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Li C, Liu Y, Liu X, Bai X, Jin X, Xu F, Chen H, Zhang Y, Vallee I, Liu M, Yang Y. The gut microbiota contributes to changes in the host immune response induced by Trichinella spiralis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2023; 17:e0011479. [PMID: 37585413 PMCID: PMC10431649 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The gut microbiota plays an important role in parasite-host interactions and the induction of immune defense responses. Trichinella spiralis is an important zoonotic parasite that can directly or indirectly interact with the host in the gut. Changes in the gut microbiota following infection with T. spiralis and the role of the gut microbiota in host immune defense against T. spiralis infection were investigated in our study. 16S rRNA sequencing analysis revealed that infection with T. spiralis can reduce the diversity of the gut microbiota and alter the structure of the gut microbiota during early infection, which was restored when the worm left the gut. Antibiotic treatment (ABX) and fecal bacterial transplantation (FMT) were used to investigate the role of the gut microbiota in the host expulsion response during infection with T. spiralis. We found that ABX mice had a higher burden of parasites, and the burden of parasites decreased after fecal bacterial transplantation. The results of flow cytometry and qPCR revealed that the disturbance of the gut microbiota affects the proportion of CD4+ T cells and the production of IL-4, which weakens Th2 responses and makes expulsion difficult. In addition, as the inflammatory response decreased with the changes of the microbiota, the Th1 response also decreased. The metabolomic results were in good agreement with these findings, as the levels of inflammatory metabolites such as ceramides were reduced in the ABX group. In general, T. spiralis infection can cause changes in the gut microbiota, and the presence or absence of microbes may also weaken intestinal inflammation and the expulsion of T. spiralis by affecting the immune response of the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengyao Li
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yi Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xiaolei Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xue Bai
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xuemin Jin
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Fengyan Xu
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Hong Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yuanyuan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Isabelle Vallee
- UMR BIPAR, Anses, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, INRA, University Paris-Est, Animal Health Laboratory, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Mingyuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yong Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
- School of Basic Medical Science, Shan Xi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
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2
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Omar M, Abdelal HO. Nitric oxide in parasitic infections: a friend or foe? J Parasit Dis 2022; 46:1147-1163. [PMID: 36457767 PMCID: PMC9606182 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-022-01518-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The complex interaction between the host and the parasite remains a puzzling question. Control of parasitic infections requires an efficient immune response that must be balanced against destructive pathological consequences. Nitric oxide is a nitrogenous free radical which has many molecular targets and serves diverse functions. Apart from being a signaling messenger, nitric oxide is critical for controlling numerous infections. There is still controversy surrounding the exact role of nitric oxide in the immune response against different parasitic species. It proved protective against intracellular protozoa, as well as extracellular helminths. At the same time, it plays a pivotal role in stimulating detrimental pathological changes in the infected hosts. Several reports have discussed the anti-parasitic and immunoregulatory functions of nitric oxide, which could directly influence the control of the infection. Nevertheless, there is scarce literature addressing the harmful cytotoxic impacts of this mediator. Thus, this review provides insights into the most updated concepts and controversies regarding the dual nature and opposing sides of nitric oxide during the course of different parasitic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marwa Omar
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Gameyet Almohafza St. 1, Menya Al-Kamh, City of Zagazig, 44511 Sharkia Governorate Egypt
| | - Heba O. Abdelal
- LIS: Cross-National Data Center, Maison des Sciences Humaines - 5e étage, 11- porte des Sciences, L-4366 Esch-Belval, Luxembourg
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Salama MAM, Mostafa NE, Abd El-Aal NF, Moawad HSF, Hammad SK, Adel R, Mostafa EM. Efficacy of Zingiber officinale and Cinnamomum zeylanicum extracts against experimental Trichinella spiralis infection. J Parasit Dis 2022; 46:24-36. [PMID: 35299906 PMCID: PMC8901936 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-021-01412-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Trichinellosis is a re-emerging zoonotic disease that has become a public health concern since its reported human outbreaks in many countries. The traditional therapy has many adverse effects in addition to the developing resistance. So, this necessitates finding effective natural alternatives. The current study targeted to assess the potential therapeutic effects of Zingiber officinale and Cinnamomum zeylanicum in comparison to albendazole, a conventional therapy for treatment of trichinosis. Sixty mice were classified into five groups (12 mice each), non-infected control, infected control, combined albendazole and prednisolone, Zingiber officinale, and Cinnamomum zeylanicum treated groups. Mice sacrifice was performed on the 7th and 35th days post infection for intestinal and muscular phases respectively. Efficiency of the used preparations was assessed by parasitological, histopathological, immunohistochemical, biochemical studies in addition to ultrastructural evaluation using transmission electron microscopy. A significant reduction in the mean number of T. spiralis adult worms and larvae was observed in Zingiber officinale and Cinnamomum zeylanicum treated groups, (64.5%, 50.8%) and (68%, 54.6%) respectively. Also, both extracts showed moderate cytoplasmic reactivity for TGF-β1, (69.3% & 67.8%) respectively. The highest reduction in serum TNF- α level was observed in Zingiber officinale treated group during the muscle phase (58.4%) while in the intestinal phase was 50%. The ultrastructural study revealed degenerative effects on both adults and larvae in addition to obvious improvement of the histopathological changes in the small intestine and muscles. We concluded that these herbal extracts especially Zingiber officinale can be considered a practical and successful alternative for the treatment of trichinellosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marwa Ahmed Mohamed Salama
- grid.31451.320000 0001 2158 2757Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Nahed E. Mostafa
- grid.31451.320000 0001 2158 2757Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Naglaa Fathy Abd El-Aal
- grid.31451.320000 0001 2158 2757Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Howayda Said Fouad Moawad
- grid.31451.320000 0001 2158 2757Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Samar Kamel Hammad
- grid.31451.320000 0001 2158 2757Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Rasha Adel
- grid.31451.320000 0001 2158 2757Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Eman M. Mostafa
- grid.31451.320000 0001 2158 2757Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
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4
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Fadl HO, Amin NM, Wanas H, El-Din SS, Ibrahim HA, Aboulhoda BE, Bocktor NZ. The impact of l-arginine supplementation on the enteral phase of experimental Trichinella spiralis infection in treated and untreated mice. J Parasit Dis 2020; 44:737-747. [PMID: 33184541 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-020-01245-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of nitric oxide (NO) in the immunopathological response during Trichinella spiralis (T. spiralis) infection remains controversial. The amino acid, l-arginine is a NO precursor commonly used by athletes and bodybuilders as a protein supplement. As to our knowledge, there are no published studies which have tested the effect of l-arginine on the intestinal phase of experimental trichinellosis. The present work aims to investigate the effect of l-arginine on the enteral phase of experimental T. spiralis infection in albendazole-treated and untreated mice. Forty BALB/C mice infected orally with T. spiralis larvae were divided into 4 groups as follows: Group A were infected and untreated (control) mice, Group B received albendazole alone, Group C received l-arginine alone, and Group D received both l-arginine and albendazole. Compared to the control group, l-arginine supplementation showed; a significant increase in the intestinal adult worm burden, a significantly high inducible NO synthase (iNOS) expression, elevated immune markers; tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ), and enhanced apoptosis. Albendazole treated-group had a significant reduction in the adult worm number (90.9%), while combined albendazole-arginine regimen showed a lower percentage of worm reduction (72.7%). During the enteral phase of T. spiralis infection, l-arginine supplementation should be taken cautiously, as it may modulate the proinflammatory immune response and subsequently affect the outcome of the infection and/or treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanaa O Fadl
- Medical Parasitology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Noha M Amin
- Medical Parasitology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Hanaa Wanas
- Pharmacology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt.,Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Taibah University, Medina, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Shimaa Saad El-Din
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Heba A Ibrahim
- Pathology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Basma Emad Aboulhoda
- Anatomy and Embryology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Nardeen Zakka Bocktor
- Medical Parasitology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
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5
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Modulation of TLR2 and TLR4 in Macrophages Following Trichinella Spiralis Infection. Helminthologia 2018; 55:195-203. [PMID: 31662647 PMCID: PMC6662015 DOI: 10.2478/helm-2018-0015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasitic helminthes can suppress and/or regulate the host immune response to allow long-term survival and chronic infection where toll-like receptors (TLRs) expressed on macrophages play essential roles in response to parasitic infection. Semi-quantitative PCR and flow cytometry studies about the modulation of TLRs and cytokine profiles in macrophages following T. spiralis infection were performed. TLRs, MyD88 and NF-κB were up-regulated by T. spiralis infection and essential to the parasite life cycles. Cytokines profiles (IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, TNF-α) were modulated during T. spiralis infection. Results suggest that T. spiralis infection may regulate the expression of TLR4 on macrophages and TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathways. This study provides further insights into the mechanisms of TLR-mediated post-inflammatory response during T. spiralis infection.
