CXCR3.1 and CXCR3.2 Differentially Contribute to Macrophage Polarization in Teleost Fish

M1-type polarized macrophage contributes to brain damage through CXCR3.2/CXCL11 pathways after RGNNV infection in grouper

The vertebrate central nervous system (CNS) is the most complex system of the body. The CNS, especially the brain, is generally regarded as immune-privileged. However, the specialized immune strategies in the brain and how immune cells, specifically macrophages in the brain, respond to virus invasion remain poorly understood. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the potential immune response of macrophages in the brain of orange-spotted groupers (Epinephelus coioides) following red-spotted grouper nervous necrosis virus (RGNNV) infection. We observed that RGNNV induced macrophages to produce an inflammatory response in the brain of orange-spotted grouper, and the macrophages exhibited M1-type polarization after RGNNV infection. In addition, we found RGNNV-induced macrophage M1 polarization via the CXCR3.2- CXCL11 pathway. Furthermore, we observed that RGNNV triggered M1 polarization in macrophages, resulting in substantial proinflammatory cytokine production and subsequent damage to brain tissue. These findings reveal a unique mechanism for brain macrophage polarization, emphasizing their role in contributing to nervous tissue damage following viral infection in the CNS.

Expression and regulation of the CXCL9-11 chemokines and CXCR3 receptor in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)

Chemokines are cytokines that mediate leukocyte traffic between the lymphoid organs, the bloodstream, and the site of tissue damage, which is essential for an efficient immune response. In particular, the gamma interferon (IFN- γ) inducible chemokines CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11, and their receptor CXCR3, are involved in T cell and macrophage recruitment to the site of infection. The nature and function of these chemokines and their receptor are well-known in mammals, but further research is needed to achieve a similar level of understanding in fish immunity. Thus, in this study, we seek to identify the genes encoding the components of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL11/CXCR3 axis (CXCL9-11/CXCR3), predict the protein structure from the amino acid sequence, and explore the regulation of gene expression as well as the response of these chemokines and their receptor to viral infections. The cxcl9, cxcl10, cxcl11, and cxcr3 gene sequences were retrieved from the databases, and the phylogenetic analysis was conducted to determine the evolutionary relationships. The study revealed an interesting pattern of clustering and conservation among fish and mammalian species. The salmon chemokine sequences clustered with orthologs from other fish species, while the mammalian sequences formed separate clades. This indicates a divergent evolution of chemokines between mammals and fish, possibly due to different evolutionary pressures. While the structural analysis of the chemokines and the CXCR3 receptor showed the conservation of critical motifs and domains, suggesting preserved functions and stability throughout evolution. Regarding the regulation of gene expression, some components of the CXCL9-11/CXCR3 axis are induced by recombinant gamma interferon (rIFN-γ) and by Infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) infection in Atlantic salmon cells. Further studies are needed to explore the role of Atlantic salmon CXCL9-11 chemokines in regulating immune cell migration and endothelial activation, as seen in mammals. To the best of our knowledge, there have been no functional studies of chemokines to understand these effects in Atlantic salmon.

Broussonin E against acute respiratory distress syndrome: the potential roles of anti-inflammatory

We applied network pharmacology and molecular docking analyses to study the efficacy of Broussonin E (BRE) in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) treatment and to determine the core components, potential targets, and mechanism of action of BRE. The SwissTargetprediction and SEA databases were used to predict BRE targets, and the GeneCards and OMIM databases were used to predict ARDS-related genes. The drug targets and disease targets were mapped to obtain an intersecting drug target gene network, which was then uploaded into the String database for protein-protein interaction network analysis. The intersecting gene was also uploaded into the DAVID database for gene ontology enrichment analysis and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes pathway analysis. Molecular docking analysis was performed to verify the interaction of BRE with the key targets. Finally, to validate the experiment in vivo, we established an oleic acid-induced ARDS rat model and evaluated the protective effect of BRE on ARDS by histological evaluation and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Overall, 79 targets of BRE and 3974 targets of ARDS were predicted, and 79 targets were obtained after intersection. Key genes such as HSP90AA1, JUN, ESR1, MTOR, and PIK3CA play important roles in the nucleus and cytoplasm by regulating the tumor necrosis factor, nuclear factor-κB, and PI3K-Akt signaling pathways. Molecular docking results showed that small molecules of BRE could freely bind to the active site of the target proteins. In vivo experiments showed that BRE could reduce ARDS-related histopathological changes, release of inflammatory factors, and infiltration of macrophages and oxidative stress reaction. BRE exerts its therapeutic effect on ARDS through target and multiple pathways. This study also predicted the potential mechanism of BRE on ARDS, which provides the theoretical basis for in-depth and comprehensive studies of BRE treatment on ARDS.

What can we learn about fish neutrophil and macrophage response to immune challenge from studies in zebrafish

Fish rely, to a high degree, on the innate immune system to protect them against the constant exposure to potential pathogenic invasion from the surrounding water during homeostasis and injury. Zebrafish larvae have emerged as an outstanding model organism for immunity. The cellular component of zebrafish innate immunity is similar to the mammalian innate immune system and has a high degree of sophistication due to the needs of living in an aquatic environment from early embryonic stages of life. Innate immune cells (leukocytes), including neutrophils and macrophages, have major roles in protecting zebrafish against pathogens, as well as being essential for proper wound healing and regeneration. Zebrafish larvae are visually transparent, with unprecedented in vivo microscopy opportunities that, in combination with transgenic immune reporter lines, have permitted visualisation of the functions of these cells when zebrafish are exposed to bacterial, viral and parasitic infections, as well as during injury and healing. Recent findings indicate that leukocytes are even more complex than previously anticipated and are essential for inflammation, infection control, and subsequent wound healing and regeneration.

GCRV-II invades monocytes/macrophages and induces macrophage polarization and apoptosis in tissues to facilitate viral replication and dissemination

Grass carp reovirus (GCRV), particularly the highly prevalent type II GCRV (GCRV-II), causes huge losses in the aquaculture industry. However, little is known about the mechanisms by which GCRV-II invades grass carp and further disseminates among tissues. In the present study, monocytes/macrophages (Mo/Mφs) were isolated from the peripheral blood of grass carp and infected with GCRV-II. The results of indirect immunofluorescent microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, real-time quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR), western blot (WB), and flow cytometry analysis collectively demonstrated that GCRV-II invaded Mo/Mφs and replicated in them. Additionally, we observed that GCRV-II induced different types (M1 and M2) of polarization of Mo/Mφs in multiple tissues, especially in the brain, head kidney, and intestine. To assess the impact of different types of polarization on GCRV-II replication, we recombinantly expressed and purified the intact cytokines CiIFN-γ2, CiIL-4/13A, and CiIL-4/13B and successfully induced M1 and M2 type polarization of macrophages using these cytokines through in vitro experiments. qRT-PCR, WB, and flow cytometry analyses showed that M2 macrophages had higher susceptibility to GCRV-II infection than other types of Mo/Mφs. In addition, we found GCRV-II induced apoptosis of Mo/Mφs to facilitate virus replication and dissemination and also detected the presence of GCRV-II virus in plasma. Collectively, our findings indicated that GCRV-II could invade immune cells Mo/Mφs and induce apoptosis and polarization of Mo/Mφs for efficient infection and dissemination, emphasizing the crucial role of Mo/Mφs as a vector for GCRV-II infection.IMPORTANCEType II grass carp reovirus (GCRV) is a prevalent viral strain and causes huge losses in aquaculture. However, the related dissemination pathway and mechanism remain largely unclear. Here, our study focused on phagocytic immune cells, monocytes/macrophages (Mo/Mφs) in blood and tissues, and explored whether GCRV-II can invade Mo/Mφs and replicate and disseminate via Mo/Mφs with their differentiated type M1 and M2 macrophages. Our findings demonstrated that GCRV-II infected Mo/Mφs and replicated in them. Furthermore, GCRV-II infection induces an increased number of M1 and M2 macrophages in grass carp tissues and a higher viral load in M2 macrophages. Furthermore, GCRV-II induced Mo/Mφs apoptosis to release viruses, eventually infecting more cells. Our study identified Mo/Mφs as crucial components in the pathway of GCRV-II dissemination and provides a solid foundation for the development of treatment strategies for GCRV-II infection.

