1
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Bass LE, Bonami RH. Factors Governing B Cell Recognition of Autoantigen and Function in Type 1 Diabetes. Antibodies (Basel) 2024; 13:27. [PMID: 38651407 PMCID: PMC11036271 DOI: 10.3390/antib13020027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2024] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Islet autoantibodies predict type 1 diabetes (T1D) but can be transient in murine and human T1D and are not thought to be directly pathogenic. Rather, these autoantibodies signal B cell activity as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) that present islet autoantigen to diabetogenic T cells to promote T1D pathogenesis. Disrupting B cell APC function prevents T1D in mouse models and has shown promise in clinical trials. Autoantigen-specific B cells thus hold potential as sophisticated T1D biomarkers and therapeutic targets. B cell receptor (BCR) somatic hypermutation is a mechanism by which B cells increase affinity for islet autoantigen. High-affinity B and T cell responses are selected in protective immune responses, but immune tolerance mechanisms are known to censor highly autoreactive clones in autoimmunity, including T1D. Thus, different selection rules often apply to autoimmune disease settings (as opposed to protective host immunity), where different autoantigen affinity ceilings are tolerated based on variations in host genetics and environment. This review will explore what is currently known regarding B cell signaling, selection, and interaction with T cells to promote T1D pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay E. Bass
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA;
| | - Rachel H. Bonami
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA;
- Department of Medicine, Division of Rheumatology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
- Vanderbilt Center for Immunobiology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
- Vanderbilt Institute for Infection, Immunology and Inflammation, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
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2
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El Nahas R, Al-Aghbar MA, Herrero L, van Panhuys N, Espino-Guarch M. Applications of Genome-Editing Technologies for Type 1 Diabetes. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 25:344. [PMID: 38203514 PMCID: PMC10778854 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25010344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by the destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic β-cells by the immune system. Although conventional therapeutic modalities, such as insulin injection, remain a mainstay, recent years have witnessed the emergence of novel treatment approaches encompassing immunomodulatory therapies, such as stem cell and β-cell transplantation, along with revolutionary gene-editing techniques. Notably, recent research endeavors have enabled the reshaping of the T-cell repertoire, leading to the prevention of T1D development. Furthermore, CRISPR-Cas9 technology has demonstrated remarkable potential in targeting endogenous gene activation, ushering in a promising avenue for the precise guidance of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) toward differentiation into insulin-producing cells. This innovative approach holds substantial promise for the treatment of T1D. In this review, we focus on studies that have developed T1D models and treatments using gene-editing systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rana El Nahas
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, Translational Medicine, Sidra Medicine, Doha P.O. Box 26999, Qatar; (R.E.N.); (M.A.A.-A.)
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, School of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Institute of Biomedicine of the University of Barcelona (IBUB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain;
| | - Mohammad Ameen Al-Aghbar
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, Translational Medicine, Sidra Medicine, Doha P.O. Box 26999, Qatar; (R.E.N.); (M.A.A.-A.)
| | - Laura Herrero
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, School of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Institute of Biomedicine of the University of Barcelona (IBUB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain;
| | - Nicholas van Panhuys
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, Translational Medicine, Sidra Medicine, Doha P.O. Box 26999, Qatar; (R.E.N.); (M.A.A.-A.)
| | - Meritxell Espino-Guarch
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, Translational Medicine, Sidra Medicine, Doha P.O. Box 26999, Qatar; (R.E.N.); (M.A.A.-A.)
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3
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Racine JJ, Misherghi A, Dwyer JR, Maser R, Forte E, Bedard O, Sattler S, Pugliese A, Landry L, Elso C, Nakayama M, Mannering S, Rosenthal N, Serreze DV. HLA-DQ8 Supports Development of Insulitis Mediated by Insulin-Reactive Human TCR-Transgenic T Cells in Nonobese Diabetic Mice. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2023; 211:1792-1805. [PMID: 37877672 PMCID: PMC10939972 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2300303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023]
Abstract
In an effort to improve HLA-"humanized" mouse models for type 1 diabetes (T1D) therapy development, we previously generated directly in the NOD strain CRISPR/Cas9-mediated deletions of various combinations of murine MHC genes. These new models improved upon previously available platforms by retaining β2-microglobulin functionality in FcRn and nonclassical MHC class I formation. As proof of concept, we generated H2-Db/H2-Kd double knockout NOD mice expressing human HLA-A*0201 or HLA-B*3906 class I variants that both supported autoreactive diabetogenic CD8+ T cell responses. In this follow-up work, we now describe the creation of 10 new NOD-based mouse models expressing various combinations of HLA genes with and without chimeric transgenic human TCRs reactive to proinsulin/insulin. The new TCR-transgenic models develop differing levels of insulitis mediated by HLA-DQ8-restricted insulin-reactive T cells. Additionally, these transgenic T cells can transfer insulitis to newly developed NSG mice lacking classical murine MHC molecules, but expressing HLA-DQ8. These new models can be used to test potential therapeutics for a possible capacity to reduce islet infiltration or change the phenotype of T cells expressing type 1 diabetes patient-derived β cell autoantigen-specific TCRs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Adel Misherghi
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME
- College of the Atlantic, Bar Harbor, ME
| | | | | | | | | | - Susanne Sattler
- Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- Medical University Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Alberto Pugliese
- Diabetes Research Institute, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL
| | - Laurie Landry
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO
| | - Colleen Elso
- Immunology and Diabetes Unit, St. Vincent's Institute of Medical Research, Fitzroy, VIC, Australia
| | - Maki Nakayama
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO
| | - Stuart Mannering
- Immunology and Diabetes Unit, St. Vincent's Institute of Medical Research, Fitzroy, VIC, Australia
| | - Nadia Rosenthal
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME
- Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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4
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Athmuri DN, Shiekh PA. Experimental diabetic animal models to study diabetes and diabetic complications. MethodsX 2023; 11:102474. [PMID: 38023309 PMCID: PMC10661736 DOI: 10.1016/j.mex.2023.102474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Diabetes is an endocrine illness involving numerous physiological systems. To understand the intricated pathophysiology and disease progression in diabetes, small animals are still the most relevant model systems, despite the availability and progression in numerous invitro and insilico research methods in recent years. In general, experimental diabetes is instigated mainly due to the effectiveness of animal models in illuminating disease etiology. Most diabetes trials are conducted on rodents, while some research is conducted on larger animals. This review will discuss the methodology and mechanisms in detail for preparing diabetic animal models, considering the following important points. The exact pathophysiology of the disease may or may not be replicated in animal models, the correct induction doses must be given and the combination of different approaches for the models is recommended to get desired results.•Animal models are essential to understand diabetes etiology and pathophysiology.•Diabetic models can be developed in both rodents and non-rodents.•Chemically induced and genetic models of diabetes are widely used to study diabetes and diabetic complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Durga Nandini Athmuri
- SMART Lab, Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India
| | - Parvaiz Ahmad Shiekh
- SMART Lab, Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India
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5