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6
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Proteomic analysis of the response of Trichinella spiralis muscle larvae to exogenous nitric oxide. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0198205. [PMID: 29870543 PMCID: PMC5988324 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0198205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichinella spiralis mainly dwells in the muscle tissue of its host and is the main causative agent of trichinellosis in humans. Nitric oxide (NO), an important intracellular signaling molecule that may restrict pathogen growth in infected hosts, has been known for its anti-pathogenic activity, including resistance to T. spiralis. Herein, we applied label-free analysis to investigate the effect of sodium nitroprusside (SNP, a NO donor compound) on the proteome of T. spiralis muscle larvae (ML), followed by Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway cluster analyses. Of the 1,476 proteins detected in the ML, 121 proteins showed differential expression, including 50 significantly upregulated and 71 downregulated proteins. The functions of the 108 annotated proteins were primarily related to signal transduction, transcription/translation, material metabolism, protein synthesis/assembly/degradation, and stress/defense/antioxidation. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) assay verified that FRMD5 and CUT-1 gene expression levels were significantly increased, while COX2 gene expression level was significantly decreased. GO annotation and KEGG pathway analyses showed that the majority of differentially expressed proteins were mainly involved in the molecular function of the catalytic activity, biological process of the immune system process, metabolic process, cellular component organization, biological adhesion, and cellular component of the macromolecular complex. Our results demonstrate the first comprehensive protein expression profile of the ML in response to NO stress and provide novel references for understanding the potential mechanism underlying the effects of NO on trichinellosis.
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7
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Muñoz-Carrillo JL, Muñoz-López JL, Muñoz-Escobedo JJ, Maldonado-Tapia C, Gutiérrez-Coronado O, Contreras-Cordero JF, Moreno-García MA. Therapeutic Effects of Resiniferatoxin Related with Immunological Responses for Intestinal Inflammation in Trichinellosis. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2017; 55:587-599. [PMID: 29320813 PMCID: PMC5776891 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2017.55.6.587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Revised: 10/22/2017] [Accepted: 11/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The immune response against Trichinella spiralis at the intestinal level depends on the CD4+ T cells, which can both suppress or promote the inflammatory response through the synthesis of diverse cytokines. During the intestinal phase, the immune response is mixed (Th1/Th2) with the initial predominance of the Th1 response and the subsequent domination of Th2 response, which favor the development of intestinal pathology. In this context, the glucocorticoids (GC) are the pharmacotherapy for the intestinal inflammatory response in trichinellosis. However, its therapeutic use is limited, since studies have shown that treatment with GC suppresses the host immune system, favoring T. spiralis infection. In the search for novel pharmacological strategies that inhibit the Th1 immune response (proinflammatory) and assist the host against T. spiralis infection, recent studies showed that resiniferatoxin (RTX) had anti-inflammatory activity, which decreased the serum levels of IL-12, INF-γ, IL-1β, TNF-α, NO, and PGE2, as well the number of eosinophils in the blood, associated with decreased intestinal pathology and muscle parasite burden. These researches demonstrate that RTX is capable to inhibit the production of Th1 cytokines, contributing to the defense against T. spiralis infection, which places it as a new potential drug modulator of the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Luis Muñoz-Carrillo
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Microbiology, Academic Unit of Biological Sciences, Autonomous University of Zacatecas, Zacatecas, Zacatecas, México.,Laboratory of Immunology and Virology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, México
| | | | | | - Claudia Maldonado-Tapia
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Microbiology, Academic Unit of Biological Sciences, Autonomous University of Zacatecas, Zacatecas, Zacatecas, México
| | - Oscar Gutiérrez-Coronado
- Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Earth and Life Sciences, University Center of Los Lagos, University of Guadalajara, Lagos de Moreno, Jalisco, México
| | - Juan Francisco Contreras-Cordero
- Laboratory of Immunology and Virology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, México
| | - María Alejandra Moreno-García
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Microbiology, Academic Unit of Biological Sciences, Autonomous University of Zacatecas, Zacatecas, Zacatecas, México
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8
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Abdel-Latif M, El-Shahawi G, Aboelhadid SM, Abdel-Tawab H. Immunoprotective Effect of Chitosan Particles onHymenolepis nana- Infected Mice. Scand J Immunol 2017; 86:83-90. [DOI: 10.1111/sji.12568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M. Abdel-Latif
- Department of Zoology; Faculty of Science; Beni-Suef University; Beni-Suef Egypt
| | - G. El-Shahawi
- Department of Zoology; Faculty of Science; Beni-Suef University; Beni-Suef Egypt
| | - S. M. Aboelhadid
- Department of Parasitology; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Beni-Suef University; Beni-Suef Egypt
| | - H. Abdel-Tawab
- Department of Zoology; Faculty of Science; Beni-Suef University; Beni-Suef Egypt
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9
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Muñoz-Carrillo JL, Contreras-Cordero JF, Muñoz-López JL, Maldonado-Tapia CH, Muñoz-Escobedo JJ, Moreno-García MA. Resiniferatoxin modulates the Th1 immune response and protects the host during intestinal nematode infection. Parasite Immunol 2017; 39. [DOI: 10.1111/pim.12448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. L. Muñoz-Carrillo
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Microbiology, Academic Unit of Biological Sciences; Autonomous University of Zacatecas; Zacatecas México
- Laboratory of Immunology and Virology, Faculty of Biological Sciences; Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon; San Nicolás de los Garza Nuevo León México
| | - J. F. Contreras-Cordero
- Laboratory of Immunology and Virology, Faculty of Biological Sciences; Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon; San Nicolás de los Garza Nuevo León México
| | | | - C. H. Maldonado-Tapia
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Microbiology, Academic Unit of Biological Sciences; Autonomous University of Zacatecas; Zacatecas México
| | - J. J. Muñoz-Escobedo
- Academic Unit of Odontology; Autonomous University of Zacatecas; Zacatecas México
| | - M. A. Moreno-García
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Microbiology, Academic Unit of Biological Sciences; Autonomous University of Zacatecas; Zacatecas México
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Muñoz-Carrillo JL, Muñoz-Escobedo JJ, Maldonado-Tapia CH, Chávez-Ruvalcaba F, Moreno-García MA. Resiniferatoxin lowers TNF-α, NO and PGE2in the intestinal phase and the parasite burden in the muscular phase ofTrichinella spiralisinfection. Parasite Immunol 2017; 39. [DOI: 10.1111/pim.12393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2016] [Revised: 09/18/2016] [Accepted: 10/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. L. Muñoz-Carrillo
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Microbiology; Academic Unit of Biological Sciences; Autonomous University of Zacatecas; Zacatecas México
| | - J. J. Muñoz-Escobedo
- Academic Unit of Odontology; Autonomous University of Zacatecas; Zacatecas México
| | - C. H. Maldonado-Tapia
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Microbiology; Academic Unit of Biological Sciences; Autonomous University of Zacatecas; Zacatecas México
| | - F. Chávez-Ruvalcaba
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Microbiology; Academic Unit of Biological Sciences; Autonomous University of Zacatecas; Zacatecas México
| | - M. A. Moreno-García
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Microbiology; Academic Unit of Biological Sciences; Autonomous University of Zacatecas; Zacatecas México
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Attia RAH, Mahmoud AE, Farrag HMM, Makboul R, Mohamed ME, Ibraheim Z. Effect of myrrh and thyme on Trichinella spiralis enteral and parenteral phases with inducible nitric oxide expression in mice. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2015; 110:1035-41. [PMID: 26676322 PMCID: PMC4708024 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760150295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichinellosis is a serious disease with no satisfactory treatment. We aimed to
assess the effect of myrrh (Commiphora molmol) and, for the first
time, thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) against enteral
and encysted (parenteral) phases of Trichinella spiralis in mice
compared with albendazole, and detect their effect on inducible nitric oxide synthase
(iNOS) expression. Oral administration of 500 mg/kg of myrrh and thyme led to adult
reduction (90.9%, 79.4%), while 1,000 mg/kg led to larvae reduction (79.6%, 71.3%),
respectively. Administration of 50 mg/kg of albendazole resulted in adult and larvae
reduction (94.2%, 90.9%). Positive immunostaining of inflammatory cells infiltrating
intestinal mucosa and submucosa of all treated groups was detected. Myrrh-treated
mice showed the highest iNOS expression followed by albendazole, then thyme. On the
other hand, both myrrh and thyme-treated groups showed stronger iNOS expression of
inflammatory cells infiltrating and surrounding encapsulated T.
spiralis larvae than albendazole treated group. In conclusion, myrrh and
thyme extracts are highly effective against both phases of T.