Cell atlas of the Atlantic salmon spleen reveals immune cell heterogeneity and cell-specific responses to bacterial infection

The spleen is a conserved secondary lymphoid organ that emerged in parallel to adaptive immunity in early jawed vertebrates. Recent studies have applied single cell transcriptomics to reveal the cellular composition of spleen in several species, cataloguing diverse immune cell types and subpopulations. In this study, 51,119 spleen nuclei transcriptomes were comprehensively investigated in the commercially important teleost Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.), contrasting control animals with those challenged with the bacterial pathogen Aeromonas salmonicida. We identified clusters of nuclei representing the expected major cell types, namely T cells, B cells, natural killer-like cells, granulocytes, mononuclear phagocytes, endothelial cells, mesenchymal cells, erythrocytes and thrombocytes. We discovered heterogeneity within several immune lineages, providing evidence for resident macrophages and melanomacrophages, infiltrating monocytes, several candidate dendritic cell subpopulations, and B cells at distinct stages of differentiation, including plasma cells and an igt + subset. We provide evidence for twelve candidate T cell subsets, including cd4+ T helper and regulatory T cells, one cd8+ subset, three γδT subsets, and populations double negative for cd4 and cd8. The number of genes showing differential expression during the early stages of Aeromonas infection was highly variable across immune cell types, with the largest changes observed in macrophages and infiltrating monocytes, followed by resting mature B cells. Our analysis provides evidence for a local inflammatory response to infection alongside B cell maturation in the spleen, and upregulation of ccr9 genes in igt + B cells, T helper and cd8+ cells, and monocytes, consistent with the recruitment of immune cell populations to the gut to deal with Aeromonas infection. Overall, this study provides a new cell-resolved perspective of the immune actions of Atlantic salmon spleen, highlighting extensive heterogeneity hidden to bulk transcriptomics. We further provide a large catalogue of cell-specific marker genes that can be leveraged to further explore the function and structural organization of the salmonid immune system.

Sulfated CXCR3 Peptide Trap Use as a Promising Therapeutic Approach for Age-Related Macular Degeneration

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Chemokines have various biological functions and potential roles in the development or progression of neuroinflammatory diseases. However, the specific pathogenic roles of chemokines in the major cause for vision loss among the elderly, the leading cause of blindness in older individuals, remain elusive. Chemokines interact with their receptors expressed in the endothelium and on leukocytes. The sulfation of tyrosine residues in chemokine receptors increases the strength of ligand-receptor interaction and modulates signaling. Therefore, in the present study, we aimed to construct a human recombinant sulfated CXCR3 peptide trap (hCXCR3-S2) and mouse recombinant sulfated CXCR3 peptide trap (mCXCR3-S2) to demonstrate in vivo effects in preventing choroidal neovascularization (CNV) and chemotaxis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We generated expression vectors for mCXCR3-S2 and hCXCR3-S2 with GST domains and their respective cDNA sequences. Following overexpression in E. coli BL21 (DE3), we purified the fusion proteins from cell lysates using affinity chromatography. First, the impact of hCXCR3-S2 was validated in vitro. Subsequently, the in vivo efficacy of mCXCR3-S2 was investigated using a laser-induced CNV mouse model, a mouse model of neovascular age-related macular degeneration (AMD).

RESULTS

hCXCR3-S2 inhibited the migration and invasion of two human cancer cell lines. Intravitreal injection of mCXCR3-S2 attenuated CNV and macrophage recruitment in neovascular lesions of mouse models. These in vitro and in vivo effects were significantly stronger with CXCR3-S2 than with wild-type CXCR3 peptides.

CONCLUSION

These findings demonstrate that the sulfated form of the CXCR3 peptide trap is a valuable tool that could be supplemented with antivascular endothelial growth factors in AMD treatment.

Molecular characterization, structural and expression analysis of twelve CXC chemokines and eight CXC chemokine receptors in largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)

The chemokine-receptor system plays important roles in the leukocyte trafficking, inflammation, immune cell differentiation, cancer and other biological processes. In the present study, the sequence features, structures and expression patterns of twelve CXC chemokine ligands (CXCL8a.1, CXCL8a.2, CXCL8b.1, CXCL8b.2, CXCL12a, CXCL12b, CXCL13.1, CXCL13.2, CXCL14, CXCL18a, CXCL18b and CXCL19) and eight CXC chemokine receptors (CXCR1, CXCR2, CXCR3.1, CXCR3.2, CXCR3.3, CXCR4a, CXCR4b and CXCR5) of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) were analyzed. All the CXCLs and CXCRs of largemouth bass shared high sequence identities with their teleost counterparts and possessed conserved motifs and structures of CXCLs and CXCRs family. Realtime qPCR revealed that these CXCLs and CXCRs were ubiquitously expressed in all examined tissues, with high expression levels in the immune-related tissues (spleen, head kidney, and gill). Following lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (polyI:C) stimulations, most of these CXCLs and CXCRs were significantly up-regulated in spleen. In addition, the potential interacted molecules of these CXCLs and CXCRs were analyzed by protein-protein interaction network analysis. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that in detail analyzes the CXCLs and CXCRs of largemouth bass. Our results provide valuable basis for study the function and mechanism of chemokine-receptor system in largemouth bass.

Chitooligosaccharide boosts the immunity of immunosuppressed blunt snout bream against bacterial infections

The immunosuppression hazard of fish brought by intensive aquaculture needs to be addressed urgently, while chitooligosaccharide (COS) shows the potential application in the prevention the immunosuppression of fish due to its superior biological properties. In this study, COS reversed the cortisol-induced immunosuppression of macrophages and improved the immune activity of macrophages in vitro, promoting the expression of inflammatory genes (TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS) and NO production, and increasing the phagocytic activity of macrophages. In vivo, the oral COS was absorbed directly through the intestine, significantly ameliorating the innate immunity of cortisol-induced immunosuppression of blunt snout bream (Megalobrama amblycephala). Such as facilitated the gene expression of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6) and pattern recognition receptors (TLR4, MR) and potentiated bacterial clearance, resulting in an effective improvement in survival and tissue damage. Altogether, this study demonstrates that COS offers potential strategies in the application of immunosuppression prevention and control in fish.