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Lombard-Vadnais F, Chabot-Roy G, Zahn A, Rodriguez Torres S, Di Noia JM, Melichar HJ, Lesage S. Activation-induced cytidine deaminase expression by thymic B cells promotes T-cell tolerance and limits autoimmunity. iScience 2022; 26:105852. [PMID: 36654860 PMCID: PMC9840937 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.105852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Elimination of self-reactive T cells in the thymus is critical to establish T-cell tolerance. A growing body of evidence suggests a role for thymic B cells in the elimination of self-reactive thymocytes. To specifically address the role of thymic B cells in central tolerance, we investigated the phenotype of thymic B cells in various mouse strains, including non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice, a model of autoimmune diabetes. We noted that isotype switching of NOD thymic B cells is reduced as compared to other, autoimmune-resistant, mouse strains. To determine the impact of B cell isotype switching on thymocyte selection and tolerance, we generated NOD.AID-/- mice. Diabetes incidence was enhanced in these mice. Moreover, we observed reduced clonal deletion and a resulting increase in self-reactive CD4+ T cells in NOD.AID-/- mice relative to NOD controls. Together, this study reveals that AID expression in thymic B cells contributes to T-cell tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félix Lombard-Vadnais
- Immunologie-oncologie, Centre de recherche de l’Hôpital Maisonneuve-Rosemont, Montréal, QC H1T 2M4, Canada,Department of Microbiology & Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0G4, Canada
| | - Geneviève Chabot-Roy
- Immunologie-oncologie, Centre de recherche de l’Hôpital Maisonneuve-Rosemont, Montréal, QC H1T 2M4, Canada
| | - Astrid Zahn
- Unité de recherche en biologie moléculaire des cellules B, Institut de recherches cliniques de Montréal, Montréal, QC H2W 1R7, Canada
| | - Sahily Rodriguez Torres
- Immunologie-oncologie, Centre de recherche de l’Hôpital Maisonneuve-Rosemont, Montréal, QC H1T 2M4, Canada,Département de microbiologie, infectiologie et immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Javier M. Di Noia
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0G4, Canada,Unité de recherche en biologie moléculaire des cellules B, Institut de recherches cliniques de Montréal, Montréal, QC H2W 1R7, Canada,Département de médecine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada,Department of Experimental Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0G4, Canada
| | - Heather J. Melichar
- Immunologie-oncologie, Centre de recherche de l’Hôpital Maisonneuve-Rosemont, Montréal, QC H1T 2M4, Canada,Département de médecine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada,Corresponding author
| | - Sylvie Lesage
- Immunologie-oncologie, Centre de recherche de l’Hôpital Maisonneuve-Rosemont, Montréal, QC H1T 2M4, Canada,Département de microbiologie, infectiologie et immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada,Corresponding author
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6
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Harley ITW, Allison K, Scofield RH. Polygenic autoimmune disease risk alleles impacting B cell tolerance act in concert across shared molecular networks in mouse and in humans. Front Immunol 2022; 13:953439. [PMID: 36090990 PMCID: PMC9450536 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.953439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Most B cells produced in the bone marrow have some level of autoreactivity. Despite efforts of central tolerance to eliminate these cells, many escape to periphery, where in healthy individuals, they are rendered functionally non-responsive to restimulation through their antigen receptor via a process termed anergy. Broad repertoire autoreactivity may reflect the chances of generating autoreactivity by stochastic use of germline immunoglobulin gene segments or active mechanisms may select autoreactive cells during egress to the naïve peripheral B cell pool. Likewise, it is unclear why in some individuals autoreactive B cell clones become activated and drive pathophysiologic changes in autoimmune diseases. Both of these remain central questions in the study of the immune system(s). In most individuals, autoimmune diseases arise from complex interplay of genetic risk factors and environmental influences. Advances in genome sequencing and increased statistical power from large autoimmune disease cohorts has led to identification of more than 200 autoimmune disease risk loci. It has been observed that autoantibodies are detectable in the serum years to decades prior to the diagnosis of autoimmune disease. Thus, current models hold that genetic defects in the pathways that control autoreactive B cell tolerance set genetic liability thresholds across multiple autoimmune diseases. Despite the fact these seminal concepts were developed in animal (especially murine) models of autoimmune disease, some perceive a disconnect between human risk alleles and those identified in murine models of autoimmune disease. Here, we synthesize the current state of the art in our understanding of human risk alleles in two prototypical autoimmune diseases – systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and type 1 diabetes (T1D) along with spontaneous murine disease models. We compare these risk networks to those reported in murine models of these diseases, focusing on pathways relevant to anergy and central tolerance. We highlight some differences between murine and human environmental and genetic factors that may impact autoimmune disease development and expression and may, in turn, explain some of this discrepancy. Finally, we show that there is substantial overlap between the molecular networks that define these disease states across species. Our synthesis and analysis of the current state of the field are consistent with the idea that the same molecular networks are perturbed in murine and human autoimmune disease. Based on these analyses, we anticipate that murine autoimmune disease models will continue to yield novel insights into how best to diagnose, prognose, prevent and treat human autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac T. W. Harley
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States
- Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Initiative (HI3), Department of Immunology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States
- Rheumatology Section, Medicine Service, Rocky Mountain Regional Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Aurora, CO, United States
- *Correspondence: Isaac T. W. Harley,
| | - Kristen Allison
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States
- Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Initiative (HI3), Department of Immunology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - R. Hal Scofield
- Department of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
- Arthritis & Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
- Medical/Research Service, US Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
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7
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Abstract
DNA repair and DNA damage signaling pathways are critical for the maintenance of genomic stability. Defects of DNA repair and damage signaling contribute to tumorigenesis, but also render cancer cells vulnerable to DNA damage and reliant on remaining repair and signaling activities. Here, we review the major classes of DNA repair and damage signaling defects in cancer, the genomic instability that they give rise to, and therapeutic strategies to exploit the resulting vulnerabilities. Furthermore, we discuss the impacts of DNA repair defects on both targeted therapy and immunotherapy, and highlight emerging principles for targeting DNA repair defects in cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Hopkins
- Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, USA
| | - Li Lan
- Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, USA.,Department of Radiation Oncology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
| | - Lee Zou
- Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, USA.,Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
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8
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Lee MH, Shin JI, Yang JW, Lee KH, Cha DH, Hong JB, Park Y, Choi E, Tizaoui K, Koyanagi A, Jacob L, Park S, Kim JH, Smith L. Genome Editing Using CRISPR-Cas9 and Autoimmune Diseases: A Comprehensive Review. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:1337. [PMID: 35163260 PMCID: PMC8835887 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Autoimmune diseases are disorders that destruct or disrupt the body's own tissues by its own immune system. Several studies have revealed that polymorphisms of multiple genes are involved in autoimmune diseases. Meanwhile, gene therapy has become a promising approach in autoimmune diseases, and clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats and CRISPR-associated protein 9 (CRISPR-Cas9) has become one of the most prominent methods. It has been shown that CRISPR-Cas9 can be applied to knock out proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) or block PCSK9, resulting in lowering low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. In other studies, it can be used to treat rare diseases such as ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC) deficiency and hereditary tyrosinemia. However, few studies on the treatment of autoimmune disease using CRISPR-Cas9 have been reported so far. In this review, we highlight the current and potential use of CRISPR-Cas9 in the management of autoimmune diseases. We summarize the potential target genes for immunomodulation using CRISPR-Cas9 in autoimmune diseases including rheumatoid arthritis (RA), inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), multiple sclerosis (MS), type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM), psoriasis, and type 1 coeliac disease. This article will give a new perspective on understanding the use of CRISPR-Cas9 in autoimmune diseases not only through animal models but also in human models. Emerging approaches to investigate the potential target genes for CRISPR-Cas9 treatment may be promising for the tailored immunomodulation of some autoimmune diseases in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Ho Lee
- Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea; (M.H.L.); (D.H.C.); (J.B.H.); (Y.P.); (E.C.); (S.P.)