spiralis and showed strong iNOS expressions, especially myrrh which could
be a promising alternative drug. This experiment provides a basis for further
exploration of this plant by isolation and retesting the active principles of both
extracts against different stages of T. spiralis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rasha A H Attia
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Abeer E Mahmoud
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | | | - Rania Makboul
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Mona Embarek Mohamed
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Zedan Ibraheim
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
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12
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Sohn SH, Lee JM, Park S, Yoo H, Kang JW, Shin D, Jung KH, Lee YS, Cho J, Bae H. The inflammasome accelerates radiation-induced lung inflammation and fibrosis in mice. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2015; 39:917-926. [PMID: 25805627 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2015.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2014] [Revised: 02/24/2015] [Accepted: 02/27/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Although lung inflammation and fibrosis are well-documented dose-limiting side effects of lung irradiation, the mechanisms underlying these pathologies are unknown. An improved mechanistic understanding of radiation-induced pneumonitis is a prerequisite for the development of more effective radiotherapy; this was the rationale for the current study. Mouse lungs were focally irradiated with 75 Gy. The numbers of neutrophils, lymphocytes, macrophages, and total cells in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were counted, and pro-inflammatory cytokine levels were measured. Histological analysis and immunohistochemical staining for Tgf-β1 and Cd68 (a macrophage-specific protein) was also performed. After irradiation, mice developed pneumonitis, and exhibited higher numbers of neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils, macrophages, and total cells compared to controls. In addition, inflammasome (Nlrp3, and caspase 1, Il1a, and Il1β), adhesion molecule (Vcam1), and cytokine (Il6) genes were significantly upregulated in the IR group. Cd68 and Tgfb1 proteins were significantly increased after irradiation. Upregulation of Cd68 and Tgfb1 correlates with the onset of radiation-induced pneumonitis and fibrosis. In addition, radiation-induced pneumonitis and fibrosis are accompanied by upregulation of phenotypic markers of inflammasome activity. Our findings have implications for the onset and exacerbation of damage in normal lung tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Hwa Sohn
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Ji Min Lee
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Soojin Park
- Department of Physiology, College of Oriental Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyun Yoo
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jeong Wook Kang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Dasom Shin
- Department of Physiology, College of Oriental Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Kyung-Hwa Jung
- Department of Physiology, College of Oriental Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Yun-Sil Lee
- College of Pharmacy & Division of Life and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, South Korea
| | - Jaeho Cho
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea.
| | - Hyunsu Bae
- Department of Physiology, College of Oriental Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea.
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Intestinal IFN-γ production is associated with protection from clinical signs, but not with elimination of worms, in Echinostoma caproni infected-mice. Parasitol Res 2014; 113:2037-45. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-014-3851-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2013] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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14
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Bai X, Wu X, Wang X, Guan Z, Gao F, Yu J, Yu L, Tang B, Liu X, Song Y, Wang X, Radu B, Boireau P, Wang F, Liu M. Regulation of cytokine expression in murine macrophages stimulated by excretory/secretory products from Trichinella spiralis in vitro. Mol Cell Biochem 2011; 360:79-88. [DOI: 10.1007/s11010-011-1046-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2011] [Accepted: 08/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Small ruminant resistance against gastrointestinal nematodes: a case of Haemonchus contortus. Parasitol Res 2011; 109:1483-500. [PMID: 21842390 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-011-2576-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2010] [Accepted: 07/27/2011] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections are a common constraint to small ruminant industry throughout the world, and among those, haemonchosis has its own significance. Control of GIN primarily relies on the use of anthelmintics, but this approach has become less reliable due to the development of resistance in GINs against commonly used anthelmintics and an increased consumer demand for environmentally friendly animal products. These issues have stimulated investigations to find alternative sustainable control strategies, which are less reliant on anthelmintic input. One of such strategies is breeding of small ruminants for their resistance to the GINs. The susceptibility and resistance of animals to GIN infections varies within and between breeds. Various parasitological, biochemical and immunological parameters are employed to evaluate natural resistance status of animals both in natural pasture and artificial infections. The immune mechanisms responsible for resistance are not completely understood, but it has a significant effect in inherited resistance. Relatively resistant or tolerant animals show better local and generalised immune response as compared to susceptible. Immune response against GINs is influenced by many physiological factors. Determination of specific genes linked with host resistance will provide a valuable approach to find out the molecular mechanism of host resistance to GINs. Resistance has been reported to reduce pasture contamination, which in turn reduces re-infection and thus the requirement of the frequent anthelmintic treatments. The efficiency of control can be increased through objective and accurate identification of genetically tolerant individuals by natural and artificial infections with GINs. Complete resistance is the ultimate solution, but this has generally been ignored as a commercial reality. This paper reviews the published reports on natural resistance in small ruminants and discusses the prospects of developing small ruminants, which could be resistant to GINs.
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The mucosal response of hamsters to a low-intensity superimposed secondary infection with the hookworm Ancylostoma ceylanicum. J Helminthol 2010; 85:56-65. [DOI: 10.1017/s0022149x10000283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
AbstractAn experiment was conducted to assess the mucosal response to low-dose superimposed challenge with Ancylostoma ceylanicum. Hamsters were assigned to five treatment groups (1–5 respectively): naïve controls; primary immunizing infection controls; challenge controls; immunized, anthelmintic–treated, challenged group; immunized, superimposed challenge group. Group 4 hamsters were resistant to challenge, whereas most of the challenge inoculum larvae established in Group 5. Villus height and crypt depth measurements were initially markedly divergent between these two groups but over time post-challenge (pc) values for both parameters drew nearer and by day 31 pc they were indistinguishable. The greatest change was experienced by Group 4 which showed increasing inflammation and gut pathology during the challenge infection. Mitotic activity in crypts and mast cell counts in the mucosa were highest in Group 5 on day 10 pc, but there was little to distinguish between Groups 4 and 5 by day 31 pc. Goblet cell, eosinophil and Paneth cell counts were very similar throughout in both groups but, in the case of Paneth cells, they were consistent with a possible role in protective immunity to challenge. Some adult worms survived throughout the period of intense inflammation, emphasizing their tremendous resilience and resistance to mucosal host protective responses.
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Menzies M, Reverter A, Andronicos N, Hunt P, Windon R, Ingham A. Nematode challenge induces differential expression of oxidant, antioxidant and mucous genes down the longitudinal axis of the sheep gut. Parasite Immunol 2010; 32:36-46. [PMID: 20042006 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2009.01156.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
To characterize the role of a range of oxidant, antioxidant and mucous-related genes in the primary response to gastrointestinal nematodes, groups of genetically resistant sheep were challenged with either Haemonchus contortus or Trichostrongylus colubriformis and necropsied for retrieval of tissue at days 0, 3, 7, 14 and 21. To determine if the response was localized to the site of parasite infection, four different gut tissues were sampled: the abomasum, proximal and distal jejunum and ileum. Basal expression patterns of all candidate genes were determined using the day 0 (pre-challenge) samples. A conserved innate response involving elevated expression of dual oxidase, glutathione peroxidase and trefoil factor was initiated within 3 days of challenge and extended out to 21 days. An increase in host gene expression levels at the preferred site of infection (the abomasum for H. contortus and the proximal jejunum for T. colubriformis) was also common to both nematodes. However, these increases were concomitant with reduced expression in other areas of the gut suggesting a compartmentalized response. Other aspects of the response were parasite-specific, with T. colubriformis challenge inducing expression peaks at times corresponding to nematode life-stage transitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Menzies
- CSIRO Livestock Industries, St Lucia, Qld 4067, Australia
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Nitric oxide and respiratory helminthic diseases. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010; 2010:958108. [PMID: 20169170 PMCID: PMC2821625 DOI: 10.1155/2010/958108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2009] [Accepted: 10/12/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is a very simple molecule that displays very important functions both in helminths (mainly those involved in respiratory pathology) and in mammalian hosts. In this paper we review four issues related to interaction of NO and lung helminthic diseases. Firstly, we evaluated data available on the NO synthesis and release by helminths and their biological role. Next, we summarized the effect of antigens obtained from different phases of the biological cycle on NO production by host mammalian cells (mainly from human sources). Thirdly, we revised the evaluation of NO on the biological activities and/or the viability of respiratory helminths. Lastly, the deleterious consequences of increased production of NO during helminthic human infection are detailed.