Developmental and behavioral toxicity assessment of opicapone in zebrafish embryos

The use of clinical psychoactive drugs often poses unpredictable threats to fetal development. Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) is a key enzyme that regulates dopamine metabolism and a promising target for modulation of cognitive functions. Opicapone, a newly effective third-generation peripheral COMT inhibitor, is used for the treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD) and possibly to improve other dopamine-related disorders such as alcohol use disorder (AUD) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). The widespread use of opicapone will inevitably lead to biological exposure and damage to the human body, such as affecting fetal development. However, the effect of opicapone on embryonic development remains unknown. Here, zebrafish larvae were used as an animal model and demonstrated that a high concentration (30 μM) of opicapone exposure was teratogenic and lethal, while a low concentration also caused developmental delay such as a shortened body size, a smaller head, and reduced locomotor behaviors in zebrafish larvae. Meanwhile, opicapone treatment specifically increased the level of dopamine (DA) in zebrafish larvae. The depletion response of the total glutathione level (including oxidized and reduced forms of glutathione) and changed antioxidant enzymes activities in zebrafish larvae suggest oxidative damage caused by opicapone. In addition, enhanced glutathione metabolism and cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction were found in zebrafish larvae treated with opicapone, indicating that opicapone treatment caused an oxidation process and immune responses. Our results provide a new insight into the significant developmental toxicity of opicapone in zebrafish larvae.

CXCL9-11 chemokines and CXCR3 receptor in teleost fish species

The coordinated migration of immune cells from lymphoid organs to in or out of the bloodstream, and towards the site of infection or tissue damage is fundamental for an efficient innate and adaptive immune response. Interestingly, an essential part of this movement is mediated by chemoattractant cytokines called chemokines. Although the nature and function of chemokines and their receptors are well documented in mammals, much research is needed to accomplish a similar level of understanding of the role of chemokines in fish immunity. The first chemokine gene identified in teleosts (rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss) was CK1 in 1998. Since then, the identification of fish chemokine orthologue genes and characterization of their role has been more complex than expected, primarily because of the whole genome duplication processes occurring in fish, and because chemokines evolve faster than other immune genes. Some of the most studied chemokines are CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL11, and the CXCR3 receptor, all involved in T cell migration and in the induction of the T helper 1 (Th1) immune response. Data from the zebrafish and rainbow trout CXCL9-11/CXCR3 axis suggest that these chemokines and the receptor arose early in evolution and must be present in most teleost fish. However, the pieces of knowledge also indicate that different numbers of gene copies can be present in different species, with distinct regulatory expression mechanisms and probably, also with different roles, as the differential expression in fish tissues suggest. Here, we revised the current knowledge of the CXCL9-11/CXCR3 axis in teleost fishes, identifying the gaps in knowledge, and raising some hypotheses for the role of CXCL9, CXCL10 CXCL11, and CXCR3 receptor axis in fish, which can encourage further studies in the field.

Molecular cloning, characterization and expression analysis of CXCR3a and CXCR3b from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

The CXC chemokine receptors (CXCRs) are members of the seven transmembrane (7-TM) G-protein-coupled receptor superfamily that involves innate and adaptive immune systems. In this study, CXCR3a and CXCR3b from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) were cloned and identified, designated as OnCXCR3a and OnCXCR3b. The open reading frames of OnCXCR3a and OnCXCR3b were 1074 and 1080 bp, encoding the predicted proteins of 357 and 359 amino acids, respectively. Multiple alignment analysis of OnCXCR3a- and OnCXCR3b-deduced protein sequences with the mammalian and bird sequences indicated the presence of typical structural features of chemokine receptors, including a 7-TM domain and conserved motifs. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis revealed that OnCXCR3a and OnCXCR3b were constitutively expressed in a wide range of tissues. When stimulated with Streptococcus agalactiae, Aeromonas hydrophila, polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid and lipopolysaccharide in vivo or in vitro on leukocytes, the mRNA levels of OnCXCR3a and OnCXCR3b were significantly upregulated. Overall, these results indicated that OnCXCR3s might be involved in host immune responses in Nile tilapia.

Evolution, Expression and Functional Analysis of CXCR3 in Neuronal and Cardiovascular Diseases: A Narrative Review

Chemokines form a sophisticated communication network wherein they maneuver the spatiotemporal migration of immune cells across a system. These chemical messengers are recognized by chemokine receptors, which can trigger a cascade of reactions upon binding to its respective ligand. CXC chemokine receptor 3 (CXCR3) is a transmembrane G protein-coupled receptor, which can selectively bind to CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11. CXCR3 is predominantly expressed on immune cells, including activated T lymphocytes and natural killer cells. It thus plays a crucial role in immunological processes like homing of effector cells to infection sites and for pathogen clearance. Additionally, it is expressed on several cell types of the central nervous system and cardiovascular system, due to which it has been implicated in several central nervous system disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, dengue viral disease, and glioblastoma, as well as cardiovascular diseases like atherosclerosis, Chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy, and hypertension. This review provides a narrative description of the evolution, structure, function, and expression of CXCR3 and its corresponding ligands in mammals and zebrafish and the association of CXCR3 receptors with cardiovascular and neuronal disorders. Unraveling the mechanisms underlying the connection of CXCR3 and disease could help researchers investigate the potential of CXCR3 as a biomarker for early diagnosis and as a therapeutic target for pharmacological intervention, along with developing robust zebrafish disease models.

PU.1 Regulates Cathepsin S Expression in Large Yellow Croaker (Larimichthys crocea) Macrophages

Different morphologies have been detected in teleost macrophages. In this study, two macrophage cell lines were sub-cloned from a large yellow croaker head kidney cell line, LYCK. One type of sub-cloned cells was fusiform but the other was round, named LYC-FM and LYC-RM cells respectively, based on their morphologies. Both types showed the characteristics of macrophages, including expression of macrophage-specific marker genes, possession of phagocytic and bactericidal activities, and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO). The transcription factor PU.1, crucial for the development of macrophages in mammals, was found to exist in two transcripts, PU.1a and PU.1b, in large yellow croaker, and constitutively expressed in LYC-FM and LYC-RM cells. The expression levels of PU.1a and PU.1b could be upregulated by recombinant large yellow croaker IFN-γ protein (rLcIFN-γ). Further studies showed that both PU.1a and PU.1b increased the expression of cathepsin S (CTSS) by binding to different E26−transformation−specific (Ets) motifs of the CTSS promoter. Additionally, we demonstrated that all three domains of PU.1a and PU.1b were essential for initiating CTSS expression by truncated mutation experiments. Our results therefore provide the first evidence that teleost PU.1 has a role in regulating the expression of CTSS.