| | - Jae Il Shin
- Department of Pediatrics, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea; (J.I.S.); (K.H.L.)
| | - Jae Won Yang
- Department of Nephrology, Yonsei University Wonju College of Medicine, Wonju 26426, Korea;
| | - Keum Hwa Lee
- Department of Pediatrics, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea; (J.I.S.); (K.H.L.)
| | - Do Hyeon Cha
- Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea; (M.H.L.); (D.H.C.); (J.B.H.); (Y.P.); (E.C.); (S.P.)
- Korea Advanced Institute for Science and Technology, Graduate School of Medical Science and Engineering, Daejeon 34141, Korea
| | - Jun Beom Hong
- Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea; (M.H.L.); (D.H.C.); (J.B.H.); (Y.P.); (E.C.); (S.P.)
| | - Yeoeun Park
- Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea; (M.H.L.); (D.H.C.); (J.B.H.); (Y.P.); (E.C.); (S.P.)
| | - Eugene Choi
- Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea; (M.H.L.); (D.H.C.); (J.B.H.); (Y.P.); (E.C.); (S.P.)
| | - Kalthoum Tizaoui
- Laboratory Microorganismes and Active Biomolecules, Sciences Faculty of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar, Tunis 1068, Tunisia;
| | - Ai Koyanagi
- Parc Sanitari Sant Joan de Deu/CIBERSAM, Universitat de Barcelona, Fundacio Sant Joan de Deu, Sant Boi de Llobregat, 08830 Barcelona, Spain; (A.K.); (L.J.)
- ICREA, Pg. LluisCompanys 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Louis Jacob
- Parc Sanitari Sant Joan de Deu/CIBERSAM, Universitat de Barcelona, Fundacio Sant Joan de Deu, Sant Boi de Llobregat, 08830 Barcelona, Spain; (A.K.); (L.J.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, 78180 Montigny-le-Bretonneux, France
| | - Seoyeon Park
- Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea; (M.H.L.); (D.H.C.); (J.B.H.); (Y.P.); (E.C.); (S.P.)
| | - Ji Hong Kim
- Department of Pediatrics, Gangnam Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 06273, Korea
| | - Lee Smith
- Centre for Health, Performance, and Wellbeing, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge CB1 1PT, UK;
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9
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Leeth C, Adkins J, Hay A, Bogers S, Potter A, Witonsky S, Zhu J. Engrafting Horse Immune Cells into Mouse Hosts for the Study of the Acute Equine Immune Responses. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11102962. [PMID: 34679981 PMCID: PMC8532756 DOI: 10.3390/ani11102962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary For decades, studies using research mice as models for disease have been critical to our current understanding of disease processes and associated immune responses, highlighting the ways in which mouse physiology is different from human and other species. Recent work has been directed at creating mice that can host human immune cells, allowing the study and manipulation of the human immune response without harm to patients. The purpose of this study was to explore to use of mouse hosts for horse immune cells. Horses are difficult to study immunologically as they are expensive to keep, and keeping their environment free of immune triggers is very difficult. Using mice allows us to increase our study numbers and control the environment which improves study reproducibility. In this study, we transferred both horse blood lymphocytes as well as horse bone marrow into specially modified mouse hosts. We found that mice are able to host horse immune cells and that these transferred cells are active. Future work can now build on this study to understand the horse immune response to infectious agents using mice, helping to identify new therapeutic tools to help equine patients. Abstract Immunological studies in the horse are frequently hampered by lack of environmental control, complicated study design, and ethical concerns when performing high risk studies. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the utility of a xenograft model for studying acute equine immune responses. Immunocompromised non obese diabetic (NOD). sudden combined immunodeficiency (scid).gamma-/- (NSG) mice were engrafted with either equine peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) or equine bone marrow to determine an optimal protocol for equine lymphocyte engraftment. We found that both PBL and bone marrow grafts populated the host mice successfully. Bone marrow transplants were technically more challenging and required further processing to retard graft versus host disease. Graft vs host disease was apparent at 28 days post-PBL transfer and 56 days post-bone marrow transfer. The results of these studies support the use of mouse hosts to study acute equine immune responses and that different engraftment techniques can be used depending on the experimental design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Leeth
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, 175 West Campus Drive MC 0306, Litton Reaves Hall rm 300, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; (J.A.); (A.H.); (A.P.); (J.Z.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Janie Adkins
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, 175 West Campus Drive MC 0306, Litton Reaves Hall rm 300, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; (J.A.); (A.H.); (A.P.); (J.Z.)
| | - Alayna Hay
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, 175 West Campus Drive MC 0306, Litton Reaves Hall rm 300, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; (J.A.); (A.H.); (A.P.); (J.Z.)
| | - Sophie Bogers
- Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, 205 Duck Pond Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; (S.B.); (S.W.)
| | - Ashley Potter
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, 175 West Campus Drive MC 0306, Litton Reaves Hall rm 300, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; (J.A.); (A.H.); (A.P.); (J.Z.)
| | - Sharon Witonsky
- Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, 205 Duck Pond Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; (S.B.); (S.W.)
| | - Jing Zhu
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, 175 West Campus Drive MC 0306, Litton Reaves Hall rm 300, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; (J.A.); (A.H.); (A.P.); (J.Z.)