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Farid AS, Shimohira T, Kobayashi I, Sawada J, Horii Y. Intestinally implanted Nippostrongylus brasiliensis adult worms decrease serum paraoxonase-1 activity in rats. Parasitol Int 2009; 58:178-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2009.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2008] [Revised: 03/03/2009] [Accepted: 03/07/2009] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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20
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Lee KJ, Jin D, Chang BS, Teng YC, Kim DH. The immunological effects of electrolyzed reduced water on the Echinostoma hortense infection in C57BL/6 mice. Biol Pharm Bull 2009; 32:456-62. [PMID: 19252295 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.32.456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Electrolyzed reduced water (ERW) is widely used for drinking by people in Asia. The purpose of this study was to examine the immunological effect of ERW on the immunity of animals by supplying ERW to C57BL/6 mice infected with Echinostoma hortense metacercariae. In the non-infected groups, interleukin (IL)-4 (p < 0.001), IL-5, IL-10, IL-1beta, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and immunoglobulin (Ig) A expression of the group fed ERW (ERW group) increased in small intestine compared with the normal control group. In the case of infected groups, the group fed ERW (ERW+E. hortense group) showed the result that IL-4, IL-5, IL-10 and Ig A expression increased, but IL-1beta and TNF-alpha (p < 0.001) decreased, and the number of goblet cells (p < 0.001) and helix pomatia agglutinin (HPA) positive cells increased compared with the group without feeding ERW. However, adult worm recovery rate was markedly increased (p < 0.05). On the other hand, the expression of all the cytokines except IL-10 in spleen was mildly increased but not significant statistically, and there was no significant difference in the numerical changes of white blood cell (WBC). These results indicate that feeding ERW may have influence on the local immune response (Th-1 type cytokines such as IL-1beta, TNF-alpha) in the small intestine but not on the systemic immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyu Jae Lee
- Department of Environmental Medical Biology, Wonju College of Medicine, Yonsei University, Gang Won, South Korea
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Grémy O, Benderitter M, Linard C. Acute and persisting Th2-like immune response after fractionated colorectal γ-irradiation. World J Gastroenterol 2008; 14:7075-85. [PMID: 19084914 PMCID: PMC2776837 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.14.7075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To investigate if an immune imbalance may account for the development and progression of chronic radiation enteritis. We analyzed the Th1/Th2 immune response profile early and 6 mo after fractionated colorectal irradiation.
METHODS: A rat model of fractionated colorectal γ-irradiation (4-Gy fractions, 3 fractions per week) was designed to investigate the effects of cumulative dose on inflammatory mediators (cytokines and chemokines) and immune response (Th1/Th2 profile and immunosuppressive mediator IL-10) during acute (early) response and 6 mo after the end of fractionated irradiation (chronic response). Analyses were performed 1 d after the cumulative doses of 16 Gy and 36 Gy and 1 d, 3 d, and 26 wk after the cumulative dose of 52 Gy.
RESULTS: Without causing histological damage, fractionated radiation induced elevated expression of IL-1β, TNFα, MCP-1, and iNOS in distal colonic mucosa during the early post-irradiation phase. At that time, a Th2 profile was confirmed by expression of both the Th2-specific transcription factor GATA-3 and the chemokine receptor CCR4 and by suppression of the Th1 cytokine IFNγ/IP-10 throughout the irradiation protocol. After 6 mo, despite the 2-fold reduction of iNOS and MCP-1 levels, the Th2 profile persisted, as shown by a 50% reduction in the expression of the Th1 transcription factor T-bet, the chemokine receptor CCXCR3, and the IFNγ/STAT1 pathway. At the same time-point, the immunosuppressive IL-10/STAT3 pathway, known to regulate the Th1/Th2 balance, was expressed, in irradiated rats, at approximately half its level as compared to controls. This suppression was associated with an overexpression of SOCS3, which inhibits the feedback of the Th1 polarization and regulates IL-10 production.
CONCLUSION: Colorectal irradiation induces Th2 polarization, defective IL-10/STAT3 pathway activation and SOCS3 overexpression. These changes, in turn, maintain a immunological imbalance that persists in the long term.
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Innate immune response mechanisms in the intestinal epithelium: potential roles for mast cells and goblet cells in the expulsion of adult Trichinella spiralis. Parasitology 2008; 135:655-70. [PMID: 18413001 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182008004319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
SUMMARYGastrointestinal infection with the nematode Trichinella spiralis is accompanied by a rapid and reversible expansion of the mucosal mast cell and goblet cell populations in the intestinal epithelium, which is associated with the release of their mediators into the gut lumen. Both goblet cell and mast cell hyperplasia are highly dependent on mucosal T-cells and augmented by the cytokines IL-4 and IL-13. However, the contribution of both mast and goblet cells, and the mediators they produce, to the expulsion of the adults of T. spiralis is only beginning to be elucidated through studies predominantly employing T. spiralis-mouse models. In the present article, we review the factors proposed to control T. spiralis-induced mucosal mast cell (MMC) and goblet cell differentiation in the small intestine, and focus on some key MMC and goblet cell effector molecules which may contribute to the expulsion of adult worms and/or inhibition of larval development.
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Ingham A, Reverter A, Windon R, Hunt P, Menzies M. Gastrointestinal nematode challenge induces some conserved gene expression changes in the gut mucosa of genetically resistant sheep. Int J Parasitol 2008; 38:431-42. [PMID: 17826780 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2007.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2007] [Revised: 07/18/2007] [Accepted: 07/19/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Sheep have a varying ability to resist infection with gastrointestinal nematodes. This ability is due in part to genetic differences that exist between individuals. In order to define these differences we have used real-time PCR to quantify gene expression responses in the gut mucosal surface of genetically resistant and susceptible sheep, following a nematode challenge. Expression profiles were determined in response to two different nematode species, Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus colubriformis, and in divergent sheep originating from two different genetic backgrounds. Results show that the response generated differs between resistant and susceptible animals and is further impacted by the origin of the sheep and nematode species used for challenge. However, some conserved features of a response mounted by a resistant or a susceptible animal were identified. Genes found to be more abundantly expressed in resistant animals include markers of an early inflammatory response, several Toll-like receptors (TLR2, 4, 9) and free radical producing genes (DUOX1 and NOS2A). Conversely, genes differentiating susceptible animals indicate a prolonged response and development of a chronic inflammatory state, characterised by elevated expression of members of the NF-kappabeta signalling pathway (IKBKB and NFKBIA) together with delayed expression of regulatory markers such as IL2RA (CD25), IL10 and TGFbeta2. While multiple nematode response pathways were identified, the identification of conserved aspects of the response which associate with resistance provides evidence that alternative nematode control strategies, such as breeding for resistant animals, may be feasible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Ingham
- CSIRO Livestock Industries, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, 306 Carmody Road, St. Lucia, Qld 4067, Australia.
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GREER AW. Trade-offs and benefits: implications of promoting a strong immunity to gastrointestinal parasites in sheep. Parasite Immunol 2008; 30:123-32. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2008.00998.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Abstract
Although hookworms are known to stimulate inflammatory responses in the intestinal mucosa of their hosts, there is little quantitative data on this aspect of infection. Here we report the results of experiments conducted in hamsters infected with Ancylostoma ceylanicum. Infection resulted in a marked increase in goblet cells in the intestinal mucosa, which was dependent on the number of adult worms present and was sustained as long as worms persisted (over 63 days) but returned to baseline levels within 7 days of the removal of worms by treatment with ivermectin. Increased mast cell responses were also recorded. Levels were again dependent on the intensity of worm burdens and lasted as long as 63 days after infection. When worms were eliminated, mast cell numbers took over 2 weeks to return to normal. Paneth cell numbers fell soon after infection, the degree of reduction being dependent on the worm burden. After clearance of worms, Paneth cell numbers returned to normal within a week, but then rebounded and numbers rose to higher levels than those in control naïve animals. The time course of the response was similar whether animals experienced a chronic low-intensity infection without loss of worms or a higher intensity infection during the course of which worm burdens were gradually reduced. Clearly, A. ceylanicum was able to induce a marked inflammatory response in its host's intestine which was sustained for over 9 weeks after infection, and which hamsters appeared able to tolerate well. Our data draw attention to the resilience of hookworms which, unlike many other nematodes, are able to survive for many weeks in a highly inflamed intestinal tract.
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Kołodziej-Sobocińska M, Dvoroznakova E, Dziemian E, Machnicka-Rowińska B. Trichinella spiralis reinfection: macrophage activity in BALB/c mice. Parasitol Res 2007; 101:629-37. [PMID: 17393182 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-007-0527-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2006] [Accepted: 03/14/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The role of macrophages and their products--nitric oxide (NO) and superoxide anion (O(2) (-))--were examined in BALB/c mice reinfected with Trichinella spiralis. Mice were infected twice with 400 T. spiralis larvae; the secondary infection was performed 60 days after the primary one. Adult T. spiralis in intestines were detected from 5 to 20 days postprimary infection (dpi), and postreinfection (dpri), but the intensity of worm expulsion was greater and quicker after the reinfection. The highest muscle larvae numbers were detected from 60 dpi till 90 dpi (30 dpri), and thereafter, a great reduction was noted. The high numbers of macrophages in the peritoneal cavity of infected mice were obtained at 20 dpi, but the highest numbers of these cells from 10 to 30 dpri were observed. The production of NO by macrophages in infected mice was suppressed at 5 dpi, and then, NO release increased until 60 dpi. On the contrary, the long-lasting (5-30 dpri) suppression of NO production after T. spiralis reinfection was observed. The levels of NO in plasma and urine were lower in infected mice till 20 dpi; there were no differences in plasma and urine NO level after the reinfection in comparison to control uninfected animals. The production of O(2) (-) in peritoneal macrophages was inhibited during the first 2 weeks after infection, but the reinfection caused great increase in O(2) (-) production lasting 30 days.
