 5:75-86. [PMID: 26582907 PMCID: PMC4704876 DOI: 10.5966/sctm.2015-0127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are a promising therapy for immune-mediated and inflammatory disorders, because of their potent immunomodulatory properties. In this study, we investigated the use of fresh, autologous, adipose-derived MSCs (ASCs) for feline chronic gingivostomatitis (FCGS), a chronic, debilitating, idiopathic, oral mucosal inflammatory disease. Nine cats with refractory FCGS were enrolled in this pilot study. Each cat received 2 intravenous injections of 20 million autologous ASCs, 1 month apart. Oral biopsies were taken before and at 6 months after the first ASC injection. Blood immune cell subsets, serum protein, and cytokine levels were measured at 0, 1, 3, and 6 months after treatment to assess immunomodulatory effects. Seven of the 9 cats completed the study. Five cats responded to treatment by either complete clinical remission (n=3) or substantial clinical improvement (n=2). Two cats were nonresponders. Cats that responded to treatment also exhibited systemic immunomodulation demonstrated by decreased numbers of circulating CD8+ T cells, a normalization of the CD4/CD8 ratio, decreased neutrophil counts, and interferon-γ and interleukin (IL)-1β concentration, and a temporary increase in serum IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α concentration. No clinical recurrence has occurred following complete clinical remission (follow-up of 6-24 months). In this study, cats with <15% cytotoxic CD8 T cells with low expression of CD8 (CD8lo) cells were 100% responsive to ASC therapy, whereas cats with >15% CD8lo cells were nonresponders. The relative absence of CD8lo cells may be a biomarker to predict response to ASC therapy, and may shed light on pathogenesis of FCGS and mechanisms by which ASCs decrease oral inflammation and affect T-cell phenotype. SIGNIFICANCE This study is the first to demonstrate the safety and efficacy of fresh, autologous, adipose-derived stem cell systemic therapy for a naturally occurring, chronic inflammatory disease in cats. The findings demonstrate that this therapy resulted in complete clinical and histological resolution or reduction in clinical disease severity and immune modulation in most cats. This study also identified a potentially useful biomarker that could dictate patient enrollment and shed light on immune modulation mechanism. As a naturally occurring animal model, FCGS also provides a strategic platform for potentially translatable therapy for the treatment of human oral inflammatory disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Boaz Arzi
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Emily Mills-Ko
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Frank J M Verstraete
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Amir Kol
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Naomi J Walker
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Megan R Badgley
- William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Nasim Fazel
- Department of Dermatology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - William J Murphy
- Department of Dermatology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Natalia Vapniarsky
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Dori L Borjesson
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
IL-21: a pleiotropic cytokine with potential applications in oncology. J Immunol Res 2015; 2015:696578. [PMID: 25961061 PMCID: PMC4413888 DOI: 10.1155/2015/696578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2014] [Revised: 03/19/2015] [Accepted: 03/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin- (IL-) 21 is a pleiotropic cytokine that regulates the activity of both innate and specific immunity. Indeed, it costimulates T and natural killer (NK) cell proliferation and function and regulates B cell survival and differentiation and the function of dendritic cells. In addition, IL-21 exerts divergent effects on different lymphoid cell leukemia and lymphomas, as it may support cell proliferation or on the contrary induce growth arrest or apoptosis of the neoplastic lymphoid cells. Several preclinical studies showed that IL-21 has antitumor activity in different tumor models, through mechanism involving the activation of NK and T or B cell responses. Moreover, IL-21's antitumor activity can be potentiated by its combination with other immune-enhancing molecules, monoclonal antibodies recognizing tumor antigens, chemotherapy, or molecular targeted agents. Clinical phase I-II studies of IL-21 in cancer patients showed immune stimulatory properties, acceptable toxicity profile, and antitumor effects in a fraction of patients. In view of its tolerability, IL-21 is also suitable for combinational therapeutic regimens with other agents. This review will summarize the biological functions of IL-21, and address its role in lymphoid malignancies and preclinical and clinical studies of cancer immunotherapy.