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10
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Boldison J, Wong FS. Regulatory B Cells: Role in Type 1 Diabetes. Front Immunol 2021; 12:746187. [PMID: 34616408 PMCID: PMC8488343 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.746187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulatory B cells (Bregs) have an anti-inflammatory role and can suppress autoimmunity, by employing both cytokine secretion and cell-contact mediated mechanisms. Numerous Breg subsets have been described and have overlapping phenotypes in terms of their immune expression markers or cytokine production. A hallmark feature of Bregs is the secretion of IL-10, although IL-35 and TGFβ−producing B cells have also been identified. To date, few reports have identified an impaired frequency or function of Bregs in individuals with type 1 diabetes; thus our understanding of the role played by these Breg subsets in the pathogenesis of this condition is limited. In this review we will focus on how regulatory B cells are altered in the development of type 1 diabetes, highlighting both frequency and function and discuss both human and animal studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Boldison
- Institute of Biomedical & Clinical Science, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - F Susan Wong
- Division of Infection & Immunity, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
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11
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Ben Nasr M, Usuelli V, Seelam AJ, D'Addio F, Abdi R, Markmann JF, Fiorina P. Regulatory B Cells in Autoimmune Diabetes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 206:1117-1125. [PMID: 33685919 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2001127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Since they were discovered almost three decades ago, a subset of B cells denoted as regulatory B cells (Bregs) have elicited interest throughout the immunology community. Many investigators have sought to characterize their phenotype and to understand their function and immunosuppressive mechanisms. Indeed, studies in murine models have demonstrated that Bregs possess varied phenotypic markers and could be classified into different subsets whose action and pivotal role depend on the pathological condition or stimuli. Similar conclusions were drawn in clinical settings delineating an analogous Breg population phenotypically resembling the murine Bregs that ultimately may be associated with a state of tolerance. Recent studies suggested that Bregs may play a role in the onset of autoimmune diabetes. This review will focus on deciphering the different subclasses of Bregs, their emerging role in autoimmune diabetes, and their potential use as a cell-based therapeutic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moufida Ben Nasr
- Nephrology Division, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115.,International Center for T1D, Pediatric Clinical Research Center "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi," Department of Biomedical and Clinical Science "L. Sacco," University of Milan, 20157 Milan, Italy.,Transplantation Research Center, Nephrology Division, Children's Hospital and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Vera Usuelli
- International Center for T1D, Pediatric Clinical Research Center "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi," Department of Biomedical and Clinical Science "L. Sacco," University of Milan, 20157 Milan, Italy
| | - Andy Joe Seelam
- International Center for T1D, Pediatric Clinical Research Center "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi," Department of Biomedical and Clinical Science "L. Sacco," University of Milan, 20157 Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca D'Addio
- International Center for T1D, Pediatric Clinical Research Center "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi," Department of Biomedical and Clinical Science "L. Sacco," University of Milan, 20157 Milan, Italy
| | - Reza Abdi
- Transplantation Research Center, Nephrology Division, Children's Hospital and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - James F Markmann
- Center for Transplantation Sciences, Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114; and
| | - Paolo Fiorina
- Nephrology Division, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115; .,International Center for T1D, Pediatric Clinical Research Center "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi," Department of Biomedical and Clinical Science "L. Sacco," University of Milan, 20157 Milan, Italy.,Division of Endocrinology, ASST Fatebenefratelli Sacco, 20157 Milan, Italy
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12
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Alvarez-Gonzalez J, Yasgar A, Maul RW, Rieffer AE, Crawford DJ, Salamango DJ, Dorjsuren D, Zakharov AV, Jansen DJ, Rai G, Marugan J, Simeonov A, Harris RS, Kohli RM, Gearhart PJ. Small Molecule Inhibitors of Activation-Induced Deaminase Decrease Class Switch Recombination in B Cells. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2021; 4:1214-1226. [PMID: 34151211 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.1c00064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Activation-induced deaminase (AID) not only mutates DNA within the immunoglobulin loci to generate antibody diversity, but it also promotes development of B cell lymphomas. To tame this mutagen, we performed a quantitative high-throughput screen of over 90 000 compounds to see if AID activity could be mitigated. The enzymatic activity was assessed in biochemical assays to detect cytosine deamination and in cellular assays to measure class switch recombination. Three compounds showed promise via inhibition of switching in a transformed B cell line and in murine splenic B cells. These compounds have similar chemical structures, which suggests a shared mechanism of action. Importantly, the inhibitors blocked AID, but not a related cytosine DNA deaminase, APOBEC3B. We further determined that AID was continually expressed for several days after B cell activation to induce switching. This first report of small molecules that inhibit AID can be used to gain regulatory control over base editors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Alvarez-Gonzalez
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Immunology, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United States
| | - Adam Yasgar
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20816, United States
| | - Robert W Maul
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Immunology, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United States
| | - Amanda E Rieffer
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States.,Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States.,Institute for Molecular Virology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Daniel J Crawford
- Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Daniel J Salamango
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States.,Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States.,Institute for Molecular Virology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Dorjbal Dorjsuren
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20816, United States
| | - Alexey V Zakharov
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20816, United States
| | - Daniel J Jansen
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20816, United States
| | - Ganesha Rai
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20816, United States
| | - Juan Marugan
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20816, United States
| | - Anton Simeonov
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20816, United States
| | - Reuben S Harris
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States.,Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States.,Institute for Molecular Virology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Rahul M Kohli
- Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Patricia J Gearhart
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Immunology, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United States
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13
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Felton JL, Conway H, Bonami RH. B Quiet: Autoantigen-Specific Strategies to Silence Raucous B Lymphocytes and Halt Cross-Talk with T Cells in Type 1 Diabetes. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9010042. [PMID: 33418839 PMCID: PMC7824835 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9010042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Islet autoantibodies are the primary biomarkers used to predict type 1 diabetes (T1D) disease risk. They signal immune tolerance breach by islet autoantigen-specific B lymphocytes. T-B lymphocyte interactions that lead to expansion of pathogenic T cells underlie T1D development. Promising strategies to broadly prevent this T-B crosstalk include T cell elimination (anti-CD3, teplizumab), B cell elimination (anti-CD20, rituximab), and disruption of T cell costimulation/activation (CTLA-4/Fc fusion, abatacept). However, global disruption or depletion of immune cell subsets is associated with significant risk, particularly in children. Therefore, antigen-specific therapy is an area of active investigation for T1D prevention. We provide an overview of strategies to eliminate antigen-specific B lymphocytes as a means to limit pathogenic T cell expansion to prevent beta cell attack in T1D. Such approaches could be used to prevent T1D in at-risk individuals. Patients with established T1D would also benefit from such targeted therapies if endogenous beta cell function can be recovered or islet transplant becomes clinically feasible for T1D treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie L. Felton
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Endocrinology and the Herman B. Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; (J.L.F.); (H.C.)