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27
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Scales HE, Ierna MX, Lawrence CE. The role of IL-4, IL-13 and IL-4Ralpha in the development of protective and pathological responses to Trichinella spiralis. Parasite Immunol 2007; 29:81-91. [PMID: 17241396 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2006.00920.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
T helper type 2 (Th2) responses have been shown to be important in protective responses to gastrointestinal (GI) helminth infections and in the development of the intestinal pathology accompanying expulsion of the parasite. Different inbred mouse strains have been shown to develop different cytokine profiles following infection with GI helminths with increased resistance observed in those strains where Th2 cytokines predominate. The aim of this study was to determine the role of IL-4, IL-13 and IL-4Ralpha and the impact of host background on the development of the protective and pathological responses induced by infection with the gastrointestinal helminth Trichinella spiralis. IL-4, IL-13 and IL-4Ralpha were required for the generation of Th2 responses to T. spiralis; however, the role these responses play in the development of protection and enteropathy was less clear. IL-4Ralpha-deficiency mice resulted in substantially reduced parasite expulsion, intestinal pathology and Th2 responses. Similarly, lack of IL-13 resulted in inhibited expulsion and the development of enteropathy. Although Th2 responses were reduced in BALB/c IL-4-/- mice, neither expulsion nor enteropathy were different from wild-type mice. In contrast, C57BL/6 IL-4-/- exhibited delayed expulsion and reduced pathology, suggesting that host genetics are important in the function of individual cytokines. Thus, differences in background genotype may be an important component in the development host protection and the development of intestinal pathology accompanying the loss of GI helminths.
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Affiliation(s)
- H E Scales
- Department of Immunology (SIBS), University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G4 0NR, UK
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28
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Alkazmi LMM, Dehlawi MS, Behnke JM. The effect of the hookworm Ancylostoma ceylanicum on the mucosal architecture of the small intestine in hamsters. J Helminthol 2007; 80:397-407. [PMID: 17125550 DOI: 10.1017/joh2006372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
AbstractHookworms are known to cause marked changes to the intestinal mucosa, especially in relation to erosion of the villi. However, since the development of enteropathy has not been examined thoroughly through quantitative experiments on infected animals, the results of experiments conducted in hamsters infected with Ancylostoma ceylanicum are reported. Changes to intestinal architecture were first apparent between 12 and 14 days after infection, and then increased in intensity for 3–4 weeks, persisting for as long as worms were present (>63 days). Following infection, the height of villi declined from a mean of 1002 μm in naïve controls to less than 200 μm and as low as 18 μm in one case. The depth of the crypts of Lieberkuhn increased from a baseline value of 166 μm in naïve controls to in excess of 600 μm within 6 weeks of infection. Mitotic figures had a baseline value of 5.5 per villus-crypt unit, and this rose to in excess of 25 in some experiments. Changes were dependent on the intensity of the parasite burden on day 20, but by 30 days after infection changes in all three values were maximal and density-dependent relationships were no longer clearly apparent. Villus height and crypt depth returned to near normal values within a week of the removal of worms, although group means for both remained different from naïve controls for at least 3 weeks after treatment. Cellular division, as reflected in numbers of mitotic figures, stayed elevated for over 5 weeks after removal of worms. The results suggest that enteropathy in hookworm infections stems from a combination of intestinal immune responses and from the grazing activities of the adult worms on the mucosal surface, but is not sufficient per se for expulsion of this parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M M Alkazmi
- School of Biology, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, UK
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Alonso-Trujillo J, Rivera-Montoya I, Rodríguez-Sosa M, Terrazas LI. Nitric oxide contributes to host resistance against experimental Taenia crassiceps cysticercosis. Parasitol Res 2007; 100:1341-50. [PMID: 17206501 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-006-0424-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2006] [Accepted: 11/27/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The immune mechanisms that underlie resistance and susceptibility to cysticercosis are not completely understood. In this paper, using susceptible BALB/c mice and resistant STAT6-/-BALB/c mice, we have analyzed the role of nitric oxide (NO) in determining the outcome of murine cysticercosis caused by the cestode Taenia crassiceps. After T. crassiceps infection, wild-type BALB/c mice developed a strong Th2-like response, produced high levels of IgG1, IgE, IL-5, IL-4, and discrete levels of NO, and remained susceptible to T. crassiceps infection. In contrast, similarly infected BALB/c mice treated with N(omega)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, an inhibitor of NO synthase) mounted a similar immune response but with lower levels of NO and harbored nearly 100% more parasites than N(omega)-nitro-D-arginine methyl ester (D-NAME, inactive enantiomer)-treated mice. To further analyze the role of NO in murine cysticercosis, we treated STAT6-/-male mice (known to be highly resistant to T. crassiceps) with L-NAME during 8 weeks of infection. As expected, STAT6-/-mice mounted a strong Th1-like response, produced high levels of IgG2a, IFN-gamma, and IL-17, whereas their macrophages displayed increased transcripts of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha as well as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and efficiently controlled T. crassiceps infection. However, STAT6-/-male mice receiving L-NAME mounted a similar immune response but with lower iNOS transcripts concomitantly with decreased levels of NO in sera and displayed significantly higher parasite burdens. These findings suggest that macrophage activation and NO production are effector mechanisms that importantly contribute in host resistance to T. crassiceps infection. The immune mechanisms that underlie resistance and susceptibility to cysticercosis are not completely understood. In this paper, using susceptible BALB/c mice and resistant STAT6-/-BALB/c mice, we have analyzed the role of nitric oxide (NO) in determining the outcome of murine cysticercosis caused by the cestode Taenia crassiceps. After T. crassiceps infection, wild-type BALB/c mice developed a strong Th2-like response, produced high levels of IgG1, IgE, IL-5, IL-4, and discrete levels of NO, and remained susceptible to T. crassiceps infection. In contrast, similarly infected BALB/c mice treated with N(omega)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, an inhibitor of NO synthase) mounted a similar immune response but with lower levels of NO and harbored nearly 100% more parasites than N(omega)-nitro-d-arginine methyl ester (D-NAME, inactive enantiomer)-treated mice. To further analyze the role of NO in murine cysticercosis, we treated STAT6-/-male mice (known to be highly resistant to T. crassiceps) with L-NAME during 8 weeks of infection. As expected, STAT6-/-mice mounted a strong Th1-like response, produced high levels of IgG2a, IFN-gamma, and IL-17, whereas their macrophages displayed increased transcripts of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha as well as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and efficiently controlled T. crassiceps infection. However, STAT6-/-male mice receiving L-NAME mounted a similar immune response but with lower iNOS transcripts concomitantly with decreased levels of NO in sera and displayed significantly higher parasite burdens. These findings suggest that macrophage activation and NO production are effector mechanisms that importantly contribute in host resistance to T. crassiceps infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Alonso-Trujillo
- Laboratory of Immunoparasitology, Unidad de Biomedicina, Facultad de Estudios Superiores-Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. De los Barrios # 1, Los Reyes Iztacala, 54090 Tlalnepantla, Edo. de México, Mexico
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Pereira CAJ, Martins-Souza RL, Coelho PMZ, Lima WS, Negrão-Corrêa D. Effect of Angiostrongylus vasorum infection on Biomphalaria tenagophila susceptibility to Schistosoma mansoni. Acta Trop 2006; 98:224-33. [PMID: 16750811 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2006.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2005] [Revised: 05/03/2006] [Accepted: 05/04/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Concomitant infection with different parasites may be a helpful laboratorial strategy leading to the better understanding of the mechanisms used by the internal defense system (IDS) of Gastropoda to deal with helminth infection, such as Schistosoma mansoni. This work reports the effect of co-infection of Angiostrongylus vasorum and S. mansoni in hemocyte activity and in the outcome of infection. The simultaneous infection resulted in an increase of snail susceptibility to S. mansoni. In contrast, snails infected with both parasites, 15 days apart, did not show differences in the susceptibility compared to a single parasite infection. The increased susceptibility was measured by the significantly higher number of migrating sporocysts, higher percentage of snails shedding cercariae, higher number of cercariae shed and higher mortality in the experimental group that were simultaneously infected with A. vasorum and S. mansoni, when compared to snails infected only with S. mansoni. Snails simultaneously infected with A. vasorum and S. mansoni showed lower hemocyte activation during the first few days of infection, compared to activation induced only by A. vasorum infection. Between 5 and 15 days post-infection (dpi), granulocyte number and nitric oxide (NO) contents of simultaneously infected snails were lower than the S. mansoni-infected snails. Based on the results, we suggest that differences in the level of hemocyte response could explain the increased S. mansoni susceptibility observed in snails simultaneously infected with both parasites. However, when S. mansoni infection occurred after A. vasorum larvae are completely encapsulated, the response against S. mansoni was not altered, and therefore there were no differences in the susceptibility level.