Collapse
|
38
|
Tangye SG. Advances in IL-21 biology - enhancing our understanding of human disease. Curr Opin Immunol 2015; 34:107-15. [PMID: 25801685 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2015.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2015] [Revised: 02/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cytokines play critical roles in regulating the development and function of immune cells. Cytokines function by binding specific multimeric receptor complexes and activating intracellular signaling pathways that often involve JAKs and STATs. In addition to contributing to immunity, when production of cytokines is perturbed, they can contribute to disease. IL-21 is a pleiotropic cytokine produced predominantly by CD4(+) T cells and NKT cells. Gene-targeting studies in mice and in vitro analyses of human and murine lymphocytes have revealed central roles of IL-21 in regulating effector functions of T cells, NK cells and B cells. However, recent discoveries of loss-of function mutations in IL21 or IL21R in humans have unveiled unexpected roles for IL-21 in immune regulation. This review will focus on recent advances in IL-21 biology that have highlighted its critical role in normal immunity and how dysregulated IL-21 production can lead to immunodeficiency and autoimmune conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stuart G Tangye
- Immunology and Immunodeficiency Group, Immunology Research Program, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, NSW, Australia; St Vincent's Clinical School, UNSW Australia, Darlinghurst, NSW, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Lupus nephritis: update on mechanisms of systemic autoimmunity and kidney immunopathology. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2014; 23:211-7. [PMID: 24662982 DOI: 10.1097/01.mnh.0000444816.57378.21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Traditionally, lupus nephritis has been considered an autoimmune disorder of unknown origin and a complex pathophysiology, but in recent years, its pathogenesis has been unraveled. RECENT FINDINGS In individuals with unfortunate combinations of gene variants, environmental triggers such as certain drugs or viral infections allow autoimmunization against nuclear antigens, as evident by the presence of antinuclear antibodies. The expansion of autoreactive lymphocyte clones is driven by the nucleic acid component of nuclear particles from netting neutrophils and other dying cells as these activate immunity via viral nucleic acid-specific Toll-like receptors in dendritic cells and B cells. This process triggers interferon-α signaling-related antiviral immunity; hence, lupus symptoms are often indistinguishable from those of viral infections. Inside the kidney, lupus autoantibodies bind several autoantigens and trigger injury and inflammation, either in the mesangium (classes I/II), or along both sides of the glomerular basement membrane (classes III/IV/V). In addition, vascular and tubulointerstitial inflammation contribute to the immunopathology of lupus nephritis. SUMMARY Eventually, a better understanding of lupus nephritis pathogenesis will allow the identification of therapeutic targets that will prove effective not only in animal models but also in randomized clinical trials.
Collapse
|
40
|
Yu J, He S, Liu P, Hu Y, Wang L, Wang X, Han Y, Zhu X. Interleukin‑21 promotes the development of ulcerative colitis and regulates the proliferation and secretion of follicular T helper cells in the colitides microenvironment. Mol Med Rep 2014; 11:1049-56. [PMID: 25371082 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2014.2824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2013] [Accepted: 07/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with ulcerative colitis (UC) are at increased risk of developing colitis‑associated colon cancer. Previous studies have indicated that interleukin (IL)‑21, which is predominantly secreted by follicular T helper (Tfh) cells, is overproduced in inflammatory bowel diseases. In order to investigate the role of IL‑21 in UC and the association between IL‑21 and Tfh cells, the number of Tfh cells and the level of IL‑21 were investigated in colonic tissues from UC patients and wild‑type (WT) mice, which were induced by dextran sulphate sodium (DSS). High Tfh cell counts and levels of IL‑21 were observed in UC patients and WT mice with DSS‑induced colitis. Subsequent comparison of the mucosal damage and expression of Tfh‑associated cytokines in the WT mice and IL‑21 knockout (IL‑21KO) mice following DSS administration, revealed that IL‑21KO mice were largely protected against colitis and exhibited reduced infiltration of Tfh cells, as well as decreased production of Tfh‑associated cytokines. The present study also found that IL‑21 was necessary for the proliferation and secretion of Tfh cells in vitro. In addition, neutralization of IL‑21 in DSS‑administered WT mice using anti‑IL‑21 reduced the number of Tfh cells and the level of mucosal damage. Administration of a neutralizing IL‑21 antibody decreased the colonic infiltration of Tfh cells and reduced damage to the mucosa. These results indicated that Tfh cells are important in UC and that its effector molecule, IL‑21, is not only a critical regulator of inflammation, but also regulates the proliferation and response of Tfh cells in the colitis microenvironment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Yu