| | - Holly Conway
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Endocrinology and the Herman B. Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; (J.L.F.); (H.C.)
| | - Rachel H. Bonami
- Department of Medicine, Division of Rheumatology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
- Correspondence:
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14
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Xiao Y, Deng C, Zhou Z. The Multiple Roles of B Lymphocytes in the Onset and Treatment of Type 1 Diabetes: Interactions between B Lymphocytes and T Cells. J Diabetes Res 2021; 2021:6581213. [PMID: 34778464 PMCID: PMC8580688 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6581213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Although type 1 diabetes is thought to be an organ-specific autoimmune disease, mediated by effective CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, it has recently become clear that B cells participate in the initiation and progress of this disease. Indeed, B cell deletion can prevent or reverse autoimmune diabetes in nonobese diabetic mice and even result in partially remaining β cell function in patients with new-onset type 1 diabetes. This review summarizes the dual role of B cells in this process not only of pathogenic effect but also of immunoregulatory function in type 1 diabetes. We focus on the impact that B cells have on regulating the activation, proliferation, and cytokine production of self-reactive T cells along with regulatory T cells, with the aim of providing a better understanding of the interactions between T and B cells in immunopathogenesis and improving the efficacy of interventions for clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangfan Xiao
- Clinical Nursing Teaching and Research Section, Department of Anesthesiology, and Anesthesia Medical Research Center, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410011, China
| | - Chao Deng
- National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Department of Metabolism and Endocrinology, and Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology, Ministry of Education, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410011, China
| | - Zhiguang Zhou
- National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Department of Metabolism and Endocrinology, and Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology, Ministry of Education, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410011, China
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15
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Mohammadzadeh I, Qujeq D, Yousefi T, Ferns GA, Maniati M, Vaghari-Tabari M. CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing: A new therapeutic approach in the treatment of infection and autoimmunity. IUBMB Life 2020; 72:1603-1621. [PMID: 32344465 DOI: 10.1002/iub.2296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Revised: 04/12/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated protein9) may be viewed as an adaptive bacterial immune system. When a virus infects a bacterium, a fragment of the virus genome is inserted into the CRISPR sequence of the bacterial genome as a memory. When the bacterium becomes infected again with the same virus, an RNA molecule that is a transcript of the memory sequence, directs Cas9, an endonuclease, to the complementary region of the virus genome, and Cas9 disables the virus by a double-strand break. In recent years, studies have shown that by designing synthetic RNA molecules and delivering them along with Cas9 into eukaryotic cells, different regions of the cell's genome can be targeted and manipulated. These findings have drawn much attention to this new technology and it has been shown that CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing can be used to treat some human diseases. These include infectious diseases and autoimmune diseases. In this review article, in addition to a brief overview of the biology of the CRISPR/Cas9 system, we collected the most recent findings on the applications of CRISPR/Cas9 technology for better investigation of the pathogenesis and treatment of viral infections (human immunodeficiency virus infection, hepatitis virus infections, and onco-virus infections), non-viral infections (parasitic, fungal, and bacterial infections), and autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iraj Mohammadzadeh
- Non-Communicable Pediatric Diseases Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Durdi Qujeq
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center (CMBRC), Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran.,Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Tooba Yousefi
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Gordon A Ferns
- Department of Medical Education, Brighton & Sussex Medical School, Brighton, UK
| | - Mahmood Maniati
- English Department, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Mostafa Vaghari-Tabari
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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16
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Zhu J, Hay AN, Potter AA, Richwine MW, Sproule T, LeRoith T, Wilson J, Hasham MG, Roopenian DC, Leeth CM. Abrogated AID Function Prolongs Survival and Diminishes Renal Pathology in the BXSB Mouse Model of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 204:1091-1100. [PMID: 31988182 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1900501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2019] [Accepted: 12/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Almost a decade has passed since the approval of belimumab, an mAb directed against B lymphocyte stimulation and the first targeted therapy approved for systemic lupus erythematous (SLE) in over 50 y. Although well tolerated, the efficacy of belimumab remains limited and is not labeled for patients suffering from nephritis, the leading cause of patient mortality. We sought to explore alternative targets of autoreactive B lymphocytes through manipulation of affinity maturation. The BXSB/MpJ mouse, a well-established model of human SLE, develops elevated antinuclear Abs and immune complex-mediated nephritis along with other manifestations of SLE-like disease. To limit interfering with critical background genetics, we used CRISPR-Cas9 to disrupt activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID; Aicda) directly in BXSB zygotes. Homozygous null mice demonstrated significantly prolonged survival compared with wild-type. Although mice continued to develop plasma cells, splenic follicular structure was restored, and renal pathology was reduced. Mice developed expanded germinal center B lymphocyte populations as in other models of AID deficiency as well as increased populations of CD73+ B lymphocytes. Treatment with the small molecule inhibitor of RAD51, 4,4'-diisothiocyano-2,2'-stilbenedisulfonic acid, resulted in minimal changes in disease markers in BXSB mice. The prolonged survival in AID-deficient BXSB mice appears attributed primarily to the reduced renal pathology, warranting further exploration, as current therapeutics targeting lupus nephritis are limited and, thus, in great demand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhu
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - Alayna N Hay
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - Ashley A Potter
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - Madison W Richwine
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | | | - Tanya LeRoith
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - John Wilson
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME 04609; and
| | | | | | - Caroline M Leeth
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061;
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17
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Abstract