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Affiliation(s)
- C A J Pereira
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Av. Presidente Antônio Carlos 6627, Campus Pampulha, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte-MG, Brazil
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Kołodziej-Sobocińska M, Dziemian E, Machnicka-Rowińska B. Inhibition of nitric oxide production by aminoguanidine influences the number of Trichinella spiralis parasites in infected “low responders” (C57BL/6) and “high responders” (BALB/c) mice. Parasitol Res 2006; 99:194-6. [PMID: 16541259 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-006-0144-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2005] [Accepted: 02/06/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The influence of nitric oxide (NO) on the development of adults and larvae Trichinella spiralis was examined in two strains of mice: C57BL/6 and BALB/c. The influence of aminoguanidine (AG)-inhibitor of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) administered in the first days after T. spiralis infection (1-5 dpi) on the number of adult parasites, as well as the influence of AG administered at the beginning of muscle phase of the T. spiralis infection (16-29 dpi) on the number of muscle larvae, was studied. In mice that were treated with AG from the 1st to the 5th day post infection (dpi), the numbers of adult T. spiralis were counted in intestines at 6, 9, 15, and 20 dpi. In this experiment, the impact of AG expressed as diminution of adult worms at 9, 15, and 20 dpi in BALB/c mice. The opposite effect of AG was demonstrated in C57BL/6 mice at 6 and 9 dpi. In mice in which AG was applied from the 16th to the 29th dpi T. spiralis larvae were counted at 30, 35, and 41 dpi. This experiment demonstrated that treating mice with AG at the beginning of muscle phase of the infection inhibits the reduction of muscle larvae number in mice of both strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Kołodziej-Sobocińska
- W. Stefański Institute of Parasitology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Twarda 51/55, Warsaw, 00-818, Poland.
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Ierna MX, Scales HE, Schwarz H, Bunce C, McIlgorm A, Garside P, Lawrence CE. OX40 interactions in gastrointestinal nematode infection. Immunology 2006; 117:108-16. [PMID: 16423046 PMCID: PMC1782197 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2005.02271.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune expulsion of gastrointestinal nematode parasites is usually associated with T helper type 2 (Th2) responses, but the effector mechanisms directly responsible for parasite loss have not been elucidated. The intestinal inflammatory response accompanying infection with gastrointestinal helminths is thought to be a contributory factor leading to the expulsion of the parasite. However, we have shown that the intestinal inflammation, which is controlled by interleukin (IL)-4, is not required for parasite expulsion. OX40-OX40 ligand (L) signals have been shown to be important for the development of Th2 immune responses but are also involved in a number of inflammatory diseases including those of the intestine. Here, we have investigated the effect of OX40 and OX40L fusion protein treatment on the induction of protective Th2 responses and enteropathy following infection with the gastrointestinal nematode Trichinella spiralis. Treatment with an OX40-immunoglobulin (Ig) blocking fusion protein resulted in enhanced expulsion of the parasite and an increase in the accompanying mastocytosis, despite unaltered levels of Th2 cytokines. Furthermore, there was a delay in the villus atrophy and crypt hyperplasia usually associated with this infection. In contrast, levels of Th2 cytokines were greatly up-regulated in mice treated with an OX40L-Ig activating fusion protein, yet the expulsion of the parasite and the enteropathy were unaffected. Therefore, OX40 ligation potentiates the Th2 response without enhancing host protective immune responses, whereas blocking the OX40-OX40L interaction enhances host protection without promoting Th2 cytokine responses during Trichinella spiralis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle X Ierna
- Department of Immunology, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
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33
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Kołodziej-Sobocińska M, Dvoroznakova E, Dziemian E. Trichinella spiralis: Macrophage activity and antibody response in chronic murine infection. Exp Parasitol 2006; 112:52-62. [PMID: 16274689 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2005.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2005] [Revised: 09/12/2005] [Accepted: 09/19/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The role of macrophages, their products, and the specific antibody response were examined during chronic Trichinella spiralis infection in BALB/c mice. Adult T. spiralis in intestines were detected from 5 to 20 dpi. Muscle larvae numbers peaked at 45 dpi and thereafter a reduction was noted. The highest numbers of macrophages in the peritoneal cavity of infected mice were obtained up to 30 dpi. The production of NO by macrophages in infected mice was suppressed at 5 dpi, and then NO release increased until 45 dpi. The levels of NO in plasma and urine were lower in infected mice during the entire experiment in comparison to control. The production of O(2)(-) in peritoneal macrophages was inhibited during the first two weeks after infection and then increased until 90 dpi. Circulating T. spiralis antigens in plasma and urine were detected from 5 to 30 dpi. Specific IgM and IgA in serum increased until 20 dpi. IgG, IgG(1), and IgG(2) levels in serum increased until 60 dpi.
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34
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Fujiwara A, Kawai Y, Sekikawa S, Horii T, Yamada M, Mitsufuji S, Arizono N. Villus epithelial injury induced by infection with the nematode Nippostrongylus brasiliensis is associated with upregulation of granzyme B. J Parasitol 2004; 90:1019-26. [PMID: 15562601 DOI: 10.1645/ge-265r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Intestinal parasite infections induce thymus-dependent villus atrophy, but the effector mechanisms directly responsible for the development of villus atrophy are not thoroughly understood. In this study, we analyzed the expression of cytotoxic factors or ligands in athymic nude rnu/rnu rats and their littermate euthymic rnu/+ rats infected with the nematode Nippostrongylus brasiliensis. Morphometric analyses showed that partial villus atrophy developed 10 days after infection in euthymic but not in athymic rats, whereas crypt hyperplasia occurred in both types of animal. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analyses of the isolated jejunal epithelial fraction showed that the development of villus atrophy in euthymic rats was positively correlated with an increase of granzyme B transcript levels but not with Fas ligand or tumor necrosis factor-alpha expression. In addition, the number of granzyme B-immunoreactive cells was increased significantly in euthymic rat villus epithelium and the propria mucosa after infection. The CD8+ cell number did not change significantly. Collectively, these findings showed that significant increases in the number of cells that express the cytotoxic factor granzyme B occur in the nematode-infected small intestine of immunocompetent hosts. The type of cells that express granzyme B and their role in the progression of enteropathy remain to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Fujiwara
- Department of Medical Zoology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
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35
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Lawrence CE, Paterson YYW, Wright SH, Knight PA, Miller HRP. Mouse mast cell protease-1 is required for the enteropathy induced by gastrointestinal helminth infection in the mouse. Gastroenterology 2004; 127:155-65. [PMID: 15236182 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2004.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS The relationship between intestinal pathology and immune expulsion of gastrointestinal nematodes remains controversial. Immune expulsion of gastrointestinal helminth parasites is usually associated with Th2 responses, but the effector mechanisms directly responsible for parasite loss have not been elucidated. Mast cell hyperplasia is a hallmark of infection with gastrointestinal nematodes, in particular Trichinella spiralis. Although the precise mechanism by which mast cells induce expulsion of these parasites has not been elucidated, it has been proposed that mast cell mediators, including cytokines and granule chymases, act to create an environment inhospitable to the parasite, part of this being the induction of intestinal inflammation. Therefore, the aims of this study were to dissect the role of mast cells and mast cell proteases in the induction of parasite-induced enteropathy. METHODS Mast cell-deficient W/Wv and mouse mast cell protease-1 (mMCP-1)-deficient mice were infected with T. spiralis, and parasite expulsion, enteropathy, and Th2 responses were determined. RESULTS Expulsion of the parasite was delayed in both strains of mice compared with wild-type controls; additionally, in both cases, the enteropathy was significantly ameliorated. Although Th2 responses were significantly reduced in mast cell-deficient W/Wv mice, those from mMCP-1-deficient mice were similar to wild-type mice. Additionally, levels of TNF-alpha and nitric oxide were significantly reduced in both W/Wv and mMCP-1 deficient mice. CONCLUSIONS These results imply that mast cells may contribute to the induction of protective Th2 responses and, importantly, that the intestinal inflammation associated with gastrointestinal helminths is partly mediated by mMCP-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine E Lawrence
- Department of Immunology, SIBS, Strathclyde University, Glasgow, United Kingdom. catherine.lawrence@strath
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36