Two paralogs of CXCR4 in the Japanese sea bass (Lateolabrax japonica) are involved in the immune response of B lymphocytes

CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4), a member of the G-protein-coupled receptor family, plays an important role in host immune responses. Within the teleost lineage, there are two paralogs of CXCR4; however, the role of CXCR4 in teleost B cells is poorly understood. In this study, we determined the cDNA sequences of the two CXCR4 paralogs from the Japanese sea bass (Lateolabrax japonica; LjCXCR4a and LjCXCR4b). Sequence and phylogenetic tree analyses revealed that LjCXCR4a and LjCXCR4b are most closely related to CXCR4a and CXCR4b, respectively, in the large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea). CXCR4 transcripts were mainly expressed in the gills, and their expression in different tissues was altered upon infection with Vibrio harveyi. LjCXCR4a and LjCXCR4b protein levels were upregulated in infected B cells. Knockdown of LjCXCR4a and LjCXCR4b in B cells by RNA interference, the phagocytic activity of B cells was not affected. Furthermore, knockdown of LjCXCR4a, not of LjCXCR4b, was observed to inhibit LjIgM expression in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated B cells. In addition, knockdown of LjCXCR4a, not of LjCXCR4b, was found to reduce reactive oxygen species levels in B cells. Our results indicate that LjCXCR4a and LjCXCR4b modulate the immune response of Japanese sea bass B cells against bacterial infection, albeit via different pathways.

Inflammation and convergent placenta gene co-option contributed to a novel reproductive tissue

The evolution of pregnancy exposes parental tissues to new, potentially stressful conditions, which can trigger inflammation.¹ Inflammation is costly^2,3 and can induce embryo rejection, which constrains the evolution of pregnancy.¹ In contrast, inflammation can also promote morphological innovation at the maternal-embryonic interface as exemplified by co-option of pro-inflammatory signaling for eutherian embryo implantation.^1,4,5 Given its dual function, inflammation could be a key process explaining how innovations such as pregnancy and placentation evolved many times convergently. Pelvic brooding ricefishes evolved a novel “plug” tissue,^6,7 which forms inside the female gonoduct after spawning, anchors egg-attaching filaments, and enables pelvic brooders to carry eggs externally until hatching.^6,8 Compared to pregnancy, i.e., internal bearing of embryos, external bearing should alleviate constraints on inflammation in the reproductive tract. We thus hypothesized that an ancestral inflammation triggered by the retention of attaching filaments gave rise to pathways orchestrating plug formation. In line with our hypothesis, histological sections of the developing plug revealed signs of gonoduct injuries by egg-attaching filaments in the pelvic brooding ricefish Oryzias eversi. Tissue-specific transcriptomes showed that inflammatory signaling dominates the plug transcriptome and inflammation-induced genes controlling vital processes for plug development such as tissue growth and angiogenesis were overexpressed in the plug. Finally, mammalian placenta genes were enriched in the plug transcriptome, indicating convergent gene co-option for building, attaching, and sustaining a transient tissue in the female reproductive tract. This study highlights the role of gene co-option and suggests that recruiting inflammatory signaling into physiological processes provides a fast-track to evolutionary innovation.

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Pelvic brooding induces tissue-specific changes in gene expression

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Inflammatory signaling characterizes transcriptome of the egg-anchoring plug

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Similar to embryo implantation, the plug likely evolved from an inflammatory response

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Mammalian placenta genes were independently co-opted into the plug

Characterization of large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) osteoprotegerin and its role in the innate immune response against to Vibrio alginolyticus

Osteoprotegerin (OPG) is a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily, contributing to inflammation, apoptosis, and differentiation. However, the function of OPG in the host immune system of teleosts remains unclear. Here, we cloned the cDNA of the LcOPG gene from large yellow croaker. LcOPG mRNA was expressed in all analyzed tissues and was upregulated by Vibrio alginolyticus infection in immune tissues and monocytes/macrophages (MO/MФ). Subsequently, the LcOPG protein was expressed and purified using a prokaryotic expression system. Recombinant LcOPG protein (rLcOPG) treatment suppressed V. alginolyticus-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine and enhanced V. alginolyticus-induced anti-inflammatory cytokine mRNA expression. Furthermore, rLcOPG decreased V. alginolyticus-induced MO/MФ apoptosis. Therefore, the results indicate that LcOPG might play a role in the immune response of V. alginolyticus-infected large yellow croaker.

The CC and CXC chemokine receptors in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.) and their response to Aeromonas salmonicida infection

Chemokines are crucial regulators of cell mobilization for development, homeostasis, and immunity. Chemokines signal through binding to chemokine receptors, a superfamily of seven-transmembrane domain G-coupled receptors. In the present study, eleven CC chemokine receptors (CCRs) and seven CXC chemokine receptors (CXCRs) were identified from turbot genome. Phylogenetic and syntenic analyses were performed to annotate these genes, indicating the closest relationship between the turbot chemokine receptors and their counterparts of Japanese flounders (Paralichthys olivaceus). Evolutionary analyses revealed that the tandem duplications of CCR8 and CXCR3, the whole genome duplications of CCR6, CCR9, CCR12, and CXCR4, and the teleost-specific CCR12 led to the expansion of turbot chemokine receptors. In addition, turbot chemokine receptors were ubiquitously expressed in nine examined healthy tissues, with high expression levels observed in spleen, gill, and head kidney. Moreover, most turbot chemokine receptors were significantly differentially expressed in spleen and gill after Aeromonas salmonicida infection, and exhibited general down-regulations at early time points and then gradually up-regulated. Finally, protein-protein interaction network (PPI) analyses indicated that chemokine receptors interacted with a few immune-related genes such as interleukins, Grk genes, CD genes, etc. These results should be valuable for comparative immunological studies and provide insights for further functional characterization of chemokine receptors in turbots.

CXCL20a, a Teleost-Specific Chemokine That Orchestrates Direct Bactericidal, Chemotactic, and Phagocytosis-Killing-Promoting Functions, Contributes to Clearance of Bacterial Infections

The major role of chemokines is to act as a chemoattractant to guide the migration of immune cells to the infectious sites. In the current study, we found that CiCXCL20a, a teleost-specific chemokine from grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), demonstrates broad-spectrum, potent, direct bactericidal activity and immunomodulatory functions to bacterial infections, apart from the chemotaxis. CiCXCL20a kills bacteria by binding, mainly targeting acid lipids, perforating bacterial membrane, resulting in bacterial cytoplasm leakage and death. CiCXCL20a aggregates and neutralizes LPS, agglutinates Gram-negative bacteria, and binds to peptidoglycan and Gram-positive bacteria, but not agglutinate them. All the complexes may be phagocytized and cleared away. CiCXCL20a chemoattracts leukocytes, facilitates phagocytosis of myeloid leukocytes, not lymphoid leukocytes, and enhances the bacteria-killing ability in leukocytes. We further identified its receptor CiCXCR3.1b1. Furthermore, we investigated the physiological roles of CiCXCL20a against Aeromonas hydrophila infection in vivo. The recombinant CiCXCL20a increases the survival rate and decreases the tissue bacterial loads, edema, and lesions. Then, we verified this function by purified CiCXCL20a Ab blockade, and the survival rate decreases, and the tissue bacterial burdens increase. In addition, zebrafish (Danio rerio) DrCXCL20, an ortholog of CiCXCL20a, was employed to verify the bactericidal function and mechanism. The results indicated that DrCXCL20 also possesses wide-spectrum, direct bactericidal activity through membrane rupture mechanism. The present study, to our knowledge, provides the first evidence that early vertebrate chemokine prevents from bacterial infections by direct bactericidal and phagocytosis-killing-promoting manners. The results also demonstrate the close functional relationship between chemokines and antimicrobial peptides.