The clinical onset of type 1 diabetes is characterized by the destruction of the insulin-producing β cells of the pancreas and is caused by autoantigen-induced inflammation (insulitis) of the islets of Langerhans. The current standard of care for type 1 diabetes mellitus patients allows for management of the disease with exogenous insulin, but patients eventually succumb to many chronic complications such as limb amputation, blindness, and kidney failure. New therapeutic approaches now on the horizon are looking beyond glycemic management and are evaluating new strategies from protecting and regenerating endogenous islets to treating the underlying autoimmunity through selective modulation of key immune cell populations. Currently, there are no effective treatments for the autoimmunity that causes the disease, and strategies that aim to delay or prevent the onset of the disease will play an important role in the future of diabetes research. In this review, we summarize many of the key efforts underway that utilize molecular approaches to selectively modulate this disease and look at new therapeutic paradigms that can transform clinical treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Sheehy
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Sean Quinnell
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Arturo J. Vegas
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
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18
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Panfil AR, London JA, Green PL, Yoder KE. CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing to Disable the Latent HIV-1 Provirus. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:3107. [PMID: 30619186 PMCID: PMC6302043 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.03107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV-1 infection can be successfully controlled with anti-retroviral therapy (ART), but is not cured. A reservoir of cells harboring transcriptionally silent integrated provirus is able to reestablish replicating infection if ART is stopped. Latently HIV-1 infected cells are rare, but may persist for decades. Several novel strategies have been proposed to reduce the latent reservoir, including DNA sequence targeted CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing of the HIV-1 provirus. A significant challenge to genome editing is the sequence diversity of HIV-1 quasispecies present in patients. The high level of quasispecies diversity will require targeting of multiple sites in the viral genome and personalized engineering of a CRISPR/Cas9 regimen. The challenges of CRISPR/Cas9 delivery to the rare latently infected cells and quasispecies sequence diversity suggest that effective genome editing of every provirus is unlikely. However, recent evidence from post-treatment controllers, patients with controlled HIV-1 viral burden following interruption of ART, suggests a correlation between a reduced number of intact proviral sequences and control of the virus. The possibility of reducing the intact proviral sequences in patients by a genome editing technology remains intriguing, but requires significant advances in delivery to infected cells and identification of effective target sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda R. Panfil
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- Center for Retrovirus Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - James A. London
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Patrick L. Green
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- Center for Retrovirus Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Kristine E. Yoder
- Center for Retrovirus Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
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19
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Presa M, Racine JJ, Dwyer JR, Lamont DJ, Ratiu JJ, Sarsani VK, Chen YG, Geurts A, Schmitz I, Stearns T, Allocco J, Chapman HD, Serreze DV. A Hypermorphic Nfkbid Allele Contributes to Impaired Thymic Deletion of Autoreactive Diabetogenic CD8 + T Cells in NOD Mice. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2018; 201:1907-1917. [PMID: 30127089 PMCID: PMC6143397 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1800465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In both NOD mice and humans, the development of type 1 diabetes (T1D) is dependent in part on autoreactive CD8+ T cells recognizing pancreatic β cell peptides presented by often quite common MHC class I variants. Studies in NOD mice previously revealed that the common H2-Kd and/or H2-Db class I molecules expressed by this strain aberrantly lose the ability to mediate the thymic deletion of pathogenic CD8+ T cell responses through interactions with T1D susceptibility genes outside the MHC. A gene(s) mapping to proximal chromosome 7 was previously shown to be an important contributor to the failure of the common class I molecules expressed by NOD mice to mediate the normal thymic negative selection of diabetogenic CD8+ T cells. Using an inducible model of thymic negative selection and mRNA transcript analyses, we initially identified an elevated Nfkbid expression variant as a likely NOD-proximal chromosome 7 region gene contributing to impaired thymic deletion of diabetogenic CD8+ T cells. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genetic attenuation of Nfkbid expression in NOD mice resulted in improved negative selection of autoreactive diabetogenic AI4 and NY8.3 CD8+ T cells. These results indicated that allelic variants of Nfkbid contribute to the efficiency of intrathymic deletion of diabetogenic CD8+ T cells. However, although enhancing thymic deletion of pathogenic CD8+ T cells, ablating Nfkbid expression surprisingly accelerated T1D onset that was associated with numeric decreases in both regulatory T and B lymphocytes in NOD mice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Aron Geurts
- Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226
| | - Ingo Schmitz
- Systems-Oriented Immunology and Inflammation Research Group, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany; and
- Institute of Molecular and Clinical Immunology, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
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20
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Wilson JJ, Chow KH, Labrie NJ, Branca JA, Sproule TJ, Perkins BRA, Wolf EE, Costa M, Stafford G, Rosales C, Mills KD, Roopenian DC, Hasham MG. Enhancing the efficacy of glycolytic blockade in cancer cells via RAD51 inhibition. Cancer Biol Ther 2018; 20:169-182. [PMID: 30183475 PMCID: PMC6343731 DOI: 10.1080/15384047.2018.1507666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Targeting the early steps of the glycolysis pathway in cancers is a well-established therapeutic strategy; however, the doses required to elicit a therapeutic effect on the cancer can be toxic to the patient. Consequently, numerous preclinical and clinical studies have combined glycolytic blockade with other therapies. However, most of these other therapies do not specifically target cancer cells, and thus adversely affect normal tissue. Here we first show that a diverse number of cancer models – spontaneous, patient-derived xenografted tumor samples, and xenografted human cancer cells – can be efficiently targeted by 2-deoxy-D-Glucose (2DG), a well-known glycolytic inhibitor. Next, we tested the cancer-cell specificity of a therapeutic compound using the MEC1 cell line, a chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cell line that expresses activation induced cytidine deaminase (AID). We show that MEC1 cells, are susceptible to 4,4ʹ-Diisothiocyano-2,2ʹ-stilbenedisulfonic acid (DIDS), a specific RAD51 inhibitor. We then combine 2DG and DIDS, each at a lower dose and demonstrate that this combination is more efficacious than fludarabine, the current standard- of- care treatment for CLL. This suggests that the therapeutic blockade of glycolysis together with the therapeutic inhibition of RAD51-dependent homologous recombination can be a potentially beneficial combination for targeting AID positive cancer cells with minimal adverse effects on normal tissue. Implications: Combination therapy targeting glycolysis and specific RAD51 function shows increased efficacy as compared to standard of care treatments in leukemias.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J Wilson
- a Research Department , The Jackson Laboratory , Bar Harbor , Maine , USA
| | - Kin-Hoe Chow
- a Research Department , The Jackson Laboratory , Bar Harbor , Maine , USA
| | - Nathan J Labrie
- a Research Department , The Jackson Laboratory , Bar Harbor , Maine , USA
| | - Jane A Branca