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Masetti M, Locci T, Cecchettini A, Lucchesi P, Magi M, Malvaldi G, Bruschi F. Nitric oxide synthase immunoreactivity in the nematode Trichinella britovi. Evidence for nitric oxide production by the parasite. Int J Parasitol 2004; 34:715-21. [PMID: 15111093 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2004.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2003] [Revised: 02/12/2004] [Accepted: 02/13/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide has been extensively studied as an effector molecule of the host immune response against both protozoa and helminths, but parasites can also produce this molecule, through the action of nitric oxide (NO) synthases or NO synthases-like enzymes. The aim of this study was to verify the possible production of NO by Trichinella britovi L(1) larvae and the enzymes involved in this process. The NO synthase immunoreactivity and putative nitric oxide synthase-activity was analysed using antibodies to mammalian NO synthase III and to nitrotyrosine with immunohistochemistry, gold immunocytochemistry and immunoblot analysis and NADPH-diaphorase histochemistry. Our results show that T. britovi L(1) larvae possess an enzymatic activity capable of producing NO. The localisation of this activity, according to the NADPH-diaphorase histochemistry, is both at the cuticular and the internal level. This localisation is confirmed by nitrotyrosine immunohistochemistry both under optical and electron microscopy. Using the NO synthase III antibody, a similar pattern of labelling was found: in particular, electron microscopy showed a localisation of this immunoreactivity in the cuticle and in the stichocytes, where only the alpha2 granules contained gold particles, mainly concentrated at their periphery. Four polypeptides reacting to the NO synthase III antibody are revealed by Western blotting. Their molecular weight ranged from 38 to 50 kDa. A significant reaction of the anti-nitrotyrosine antibody to polypeptides 95, 60, 48 and 39 kDa from the same sample suggested the presence of different nitrosylated proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimo Masetti
- di Etologia, Ecologia ed Evoluzione, Università di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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37
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García D, Escalante M, Delgado R, Ubeira FM, Leiro J. Anthelminthic and antiallergic activities of Mangifera indica L. stem bark components Vimang and mangiferin. Phytother Res 2004; 17:1203-8. [PMID: 14669257 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.1343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the antiallergic and anthelmintic properties of Vimang (an aqueous extract of Mangifera indica family stem bark) and mangiferin (the major polyphenol present in Vimang) administered orally to mice experimentally infected with the nematode, Trichinella spiralis. Treatment with Vimang or mangiferin (500 or 50 mg per kg body weight per day, respectively) throughout the parasite life cycle led to a significant decline in the number of parasite larvae encysted in the musculature; however, neither treatment was effective against adults in the gut. Treatment with Vimang or mangiferin likewise led to a significant decline in serum levels of specific anti-Trichinella IgE, throughout the parasite life cycle. Finally, oral treatment of rats with Vimang or mangiferin, daily for 50 days, inhibited mast cell degranulation as evaluated by the passive cutaneous anaphylaxis test (sensitization with infected mouse serum with a high IgE titre, then stimulation with the cytosolic fraction of T. spiralis muscle larvae). Since IgE plays a key role in the pathogenesis of allergic diseases, these results suggest that Vimang and mangiferin may be useful in the treatment of diseases of this type.
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Affiliation(s)
- D García
- Laboratorio de Farmacología, Centro de Química Farmacéutica, Havana, Cuba
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38
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Nickdel MB, Lyons RE, Roberts F, Brombacher F, Hunter CA, Alexander J, Roberts CW. Intestinal pathology during acute toxoplasmosis is IL-4 dependent and unrelated to parasite burden. Parasite Immunol 2004; 26:75-82. [PMID: 15225294 DOI: 10.1111/j.0141-9838.2004.00686.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The role of interleukin-4 (IL-4) during the course of Toxoplasma gondii infection was studied using IL-4-/- mice and their wild-type (WT) counterparts on a C57BL/6 background. Following oral infection with T. gondii tissue cysts an exacerbative role for IL-4 was demonstrated and IL-4-/- mice were found to be more resistant to infection than WT mice as measured by significantly reduced mortality. Furthermore pathology in the small intestine was less severe in IL-4-/- mice although conversely liver pathology was greater than in wild-type mice. Significantly, plasma IL-12 and IFN-gamma levels, which peaked at days 6 and 8, respectively, were higher in IL-4-/- mice. The exacerbatory role of IL-4 in the intestine was found by competitive RT-PCR not to be associated with increased parasite burdens but was related to comparative expression of IL-10.
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Affiliation(s)
- M B Nickdel
- Department of Immunology, Strathclyde Institute for Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
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39
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Abstract
Parasitic gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes are one of the most commonly acquired infections in the world. Although they cause relatively little mortality, infections result in high levels of morbidity that can result in developmental consequences in infected children and cause significant economic loss in infected animals. Over the last 30 years there has been extensive research into the mechanisms controlling the expulsion of gastrointestinal nematodes. Although many of the effector mechanisms that contribute to the loss of the parasite have been defined, we still appear to be some way from understanding the actual cause of parasite loss. Part of this stems from the different responses induced by different gastrointestinal parasites. It is clear that a Th2 response is essential for the expulsion of GI helminths; however, each of the characteristic immunological effector mechanisms induced following infection with these parasites may not be required or may be insufficient in isolation, but together they operate to expel GI helminths. These responses then succeed more efficiently in some cases than in others to induce parasite expulsion. The contribution made by various effector mechanisms to the expulsion of these parasites may therefore be a reflection of both the niche which the parasite inhabits as well as possible evasive/suppressive mechanisms employed by the parasites. In this review the various aspects of parasite expulsion will be described and the controversial issues in the field will be discussed.
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40
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Kukuruzovic R, Brewster DR, Gray E, Anstey NM. Increased nitric oxide production in acute diarrhoea is associated with abnormal gut permeability, hypokalaemia and malnutrition in tropical Australian aboriginal children. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2003; 97:115-20. [PMID: 12886817 DOI: 10.1016/s0035-9203(03)90044-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Australian Aboriginal children hospitalized with diarrhoeal disease have severe manifestations with acidosis, hypokalaemia, osmotic diarrhoea and abnormal small bowel permeability. Nitric oxide (NO) production is increased in diarrhoeal disease, but its relationship to mucosal function and diarrhoeal complications is not known. We examined the relationship between NO production and complications of acute diarrhoea in Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal children between February 1998 and February 2000. We enrolled 318 children admitted to Royal Darwin Hospital into one of three groups: acute diarrhoea, non-diarrhoeal controls with no inflammatory illness, and non-diarrhoeal controls with inflammatory illness. Nitric oxide production was measured by urine nitrate-creatinine (NOx/Cr) excretion on a low nitrate diet. Small bowel intestinal permeability was measured by the lactulose-rhamnose (L/R) ratio on a timed blood specimen. The NOx/Cr ratios were markedly elevated in Aboriginal diarrhoeal cases (geometric mean [GM] = 1.23, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.07-1.44), lowest in non-Aboriginal non-inflammatory controls (GM = 0.13, 95% CI 0.10-0.16) and intermediate in all other groups (GM = 0.35, 95% CI 0.28-0.43). Convalescent levels (day 5) in the Aboriginal diarrhoeal group (GM = 1.02, 95% CI 0.82-1.28) were slower to fall than L/R ratios. Multivariate analysis in the diarrhoeal group indicated that high NO production was associated with abnormal permeability, hypokalaemia and malnutrition, but not with the severity of diarrhoea, acidosis or osmotic diarrhoea. We concluded that increased NO production may contribute to impaired mucosal barrier function and hypokalaemia in acute gastroenteritis, which may be the cost of the known gut-protective and antimicrobial effects mediated by NO in acute intestinal inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Kukuruzovic
- Northern Territory Clinical School, Flinders University, Royal Darwin Hospital, P.O. Box 41326, Casuarina, Darwin, NT 0811, Australia
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41
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Espinoza EY, Pérez-Arellano JL, Carranza C, Collía F, Muro A. In vivo inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase decreases lung injury induced by Toxocara canis in experimentally infected rats. Parasite Immunol 2002; 24:511-20. [PMID: 12694601 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-3024.2002.00598.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The direct effect of nitric oxide (NO) on the viability of Toxocara canis larvae was studied. We observed that the nitric oxide donors, SIN-1 and SNOG, exert no cytotoxic effect on the in vitro viability of T. canis larvae. In addition, we developed a model in rats to elucidate the role of NO during T. canis infection. We evaluated different indicators in four experimental groups: morphological parameters, the total number cells and cell types recovered, nitrite and protein concentration, lactate dehydrogenase and alkaline phosphatase enzymatic activity in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, lung index and detection of anti-T. canis specific antibodies. We observed significant differences between non-infected and infected groups. The infected animals treated with the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) inhibitor aminoguanidine were less damaged than infected, non-treated animals. Our results suggest that the in vivo inhibition of the synthesis of NO triggered by iNOS diminishes the deleterious effects of the parasite upon the host, especially the vascular alterations in the lungs. We could show that in vivo production of NO induced by infection with T. canis results in direct host damage. Thus, this induction may constitute an evasion/adaptation mechanism of the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elsa Y Espinoza
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Salamanca, Spain
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42
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Tezuka H, Imai S, Tsukidate S, Fujita K. A Dirofilaria immitis polyprotein up-regulates nitric oxide production. Infect Immun 2002; 70:5283-6. [PMID: 12183583 PMCID: PMC128244 DOI: 10.1128/iai.70.9.5283-5286.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated the effect of recombinant Dirofilaria immitis polyprotein (rDiAg) on nitric oxide (NO) production by peritoneal macrophages. rDiAg induced NO production by macrophages from wild-type and lipopolysaccharide-hyporesponsive C3H/HeJ, but not CD40(-/-), mice. These results suggest that CD40 is involved in rDiAg-driven NO production by murine macrophages.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, Helminth/physiology