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215006, P.R. China
| | - Songbing He
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215006, P.R. China
| | - Pengfei Liu
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, The First People's Hospital of Wujiang City, Wujiang Hospital Affiliated to Nantong University, Wujiang, Jiangsu 215200, P.R. China
| | - You Hu
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215006, P.R. China
| | - Lei Wang
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215006, P.R. China
| | - Xu Wang
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215006, P.R. China
| | - Ye Han
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215006, P.R. China
| | - Xinguo Zhu
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215006, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Kastirr I, Maglie S, Paroni M, Alfen JS, Nizzoli G, Sugliano E, Crosti MC, Moro M, Steckel B, Steinfelder S, Stölzel K, Romagnani C, Botti F, Caprioli F, Pagani M, Abrignani S, Geginat J. IL-21 Is a Central Memory T Cell–Associated Cytokine That Inhibits the Generation of Pathogenic Th1/17 Effector Cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 193:3322-31. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1400775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
|
42
|
Di Fusco D, Izzo R, Figliuzzi MM, Pallone F, Monteleone G. IL-21 as a therapeutic target in inflammatory disorders. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2014; 18:1329-38. [DOI: 10.1517/14728222.2014.945426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
|
43
|
Deng XM, Yan SX, Wei W. IL-21 acts as a promising therapeutic target in systemic lupus erythematosus by regulating plasma cell differentiation. Cell Mol Immunol 2014; 12:31-9. [PMID: 25088225 DOI: 10.1038/cmi.2014.58] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2014] [Revised: 06/13/2014] [Accepted: 06/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasma cells, which secrete auto-antibodies, are considered to be the arch-criminal of autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus, but there are many cytokines involved in inducing the differentiation of B-cell subsets into plasma cells. Here, we emphasize IL-21, which has emerged as the most potent inducer of plasma cell differentiation. In this review, we focused on the promoting effects of IL-21 on plasma cell differentiation and discuss how these effects contribute to B cell-mediated autoimmune disease.
Collapse
|
44
|
Iwamoto T, Suto A, Tanaka S, Takatori H, Suzuki K, Iwamoto I, Nakajima H. Interleukin-21-Producing c-Maf-Expressing CD4+ T Cells Induce Effector CD8+ T Cells and Enhance Autoimmune Inflammation in Scurfy Mice. Arthritis Rheumatol 2014; 66:2079-90. [DOI: 10.1002/art.38658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Taro Iwamoto
- Chiba University Graduate School of Medicine; Chiba Japan
| | - Akira Suto
- Chiba University Graduate School of Medicine; Chiba Japan
| | - Shigeru Tanaka
- Chiba University Graduate School of Medicine; Chiba Japan
| | | | - Kotaro Suzuki
- Chiba University Graduate School of Medicine; Chiba Japan
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Chen W, Tan K, Huang J, Yu X, Peng W, Chen Y, Lin X, Chen D, Dai Y. Analysis of microRNAs in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, using Solexa deep sequencing. Connect Tissue Res 2014; 55:187-96. [PMID: 24645875 DOI: 10.3109/03008207.2014.905548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Our aim in this study was to identify and examine the differential expression of microRNAs in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). METHODS We employed high-quality, high-throughput Solexa sequencing to clone and identify microRNAs in SLE patients and a control group. RESULTS From the sequencing data, we identified numerous microRNAs displaying significantly different levels of expression in patients with SLE and in healthy controls. The 212 and 199 microRNAs were upregulated and downregulated, respectively. Only 61 novel microRNAs exhibited significantly different levels of expression in the two groups. The target genes of the novel microRNAs identified in the SLE group were found to have cell metabolism functions. We also analyzed the chromosomal locations of the microRNAs with high level of expression between the two groups. A profile comparison revealed that the majority of transcripts were expressed at a similar level. The functional classes of the most abundant microRNAs were equally represented on each chromosome. CONCLUSION We identified novel and known microRNAs significantly enhancing our understanding of the microRNA expression profiles of SLE patients. These data also provide insight into the function of microRNAs in SLE and provide new strategies for future therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wenbiao Chen
- Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, Shenzhen People's Hospital , Shenzhen, Guangdong Province , China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Spolski R, Leonard WJ. Interleukin-21: a double-edged sword with therapeutic potential. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2014; 13:379-95. [PMID: 24751819 DOI: 10.1038/nrd4296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 385] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-21 is a cytokine with broad pleiotropic actions that affect the differentiation and function of lymphoid and myeloid cells. Since its discovery in 2000, a tremendous amount has been learned about its biological actions and the molecular mechanisms controlling IL-21-mediated cellular responses. IL-21 regulates both innate and adaptive immune responses, and it not only has key roles in antitumour and antiviral responses but also exerts major effects on inflammatory responses that promote the development of autoimmune diseases and inflammatory disorders. Numerous studies have shown that enhancing or inhibiting the action of IL-21 has therapeutic effects in animal models of a wide range of diseases, and various clinical trials are underway. The current challenge is to understand how to specifically modulate the actions of IL-21 in the context of each specific immune response or pathological situation. In this Review, we provide an overview of the basic biology of IL-21 and discuss how this information has been - and can be - exploited therapeutically.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rosanne Spolski
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), US National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Warren J Leonard
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), US National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Moens L, Tangye SG. Cytokine-Mediated Regulation of Plasma Cell Generation: IL-21 Takes Center Stage. Front Immunol 2014; 5:65. [PMID: 24600453 PMCID: PMC3927127 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2013] [Accepted: 02/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
During our life, we are surrounded by continuous threats from a diverse range of invading pathogens. Our immune system has evolved multiple mechanisms to efficiently deal with these threats so as to prevent them from causing disease. Terminal differentiation of mature B cells into plasma cells (PC) – the antibody (Ab) secreting cells of the immune system – is critical for the generation of protective and long-lived humoral immune responses. Indeed, efficient production of antigen (Ag)-specific Ab by activated B cells underlies the success of most currently available vaccines. The mature B-cell pool is composed of several subsets, distinguished from one according to size, surface marker expression, location, and Ag exposure, and they all have the capacity to differentiate into PCs. For a B-cell to acquire the capacity to produce Abs, it must undergo an extensive differentiation process driven by changes in gene expression. Two broad categories of Ags exist that cause B-cell activation and differentiation: T cell dependent (TD) or T cell independent (TI). In addition to the B-cell subset and nature of the Ag, it is important to consider the cytokine environment that can also influence how B-cell differentiation is achieved. Thus, while many cytokines can induce Ab-secretion by B cells after activation with mimics of TD and TI stimuli in vitro, they can have different efficacies and specificities, and can often preferentially induce production of one particular Ig isotype over another. Here, we will provide an overview of in vitro studies (mouse and human origin) that evaluated the role of different cytokines in inducing the differentiation of distinct B-cell subsets to the PC lineage. We will place particular emphasis on IL-21, which has emerged as the most potent inducer of terminal B-cell differentiation in humans. We will also focus on the role of IL-21 and defects in B-cell function and how these contribute to human immunopathologies such as primary immunodeficiencies and B-cell mediated autoimmune conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leen Moens
- Immunology and Immunodeficiency Group, Immunology Research Program, Garvan Institute of Medical Research , Darlinghurst, NSW , Australia
| | - Stuart G Tangye
- Immunology and Immunodeficiency Group, Immunology Research Program, Garvan Institute of Medical Research , Darlinghurst, NSW , Australia ; St Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales , Darlinghurst, NSW , Australia
| |
Collapse
|