- a Research Department , The Jackson Laboratory , Bar Harbor , Maine , USA
| | - Thomas J Sproule
- a Research Department , The Jackson Laboratory , Bar Harbor , Maine , USA
| | - Bryant R A Perkins
- a Research Department , The Jackson Laboratory , Bar Harbor , Maine , USA
| | - Elise E Wolf
- a Research Department , The Jackson Laboratory , Bar Harbor , Maine , USA
| | - Mauro Costa
- a Research Department , The Jackson Laboratory , Bar Harbor , Maine , USA
| | - Grace Stafford
- a Research Department , The Jackson Laboratory , Bar Harbor , Maine , USA
| | - Christine Rosales
- a Research Department , The Jackson Laboratory , Bar Harbor , Maine , USA
| | | | - Derry C Roopenian
- a Research Department , The Jackson Laboratory , Bar Harbor , Maine , USA
| | - Muneer G Hasham
- a Research Department , The Jackson Laboratory , Bar Harbor , Maine , USA
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21
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Collin R, Doyon K, Mullins-Dansereau V, Karam M, Chabot-Roy G, Hillhouse EE, Orthwein A, Lesage S. Genetic interaction between two insulin-dependent diabetes susceptibility loci, Idd2 and Idd13, in determining immunoregulatory DN T cell proportion. Immunogenetics 2018; 70:495-509. [PMID: 29696366 DOI: 10.1007/s00251-018-1060-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Several immune regulatory cell types participate in the protection against autoimmune diseases such as autoimmune diabetes. Of these immunoregulatory cells, we and others have shown that peripheral CD4-CD8- double negative (DN) T cells can induce antigen-specific immune tolerance. Particularly, we have described that diabetes-prone mice exhibit a lower number of peripheral DN T cells compared to diabetes-resistant mice. Identifying the molecular pathways that influence the size of the DN T cell pool in peripheral lymphoid organs may thus be of interest for maintaining antigen-specific immune tolerance. Hence, through immunogenetic approaches, we found that two genetic loci linked to autoimmune diabetes susceptibility, namely Idd2 and Idd13, independently contribute to the partial restoration of DN T cell proportion in secondary lymphoid organs. We now extend these findings to show an interaction between the Idd2 and Idd13 loci in determining the number of DN T cells in secondary lymphoid organs. Using bioinformatics tools, we link potential biological pathways arising from interactions of genes encoded within the two loci. By focusing on cell cycle, we validate that both the Idd2 and Idd13 loci influence RAD51 expression as well as DN T cell progression through the cell cycle. Altogether, we find that genetic interactions between Idd2 and Idd13 loci modulate cell cycle progression, which contributes, at least in part, to defining the proportion of DN T cells in secondary lymphoid organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roxanne Collin
- Division of Immunology-oncology, Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital, Research Center, Montréal, 5415 l'Assomption Blvd, Québec, H1T 2M4, Canada.,Département de microbiologie, infectiologie et immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Kathy Doyon
- Division of Immunology-oncology, Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital, Research Center, Montréal, 5415 l'Assomption Blvd, Québec, H1T 2M4, Canada
| | - Victor Mullins-Dansereau
- Division of Immunology-oncology, Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital, Research Center, Montréal, 5415 l'Assomption Blvd, Québec, H1T 2M4, Canada.,Département de microbiologie, infectiologie et immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Martin Karam
- Division of Experimental Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, H4A 3J1, Canada.,Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, 3755 Côte Ste-Catherine, Montréal, Québec, H3T 1E2, Canada
| | - Geneviève Chabot-Roy
- Division of Immunology-oncology, Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital, Research Center, Montréal, 5415 l'Assomption Blvd, Québec, H1T 2M4, Canada
| | - Erin E Hillhouse
- Division of Immunology-oncology, Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital, Research Center, Montréal, 5415 l'Assomption Blvd, Québec, H1T 2M4, Canada
| | - Alexandre Orthwein
- Division of Experimental Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, H4A 3J1, Canada. .,Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, 3755 Côte Ste-Catherine, Montréal, Québec, H3T 1E2, Canada. .,Department of Oncology, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, H4A 3J1, Canada.
| | - Sylvie Lesage
- Division of Immunology-oncology, Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital, Research Center, Montréal, 5415 l'Assomption Blvd, Québec, H1T 2M4, Canada. .,Département de microbiologie, infectiologie et immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, H3C 3J7, Canada.
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22
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Coley WD, Zhao Y, Benck CJ, Liu Y, Hotta-Iwamura C, Rahman MJ, Tarbell KV. Loss of Zbtb32 in NOD mice does not significantly alter T cell responses. F1000Res 2018; 7:318. [PMID: 29707204 PMCID: PMC5909056 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.13864.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: We previously identified the transcriptional regulator Zbtb32 as a factor that can promote T cell tolerance in the Non-Obese Diabetic (NOD) mouse, a model of Type 1 diabetes. Antigen targeted to DCIR2
+ dendritic cells (DCs)
in vivo inhibited both diabetes and effector T cell expansion in NOD mice. Furthermore, Zbtb32 was preferentially induced in autoreactive CD4 T cells stimulated by these tolerogenic DCIR2
+ DCs, and overexpression of Zbtb32 in islet-specific T cells inhibited the diabetes development by limiting T cell proliferation and cytokine production. Methods: To further understand the role of Zbtb32 in T cell tolerance induction, we have now used CRISPR to target the Zbtb32 gene for deletion directly in NOD mice and characterized the mutant mice. We hypothesized that the systemic loss of Zbtb32 in NOD mice would lead to increased T cell activation and increased diabetes pathogenesis. Results: Although NOD.Zbtb32
-/- male NOD mice showed a trend towards increased diabetes incidence compared to littermate controls, the difference was not significant. Furthermore, no significant alteration in lymphocyte number or function was observed. Importantly,
in vitro stimulation of lymphocytes from NOD.Zbtb32
-/- mice did not produce the expected hypersensitive phenotype observed in other genetic strains, potentially due to compensation by homologous genes. Conclusions: The loss of Zbtb32 in the NOD background does not result in the expected T cell activation phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- William D Coley
- Immune Tolerance Section, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda , MD, 20892, USA
| | - Yongge Zhao
- Immune Tolerance Section, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda , MD, 20892, USA
| | - Charles J Benck
- Immune Tolerance Section, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda , MD, 20892, USA
| | - Yi Liu
- Immune Tolerance Section, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda , MD, 20892, USA
| | - Chie Hotta-Iwamura
- Immune Tolerance Section, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda , MD, 20892, USA
| | - M Jubayer Rahman
- Immune Tolerance Section, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda , MD, 20892, USA
| | - Kristin V Tarbell
- Immune Tolerance Section, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda , MD, 20892, USA.,Department of Inflammation and Oncology, Amgen, Inc, South San Francisco, CA, USA
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23
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Tan Q, Tai N, Li Y, Pearson J, Pennetti S, Zhou Z, Wong FS, Wen L. Activation-induced cytidine deaminase deficiency accelerates autoimmune diabetes in NOD mice. JCI Insight 2018; 3:95882. [PMID: 29321370 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.95882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