The CXC Chemokine Receptors in Four-Eyed Sleeper (Bostrychus sinensis) and Their Involvement in Responding to Skin Injury

CXC Chemokine signaling plays an important role in wound healing. The four-eyed sleeper (Bostrychus sinensis) is a commercially important marine fish, which is prone to suffer skin ulceration at high temperature seasons, leading to mass mortality of fish in aquaculture farms. The genetic background related to skin ulceration and wound healing has remained unknown in this fish. Herein, we identified 10 differentially expressed Bostrychus sinensis CXC chemokine receptors (BsCXCRs) in skin ulcerated fish by de novo transcriptome sequencing. The transcripts of these BsCXCRs were classified in seven types, including BsCXCR1a/1b, BsCXCR2, BsCXCR3a1/3a2, BsCXCR4a/4b, and BsCXCR5-7, and BsCXCR6 was the first CXCR6 homologue experimentally identified in teleost fish. These BsCXCRs were further characterized in gene and protein structures, as well as phylogenetics, and the results revealed that BsCXCRs have expanded to divergent homologues. Our results showed that, in healthy fish, the BsCXCR transcripts was mainly distributed in the muscle and immune related organs, and that BsCXCR1a/1b proteins located in the cytomembrane, BsCXCR4a/4b/5/6 in the cytomembrane and perinuclear region, and BsCXCR3a1/3a2/7 in the cytomembrane, perinuclear region, and nuclear membrane, respectively. In skin injured fish, the transcripts of all BsCXCRs were transiently increased within one hour after injury, suggesting the involvement of BsCXCRs into the early inflammatory response to skin injury in the four-eyed sleeper. These results are valuable for understanding the evolutionary events of fish CXCR genes and provide insights into the roles of CXCR family in fish skin injury.

Inhibition of macrophage migration in zebrafish larvae demonstrates in vivo efficacy of human CCR2 inhibitors

The chemokine signaling axes CCR2-CCL2 and CXCR3-CXCL11 participate in the inflammatory response by recruiting leukocytes to damaged tissue or sites of infection and are, therefore, potential pharmacological targets to treat inflammatory disorders. Although multiple CCR2 orthosteric and allosteric inhibitors have been developed, none of these compounds has been approved for clinical use, highlighting the need for a fast, simple and robust preclinical test system to determine the in vivo efficacy of CCR2 inhibitors. Herein we show that human CCL2 and CXCL11 drive macrophage recruitment in zebrafish larvae and that CCR2 inhibitors designed for humans also limit macrophage recruitment in this model organism due to the high conservation of the chemokine system. We demonstrated anti-inflammatory activities of three orthosteric and two allosteric CCR2 inhibitors using macrophage recruitment to injury as a functional read-out of their efficiency, while simultaneously evaluating toxicity. These results provide proof-of-principle for screening CCR2 inhibitors in the zebrafish model.

Ccn2a is an injury-induced matricellular factor that promotes cardiac regeneration in zebrafish

The ability of zebrafish to heal their heart after injury makes them an attractive model for investigating the mechanisms governing the regenerative process. In this study, we show that the gene cellular communication network factor 2a (ccn2a), previously known as ctgfa, is induced in endocardial cells in the injured tissue and regulates CM proliferation and repopulation of the damaged tissue. We find that, whereas in wild-type animals, CMs track along the newly formed blood vessels that revascularize the injured tissue, in ccn2a mutants CM proliferation and repopulation are disrupted, despite apparently unaffected revascularization. In addition, we find that ccn2a overexpression enhances CM proliferation and improves the resolution of transient collagen deposition. Through loss- and gain-of-function as well as pharmacological approaches, we provide evidence that Ccn2a is necessary for and promotes heart regeneration by enhancing the expression of pro-regenerative extracellular matrix genes, and by inhibiting the chemokine receptor gene cxcr3.1 through a mechanism involving Tgfβ/pSmad3 signaling. Thus, Ccn2a positively modulates the innate regenerative response of the adult zebrafish heart.

Nile tilapia CXCR4, the receptor of chemokine CXCL12, is involved in host defense against bacterial infection and chemotactic activity

CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4), a member of seven-transmembrane (7-TM) G-protein-coupled receptor superfamily, is the receptor of the CXC chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12), and plays important roles in host defense and inflammation. In the current study, we cloned and identified a homolog of CXCR4 from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), designated as OnCXCR4. The open reading frame of OnCXCR4 is 1149 bp encoding a peptide of 382 amino acids, and the predicted molecular weight is 42.65 kDa OnCXCR4 shares common features of CXCR4 family, including a 7-TM domain and a characteristic CXC motif (containing CYC). Expression analysis showed that OnCXCR4 constitutively expresses in various tested tissues of Nile tilapia, with the highest level in the anterior kidney. When stimulated with Streptococcus agalactiae, Aeromonas hydrophila, Poly(I:C), or LPS in vivo and in vitro, the expression of OnCXCR4 was significantly regulated. AMD3100, a CXCR4 antagonist, could not only inhibit the chemotactic activity of the recombinant OnCXCL12 protein on the leukocytes from anterior kidney, but also reduce the expression of OnCXCR4 significantly. Taken together, these results of our study above indicate that OnCXCR4 may play important roles in host defense against bacterial infectionin in Nile tilapia, and being a receptor of OnCXCL12 to exert functions.

Adherent Intestinal Cells From Atlantic Salmon Show Phagocytic Ability and Express Macrophage-Specific Genes

Our knowledge of the intestinal immune system of fish is rather limited compared to mammals. Very little is known about the immune cells including the phagocytic cells in fish intestine. Hence, employing imaging flow cytometry and RNA sequencing, we studied adherent cells isolated from healthy Atlantic salmon. Phagocytic activity and selected gene expression of adherent cells from the distal intestine (adherent intestinal cells, or AIC) were compared with those from head kidney (adherent kidney cells, or AKC). Phagocytic activity of the two cell types was assessed based on the uptake of Escherichia coli BioParticles^TM. AIC showed phagocytic ability but the phagocytes were of different morphology compared to AKC. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that AIC expressed genes associated with macrophages, T cells, and endothelial cells. Heatmap analysis of selected genes indicated that the adherent cells from the two organs had apparently higher expression of macrophage-related genes. We believe that the adherent intestinal cells have phagocytic characteristics and high expression of genes commonly associated with macrophages. We envisage the possibilities for future studies on enriched populations of adherent intestinal cells.