- Base Sequence
- CD40 Antigens/genetics
- CD40 Antigens/metabolism
- Dirofilaria immitis/immunology
- Dirofilaria immitis/pathogenicity
- Dirofilaria immitis/physiology
- Helminth Proteins/immunology
- Helminth Proteins/pharmacology
- Helminth Proteins/physiology
- Host-Parasite Interactions
- In Vitro Techniques
- Macrophages, Peritoneal/drug effects
- Macrophages, Peritoneal/immunology
- Macrophages, Peritoneal/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C3H
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Nitric Oxide/biosynthesis
- Nitric Oxide Synthase/genetics
- Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Recombinant Proteins/immunology
- Recombinant Proteins/pharmacology
- Up-Regulation
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Tezuka
- Section of Environmental Parasitology, Department of International Health Development, Division of Public Health, Graduate School, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8519, Japan
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43
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Dzik JM, Gołos B, Jagielska E, Kapała A, Wałajtys-Rode E. Early response of guinea-pig lungs to Trichinella spiralis infection. Parasite Immunol 2002; 24:369-79. [PMID: 12164823 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-3024.2002.00474.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In order to assess immunological response, induced in guinea-pig lungs by Trichinella spiralis, cellular infiltration into pulmonary alveolar space and production of O(2)(-) and NO in alveolar macrophages obtained from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), as well as accumulation of nitric oxide (NO) metabolites in BALF and serum, were evaluated during the early period of primary T. spiralis infection (from 4th to 8th and on 14th day after oral administration of larvae) and on 6th day after secondary infection. Primary infection caused increased infiltration of lymphocytes, macrophages, neutrophils and eosinophils, while secondary infection resulted in raised lymphocyte and eosinophil numbers. In spite of marked cellular infiltration of alveolar space, only very limited activation of effector cells, pointing to a suppressed innate response, was apparent, as (i) BALF supernatant phospholipid/protein concentration ratio, and lung levels of phospholipid peroxidation markers, conjugated dienes and malondialdehyde, did not change during 7 days following infection; (ii) primary, but not secondary, infection caused only a transient increase of superoxide anion production by alveolar macrophages; (iii) despite expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in macrophages of control, infected and BCG-treated animals, and of interferon (IFN)-gamma-like activity in sera of infected animals, macrophage nitric oxide production was not affected by infection, even after additional stimulation in vitro (lipopolisaccharide + hrIFN-gamma) or in vivo (BCG or secondary T. spiralis infection); and (iv) increased nitrate concentrations were found in BALF supernatant and serum, but not in lung homogenates, of infected animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolanta M Dzik
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warszawa, Poland.
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44
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Abstract
New approaches to nematode control in sheep are urgently needed as anthelmintic drench resistance becomes ever more widespread among worm populations. Here we briefly describe and assess a number of new technologies which will become increasingly important in anti-nematode control programmes in the future. These include vaccines, immunomodulants, strategic grazing practices, the use of biological agents to destroy nematode larvae, biological anthelmintics and targeted silencing of genes regulating nematode development.
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Affiliation(s)
- W R Hein
- AgResearch, Wallaceville Animal Research Centre, PO Box 40-063, Upper Hutt, New Zealand.
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45
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Appleton JA, Romaris F. A pivotal role for glycans at the interface between Trichinella spiralis and its host. Vet Parasitol 2001; 101:249-60. [PMID: 11707300 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-4017(01)00570-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The nematode Trichinella spiralis demonstrates a simple but novel parasitic life-cycle, completing all of its development in intracellular habitats. This feature of the life-cycle has challenged investigators aiming to elucidate mechanisms of parasitism. Investigations of immunity showed a dominant influence of N-glycans in the responses to larval T. spiralis. It has become evident that novel glycans are positioned to play important roles in parasitism, as well as immunity, in infection with this nematode.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Appleton
- James A. Baker Institute for Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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46
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Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is implicated as an integral component of the host armament against invading parasites. Strongest evidence has come from laboratory models of protozoan infections. During malaria, toxoplasmosis and leishmaniasis, to name just a few, the preferential production of pro-inflammatory cytokines predisposes to the increased synthesis of NO, which mediates host protection through either direct parasite killing or by limiting parasite growth. More recently, evidence has been put forward for a beneficial role of NO during helminthic infections. In the case of Schistosomiasis mansoni, for example, NO plays a role in regulation of egg-induced inflammation, preventing hepatocyte death and widespread tissue damage. In spite of these findings, rather than being the ultimate panacea, NO production requires tight control to limit cytotoxic damage to the host's own cells. Unregulated production may lead to a variety of damaging effects including alterations to normal neurological functions during cerebral malaria and intestinal pathology during trichinosis. In this review, I will summarize the role of NO during a number of parasitic infections, drawing on specific examples of disease caused by protozoan and metazoan parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- L R Brunet
- Department of Bacteriology, Windeyer Institute of Medical Science, University College London, UK.
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47
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Nickdel MB, Roberts F, Brombacher F, Alexander J, Roberts CW. Counter-protective role for interleukin-5 during acute Toxoplasma gondii infection. Infect Immun 2001; 69:1044-52. [PMID: 11160001 PMCID: PMC97985 DOI: 10.1128/iai.69.2.1044-1052.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of interleukin-5 (IL-5) during Toxoplasma gondii infection was investigated by comparing disease progression in IL-5 gene deficient (IL-5-/-) mice and their wild-type (WT) counterparts on a C57BL/6 background. IL-5-/- mice infected orally with T. gondii were less susceptible to infection than WT mice as demonstrated by reduced mortality rates. Consistent with this data, orally infected IL-5-/- mice had less severe pathological changes in their small intestines than WT mice at 8 days postinfection. At this time, splenocytes and mesenteric lymph node cells derived from IL-5-/- mice produced levels of IL-12, interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), IL-4, IL-10, and nitric oxide (measured as nitrite) similar to those derived from WT mice when stimulated with Toxoplasma lysate antigen. However, peak serum IL-12 and IFN-gamma levels (at days 6 and 8, respectively) were significantly higher in IL-5-/- mice than in WT mice. In addition, WT mice but not IL-5-/- mice had raised levels of eosinophils in their peripheral blood between days 5 and 8 following infection. Oral administration of N omega-nitro-L-arginine methyl (from day 4 postinfection) increased mortality rates in both IL-5-/- and WT mice, indicating a protective role for nitric oxide during the early stages of oral T. gondii infection. In comparison with oral infection, no difference in mortality was observed between IL-5-/- and WT mice following intraperitoneal infection with T. gondii, with all mice surviving until 35 days postinfection. Similarly, no significant differences were observed in the severity of the meningitis, perivascular cuffing, or number of microglial nodules or parasites in the brains of intraperitoneally infected mice. Together, these results demonstrate a detrimental role for IL-5 during the early stage of oral infection with T. gondii which is associated with increased small-intestine pathology, eosinophilia, and reduced plasma IL-12 and IFN-gamma levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- M B Nickdel
- Department of Immunology, Strathclyde Institute for Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G4 ONR, United Kingdom
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Abstract
The relationship between intestinal pathology and immune expulsion of gastrointestinal nematodes remains controversial. Parasite expulsion is associated with intestinal pathology in several model systems and both of these phenomena are T cell dependent. However, while immune expulsion of gastrointestinal helminth parasites is usually associated with Th2 responses, the effector mechanisms directly responsible for parasite loss have not been elucidated. In contrast, the intestinal pathology observed in many other disease models closely resembles that seen in helminth infections, but has been attributed to Th1 cytokines. We have used infection with the nematode Trichinella spiralis in mice defective for cytokines to demonstrate that although parasite expulsion is indeed IL-4 dependent, contrary to expectations, the enteropathy is also regulated by IL-4. Furthermore, abrogation of severe pathology in iNOS deficient and TNF receptor defective animals does not prevent parasite expulsion. TNF and iNOS are therefore involved in intestinal pathology in nematode infections, apparently under regulation by IL-4 and Th2 mediated responses. Therefore, it appears that the IL-4-dependent protective response against the parasite operates by a mechanism other than merely the gross degradation of the parasite's environment brought about by the immune enteropathy. However, it remains important to elucidate the protective mechanisms involved in parasite expulsion, which are still unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Garside
- Department of Immunology and Bacteriology, University of Glasgow, Western Infirmary, Glasgow, UK
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