B cells play an important role in type 1 diabetes (T1D) development. However, the role of B cell activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) in diabetes development is not clear. We hypothesized that AID is important in the immunopathogenesis of T1D. To test this hypothesis, we generated AID-deficient (AID-/-) NOD mice. We found that AID-/-NOD mice developed accelerated T1D, with worse insulitis and high levels of anti-insulin autoantibody in the circulation. Interestingly, neither maternal IgG transferred through placenta, nor IgA transferred through milk affected the accelerated diabetes development. AID-/-NOD mice showed increased activation and proliferation of B and T cells. We found enhanced T-B cell interactions in AID-/-NOD mice, with increased T-bet and IFN-γ expression in CD4+ T cells in the presence of AID-/- B cells. Moreover, excessive lymphoid expansion was observed in AID-/-NOD mice. Importantly, antigen-specific BDC2.5 CD4+ T cells caused more rapid onset of diabetes when cotransferred with AID-/- B cells than when cotransferred with AID+/+ B cells. Thus, our study provides insights into the role of AID in T1D. Our data also suggest that AID is a negative regulator of immune tolerance and ablation of AID can lead to exacerbated islet autoimmunity and accelerated T1D development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiyuan Tan
- Institute of Metabolism and Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology, Ministry of Education, Central South University, National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Changsha,Hunan, China.,Section of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.,Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai Jiaotong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Ningwen Tai
- Section of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Yangyang Li
- Section of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.,Department of Endocrinology, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - James Pearson
- Section of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Sean Pennetti
- Section of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.,School of Medicine, Quinnipiac University, North Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Zhiguang Zhou
- Institute of Metabolism and Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology, Ministry of Education, Central South University, National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Changsha,Hunan, China
| | - F Susan Wong
- Division of Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Li Wen
- Institute of Metabolism and Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology, Ministry of Education, Central South University, National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Changsha,Hunan, China.,Section of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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24
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Chen YG, Mathews CE, Driver JP. The Role of NOD Mice in Type 1 Diabetes Research: Lessons from the Past and Recommendations for the Future. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2018; 9:51. [PMID: 29527189 PMCID: PMC5829040 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
For more than 35 years, the NOD mouse has been the primary animal model for studying autoimmune diabetes. During this time, striking similarities to the human disease have been uncovered. In both species, unusual polymorphisms in a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecule confer the most disease risk, disease is caused by perturbations by the same genes or different genes in the same biological pathways and that diabetes onset is preceded by the presence of circulating autoreactive T cells and autoantibodies that recognize many of the same islet antigens. However, the relevance of the NOD model is frequently challenged due to past failures translating therapies from NOD mice to humans and because the appearance of insulitis in mice and some patients is different. Nevertheless, the NOD mouse remains a pillar of autoimmune diabetes research for its usefulness as a preclinical model and because it provides access to invasive procedures as well as tissues that are rarely procured from patients or controls. The current article is focused on approaches to improve the NOD mouse by addressing reasons why immune therapies have failed to translate from mice to humans. We also propose new strategies for mixing and editing the NOD genome to improve the model in ways that will better advance our understanding of human diabetes. As proof of concept, we report that diabetes is completely suppressed in a knock-in NOD strain with a serine to aspartic acid substitution at position 57 in the MHC class II Aβ. This supports that similar non-aspartic acid substitutions at residue 57 of variants of the human class II HLA-DQβ homolog confer diabetes risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Guang Chen
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States
| | - Clayton E. Mathews
- Department of Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - John P. Driver
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
- *Correspondence: John P. Driver,
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25
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Wang Q, Racine JJ, Ratiu JJ, Wang S, Ettinger R, Wasserfall C, Atkinson MA, Serreze DV. Transient BAFF Blockade Inhibits Type 1 Diabetes Development in Nonobese Diabetic Mice by Enriching Immunoregulatory B Lymphocytes Sensitive to Deletion by Anti-CD20 Cotherapy. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 199:3757-3770. [PMID: 29055002 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1700822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/26/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In NOD mice and also likely humans, B lymphocytes play an important role as APC-expanding autoreactive T cell responses ultimately causing type 1 diabetes (T1D). Currently, humans at high future T1D risk can only be identified at late prodromal stages of disease indicated by markers such as insulin autoantibodies. When commenced in already insulin autoantibody+ NOD mice, continuous BAFFR-Fc treatment alone or in combination with anti-CD20 (designated combo therapy) inhibited T1D development. Despite eliciting broader B lymphocyte depletion, continuous combo therapy afforded no greater T1D protection than did BAFFR-Fc alone. As previously observed, late disease stage-initiated anti-CD20 monotherapy did not inhibit T1D, and in this study was additionally found to be associated with development of drug-blocking Abs. Promisingly, NOD mice given transient late disease stage BAFFR-Fc monotherapy were rendered T1D resistant. However, combo treatment abrogated the protective effect of transient BAFFR-Fc monotherapy. NOD mice receiving transient BAFF blockade were characterized by an enrichment of regulatory B lymphocytes that inhibit T1D development through IL-10 production, but this population is sensitive to deletion by anti-CD20 treatment. B lymphocytes from transient BAFFR-Fc-treated mice suppressed T cell proliferation to a greater extent than did those from controls. Proportions of B lymphocytes expressing CD73, an ecto-enzyme operating in a pathway converting proinflammatory ATP to anti-inflammatory adenosine, were also temporarily increased by transient BAFFR-Fc treatment, but not anti-CD20 therapy. These collective studies indicate transient BAFFR-Fc-mediated B lymphocyte depletion elicits long-term T1D protection by enriching regulatory B lymphocytes that are deleted by anti-CD20 cotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiming Wang
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME 04609.,Graduate Program in Genetics, Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University, Boston, MA 02111
| | | | | | - Shu Wang
- Respiratory, Inflammation, and Autoimmunity Group, MedImmune LLC, Gaithersburg, MD 20878; and
| | - Rachel Ettinger
- Respiratory, Inflammation, and Autoimmunity Group, MedImmune LLC, Gaithersburg, MD 20878; and
| | - Clive Wasserfall
- Department of Pathology and Pediatrics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610
| | - Mark A Atkinson
- Department of Pathology and Pediatrics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610
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