Transcriptome sequencing supports a conservation of macrophage polarization in fish

Mammalian macrophages can adopt polarization states that, depending on the exact stimuli present in their extracellular environment, can lead to very different functions. Although these different polarization states have been shown primarily for macrophages of humans and mice, it is likely that polarized macrophages with corresponding phenotypes exist across mammals. Evidence of functional conservation in macrophages from teleost fish suggests that the same, or at least comparable polarization states should also be present in teleosts. However, corresponding transcriptional profiles of marker genes have not been reported thus far. In this study we confirm that macrophages from common carp can polarize into M1- and M2 phenotypes with conserved functions and corresponding transcriptional profiles compared to mammalian macrophages. Carp M1 macrophages show increased production of nitric oxide and a transcriptional profile with increased pro-inflammatory cytokines and mediators, including il6, il12 and saa. Carp M2 macrophages show increased arginase activity and a transcriptional profile with increased anti-inflammatory mediators, including cyr61, timp2b and tgm2b. Our RNA sequencing approach allowed us to list, in an unbiased manner, markers discriminating between M1 and M2 macrophages of teleost fish. We discuss the importance of our findings for the evaluation of immunostimulants for aquaculture and for the identification of gene targets to generate transgenic zebrafish for detailed studies on M1 and M2 macrophages. Above all, we discuss the striking degree of evolutionary conservation of macrophage polarization in a lower vertebrate.

Yolk sac-derived Pdcd11-positive cells modulate zebrafish microglia differentiation through the NF-κB-Tgfβ1 pathway

Microglia are the primary immune cells in the central nervous system, which plays a vital role in neuron development and neurodegenerative diseases. Microglial precursors in peripheral hematopoietic tissues colonize the central nervous system during early embryogenesis. However, how intrinsic and extrinsic signals integrate to regulate microglia’s differentiation remains undefined. In this study, we identified the cerebral white matter hyperintensities susceptibility gene, programmed cell death protein 11 (PDCD11), as an essential factor regulating microglia differentiation. In zebrafish, pdcd11 deficiency prevents the differentiation of the precursors to mature brain microglia. Although, the inflammatory featured macrophage brain colonization is augmented. At 22 h post fertilization, the Pdcd11-positive cells on the yolk sac are distinct from macrophages and neutrophils. Mechanistically, PDCD11 exerts its physiological role by differentially regulating the functions of nuclear factor-kappa B family members, P65 and c-Rel, suppressing P65-mediated expression of inflammatory cytokines, such as tnfα, and enhancing the c-Rel-dependent appearance of tgfβ1. The present study provides novel insights in understanding microglia differentiation during zebrafish development.

Prostate cancer liver metastasis: Dormancy and resistance to therapy

Liver metastasis causes nearly half of death from solid tumors. Metastatic lesions, to the liver in particular, can become detectable years or decades after primary tumor removal, leaving an uncertain long-term prognosis in patients. Prostate cancer (PCa), a prominent metastatic dormant cancer, has the worst prognosis when found in the liver compared to other metastatic sites. These metastatic nodules display a therapy resistance in the liver pro-metastatic microenvironment; the resistance appears to be conferred by both dormancy and independent of dormancy when the nodules emerge. Within the review, the molecular underpinnings of how the liver aids and protects PCa cells seeding, colonization and resistance will be discussed.

Characterization and Antimicrobial Activity of the Teleost Chemokine CXCL20b

Fish are a potential source of diverse organic compounds with a broad spectrum of biological activities. Many fish-derived antimicrobial peptides and proteins are key components of the fish innate immune system. They are also potential candidates for development of new antimicrobial agents. CXCL20b is a grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) CXC chemokine strongly transcribed at the early stage of bacterial infections, for which the immune role had not been reported to date. In the present study, we found that CXCL20b is a cationic amphipathic protein that displays potent antimicrobial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The results of DiOC₂(3) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) assays indicated that CXCL20b could induce bacterial membrane depolarization and disruption in a short time. By performing further structure-activity studies, we found that the antimicrobial activity of CXCL20b was mainly relative to the N-terminal random coil region. The central part of this cytokine representing β-sheet region was insoluble in water and the C-terminal α-helical region did not show an antimicrobial effect. The results presented in this article support the poorly understood function of CXCL20b, which fulfills an important role in bony fish antimicrobial immunity.

Beta-adrenergic receptor stimulation influences the function of monocytes/macrophages in ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis)

Adrenergic receptors (ARs) are members of the G-protein-coupled receptor superfamily that can be categorized into αARs and βARs. The specific function of ARs in teleost monocytes/macrophages (MO/MФ) remains unknown. We determined the cDNA sequence of ARs from ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis; PaαAR and PaβAR). Sequence comparisons showed that PaαAR was most closely related to the αAR of the Japanese flounder and Nile tilapia, while PaβAR was most closely related to the βAR of Atlantic salmon. The AR transcripts were mainly expressed in the spleen, and their expression was altered in various tissues upon infection with Vibrio anguillarum. PaαAR and PaβAR proteins were upregulated in MO/MФ after infection, and PaβAR knockdown resulted in a pro-inflammatory status in ayu MO/MФ upon V. anguillarum infection and lowered the phagocytic activity of MO/MФ. Our results indicate that PaβAR plays the role of an anti-inflammatory mediator in the immune response of ayu against bacterial infection.

Role of mannose-binding lectin in regulating monocytes/macrophages functions during Aeromonas hydrophila infection in grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella

Mannose-binding lectin (MBL) is a vital component in host's innate immune system and the initiator of the lectin pathway of complement cascade. However, its opsonic role has rarely been reported. In this study, we revealed the biological function of Ctenopharyngodon idella MBL (CiMBL) in regulating monocytes/macrophages (MO/MФ) in the grass carp (C. idella). Flow cytometry results indicated that recombinant CiMBL (rCiMBL) significantly enhanced the phagocytotic activity of MO/MФ. Recombinant CiMBL also enhanced bactericidal activity and respiratory burst capacity in Aeromonas hydrophila-infected MO/MФ, regulated A. hydrophila-induced polarization of MO/MФ including down- and up-regulated pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, respectively, suppressed the inducible nitric oxide synthase activity, and enhanced the arginase activity. In addition, rCiMBL suppressed the bacteria burden in tissues and blood in vivo and enhanced the survival rate of juvenile A. hydrophila-infected grass carp. We provide evidence that CiMBL was synthesized by MO/MФ, regulating the biological function of MO/MФ against A. hydrophila infection.

The interleukin-6 regulates the function of monocytes/macrophages (MO/MФ) via the interleukin-6 receptor β in ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis)

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is one of the most pleiotropic cytokines because of its wide range of effects on cells of the immune and non-immune systems in the body. However, the role of IL-6 in fish monocytes/macrophages (MO/MФ) is poorly understood. In this study, we cloned the cDNA sequence of the IL-6 gene from ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis) and demonstrated using a tissue distribution assay that ayu interleukin-6 (PaIL-6) mRNA is expressed in all tested tissues. Changes in expression were observed in immune tissues as well as in MO/MФ after a Vibrio anguillarum infection; subsequently, PaIL-6 was expressed and purified to prepare anti-PaIL-6 antibodies. Recombinant PaIL-6 protein (rPaIL-6) treatment enhanced pro-inflammatory cytokine expression. Ayu interleukin-6 receptor β (PaIL-6Rβ) knockdown resulted in decreased pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in MO/MФ treated with rPaIL-6, whereas no significant changes were observed after ayu interleukin-6 receptor α (PaIL-6Rα) knockdown in MO/MФ. PaIL-6 and PaIL-6Rβ knockdown in MO/MФ inhibited the phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 1. Moreover, PaIL-6Rβ knockdown inhibited the phagocytic and bactericidal ability of ayu MO/MФ treated with rPaIL-6. These data indicate that PaIL-6 may be able to regulate the function of ayu MO/MФ.

Molecular cloning, characterization and expression analysis of MHCI and chemokines CXCR3 and CXCR4 gene from freshwater carp, Catla catla

The immune system with large number of molecules protects the host against a plethora of continuously evolving microbes. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules serve as cardinal elements of the adaptive immune system responsible for the activation of the adaptive immunity in the host. The present study reports MHCI molecule in freshwater carp, Catla catla, and its differential expression in immunologically relevant tissues post-infection with Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. The MHCI sequence of C. catla had 502 bp nucleotides encoding putative 146 amino acids. The phylogenetic analysis exhibited its evolutionary conservation within the Cyprinidae family and formed a different clade with the higher vertebrates. Simultaneously, CXCR3 and CXCR4 chemokines were cloned and characterized for their expression in infected tissues. Analysis of immunologically relevant tissues of the infected fish exhibited an increase of MHCI gene expression and the down-regulation of CXCR3 and CXCR4 chemokines, indicating a tricky interaction between the innate and adaptive immune system. It was found that intestine, skin and spleen played a crucial role in the contribution of the defense activity which instigated the self-immunity. These immune activities can provide useful information to understand the interaction of self and non-self- immune system in freshwater fish, Catla catla.

Molecular cloning and preliminary functional analysis of six RING-between-ring (RBR) genes in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus)

Ubiquitination is a post-translational modification of proteins that is widely present in eukaryotic cells. There is increasing evidence that ubiquitinated proteins play crucial roles in the immune response process. In mammals, RING-between-RING (RBR) proteins play a key role in regulating immune signaling as the important E3 ubiquitin ligases during ubiquitination. However, the function of RBR in fish is still unclear. In the present study, six RBR genes (RNF19A, RNF19B, RNF144AA, RNF144AB, RNF144B and RNF217) of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) were cloned and characterized. Similar to mammals, all six members of RBR family contained RING, in-between-ring (IBR) and transmembrane (TM) domains. These genes were constitutively expressed in all studied tissues, but the relative expression level differed. Following grass carp reovirus(GCRV) infection, the expression of six RBR genes in liver, gill, spleen and intestine significantly altered. Additionally, their expression in Ctenopharyngodon idellus kidney (CIK) cells was significantly increased after GCRV infection. And deficiency of RNF144B in CIK with small interference RNA (siRNA) up-regulated polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid poly(I:C))-induced inflammatory cytokines production, including IFN-I, TNF-α, IL-6, and transcription factor IRF3, which demonstrated that RNF144B was a negative regulator of inflammatory cytokines. Our results suggested that the RBR might play a vital role in regulating immune signaling and laid the foundation for the further mechanism research of RBR in fishes.

Specific function and modulation of teleost monocytes/macrophages: polarization and phagocytosis

Macrophages exist in most tissues and play a variety of functions in vertebrates. Teleost fish species are found in most aquatic environments throughout the world and are quite diverse for a group of vertebrate animals. Due to whole genome duplication and environmental adaptation, teleost monocytes/macrophages possess a variety of different functions and modulations compared with those of mammals. A deeper understanding of teleost monocytes/macrophages in the immune system will not only help develop teleost-specific methods of disease prevention but will also help improve our understanding of the various immune mechanisms in mammals. In this review, we summarize the differences in polarization and phagocytosis of teleost and mammalian macrophages to improve our understanding of the various immune mechanisms in vertebrates.

MicroRNA-155 promotes pro-inflammatory functions and augments apoptosis of monocytes/macrophages during Vibrio anguillarum infection in ayu, Plecoglossus altivelis

Upon recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns by pattern-recognition receptors, immune cells are recruited, and multiple antibacterial/viral signaling pathways are activated, leading to the production of immune-related cytokines, chemokines, and interferons along with further activation of the adaptive immune response. MicroRNAs (miRs) play essential roles in regulating such immune signaling pathways, as well as the biological activities of immune cells; however, knowledge regarding the roles of miRs in the immune-related function of monocytes/macrophages (MO/MΦ) remains limited in teleosts. In the present study, we addressed the effects of miR-155 on Vibrio anguillarum-infected MO/MΦ. Our results showed that miR-155 augmented MO/MΦ expression of proinflammatory cytokines and attenuated the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Additionally, the phagocytosis and bacteria-killing abilities of these cells were boosted by miR-155 administration, which also promoted M1-type polarization but inhibited M2-type polarization. Furthermore, the V. anguillarum-infection-induced apoptosis was also enhanced by miR-155 mimic transfection, which might have been due to excessive inflammation or the accumulation of reactive oxygen species. These results represent the first report providing a detailed account of the regulatory roles of miR-155 on MO/MΦ functions in teleosts and offer insight into the evolutionary history of miR-155-mediated regulation of host immune responses.

Gαi2 Signaling Regulates Inflammasome Priming and Cytokine Production by Biasing Macrophage Phenotype Determination

Macrophages exist as innate immune subsets that exhibit phenotypic heterogeneity and functional plasticity. Their phenotypes are dictated by inputs from the tissue microenvironment. G-protein-coupled receptors are essential in transducing signals from the microenvironment, and heterotrimeric Gα signaling links these receptors to downstream effectors. Several Gα_i-coupled G-protein-coupled receptors have been implicated in macrophage polarization. In this study, we use genetically modified mice to investigate the role of Gα_i2 on inflammasome activity and macrophage polarization. We report that Gα_i2 in murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) regulates IL-1β release after activation of the NLRP3, AIM2, and NLRC4 inflammasomes. We show this regulation stems from the biased polarity of Gα_i2 deficient (Gnai2 ^-/-) and RGS-insensitive Gα_i2 (Gnai2 ^G184S/G184S) BMDMs. We determined that although Gnai2 ^G184S/G184S BMDMs (excess Gα_i2 signaling) have a tendency toward classically activated proinflammatory (M1) phenotype, Gnai2^-/- BMDMs (Gα_i2 deficient) are biased toward alternatively activated anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotype. Finally, we find that Gα_i2-deficient macrophages have increased Akt activation and IFN-β production but defects in ERK1/2 and STAT3 activation after LPS stimulation. Gα_i2-deficient macrophages also exhibit increased STAT6 activation after IL-4 stimulation. In summary, our data indicates that excess Gα_i2 signaling promotes an M1 macrophage phenotype, whereas Gα_i2 signaling deficiency promotes an M2 phenotype. Understanding Gα_i2-mediated effects on macrophage polarization may bring to light insights regarding disease pathogenesis and the reprogramming of macrophages for the development of novel therapeutics.

Molecular characterization and expression analysis of Asian swamp eel (Monopterus albus) CXC chemokine receptor (CXCR) 1a, CXCR1b, CXCR2, CXCR3a, CXCR3b, and CXCR4 after bacteria and poly I:C challenge

The CXC chemokine receptors (CXCRs) play critical roles in innate and adaptive immune systems. In this study, six Asian swamp eel (Monopterus albus) CXCRs (MaCXCR1-4) were identified and their molecular characterization and expression patterns were analyzed. The open reading frames (ORFs) of MaCXCR1a, MaCXCR1b, MaCXCR2, MaCXCR3a, MaCXCR3b, and MaCXCR4 were 1074 bp (base pairs), 1080 bp, 1125 bp, 1146 bp, 1083 bp, and 1140 bp, and encoded proteins of 357 aa (amino acids), 359 aa, 374 aa, 381 aa, 360 aa, and 379 aa, respectively. All these CXCRs have seven conserved transmembrane domains and four cysteines (with the exception of MaCXCR3b). Multiple sequence alignment revealed that the MaCXCRs possess a typical G-protein receptor family 1 signature and a DRY motif. There are also one to four potential N-glycosylation sites in the extracellular regions of the MaCXCRs, mainly distributed in the N-terminus and extracellular hydrophilic loop (ECL) 2 region. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that the MaCXCRs were clustered together with homologous proteins from other fish. Taken together with the amino acid identity and similarity analysis, these results suggested that the MaCXCRs are conserved with other homologous genes, in which CXCR4 is more conserved than CXCR1-3. The MaCXCRs loci showed conserved synteny among teleost fish, and we found that human CXCR1 shares a common ancestor with fish CXCR1a. MaCXCRs were constitutively expressed in a wide range of tissues (especially in immune-related tissues) with different expression levels, suggesting that the MaCXCRs have different roles in un-stimulated tissues, and may play vital roles under normal conditions. MaCXCRs showed different fold changes in the spleen after Aeromonas veronii and polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly I:C) challenge, which suggested that MaCXCR1a and MaCXCR3a have longer antiviral activities compared with their antibacterial functions, and that MaCXCR1b possesses stronger antiviral than antibacterial activity. MaCXCR4 may play vital roles during bacterial and viral infection; however, MaCXCR2 has relatively small effect in antibacterial and antiviral responses. The differential responses of these genes to bacteria and poly I:C implied the differences in the mechanisms of defense against viruses and bacteria.

Transcriptome Analysis Provides Insights into the Markers of Resting and LPS-Activated Macrophages in Grass Carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)

Macrophages are very versatile immune cells, with the characteristics of a proinflammatory phenotype in response to pathogen-associated molecular patterns. However, the specific activation marker genes of macrophages have not been systematically investigated in teleosts. In this work, leukocytes (WBC) were isolated using the Percoll gradient method. Macrophages were enriched by the adherent culture of WBC, then stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Macrophages were identified by morphological features, functional activity and authorized cytokine expression. Subsequently, we collected samples, constructed and sequenced transcriptomic libraries including WBC, resting macrophage (Mø) and activated macrophage (M(LPS)) groups. We gained a total of 20.36 Gb of clean data including 149.24 million reads with an average length of 146 bp. Transcriptome analysis showed 708 differential genes between WBC and Mø, 83 differentially expressed genes between Mø and M(LPS). Combined with RT-qPCR, we proposed that four novel cell surface marker genes (CD22-like, CD63, CD48 and CD276) and two chemokines (CXCL-like and CCL39.3) would be emerging potential marker genes of macrophage in grass carp. Furthermore, CD69, CD180, CD27, XCL32a.2 and CXCL8a genes can be used as marker genes to confirm whether macrophages are activated. Transcriptome profiling reveals novel molecules associated with macrophages in C. Idella, which may represent a potential target for macrophages activation.

Full-length and a smaller globular fragment of adiponectin have opposite roles in regulating monocyte/macrophage functions in ayu, Plecoglossus altivelis

Adiponectin (ADP), a regulator of the innate immune system, plays a role in the progression of inflammation and metabolic disorders in mammals. However, the role of ADP in fish is poorly understood. Here, we cloned the cDNA sequence of a ADP homolog (PaADP) gene from ayu. Multiple sequence alignment revealed that PaADP presented typical characteristics of ADPs. Phylogenetic tree analysis showed that PaADP was most closely related to that of rainbow trout. In healthy ayu, the transcripts of PaADP were detected in most of the tested tissues and cells, with the highest level in the adipose tissue. Upon V. anguillarum infection, the mRNA expression of PaADP was significantly up-regulated in the tissues and cells except adipose tissue. Subsequently, the full-length mature PaADP (fPaADP) and the globular domain fragment (gPaADP) were prokaryotically expressed in bacteria and purified, and anti-PaADP antibodies were produced. Western blot analysis revealed that three fragments including fPaADP and gPaADP were existed in ayu serum. The recombinant fPaADP (rfPaADP) had an anti-inflammatory effect on ayu MO/MФ by upregulating anti-inflammatory cytokine expressions, downregulating pro-inflammatory cytokine expressions, inhibiting the phagocytosis and subsequent bacterial killing. In contrast, the recombinant gPaADP (rgPaADP) presented a pro-inflammatory effect on ayu MO/MФ by upregulating pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, downregulating anti-inflammatory cytokine expressions, enhancing the phagocytosis and subsequent bacterial killing. These results suggested that fPaADP and gPaADP have opposite roles in the regulation of MO/MФ functions in ayu.

Molecular characterization of a tissue factor gene from ayu: A pro-inflammatory mediator via regulating monocytes/macrophages

Tissue factor (TF) plays an important role in the host's immune system as the principal initiator of coagulation. However, the precise function of TF in teleosts remains unclear. We determined the cDNA sequence of TF from ayu Plecoglossus altivelis (PaTF). The PaTF transcript was expressed in all tested tissues, and changes in expression were observed in tissues and monocytes/macrophages (MO/MФ) upon infection with Vibrio anguillarum. PaTF was prokaryotically expressed and purified to prepare anti-PaTF antibodies. Western blot analysis revealed that native PaTF was glycosylated in thrombocytes, but not in ayu MO/MФ. Microparticles could transfer PaTF to thrombocytes. PaTF neutralization or knockdown led to anti-inflammatory status in ayu MO/MФ upon V. anguillarum infection. PaTF neutralization reduced the apoptosis of ayu MO/MФ and improve survival rate in V. anguillarum-infected ayu. Our results indicate that PaTF plays a role in ayu immune response against bacterial infection as a pro-inflammatory mediator.

Canine macrophages can like human macrophages be in vitro activated toward the M2a subtype relevant in allergy

The M2a subtype of macrophages plays an important role in human immunoglobulin E (IgE-mediated allergies) and other Th2 type immune reactions. In contrast, very little is known about these cells in the dog. Here we describe an in vitro method to activate canine histiocytic DH82 cells and primary canine monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) toward the M2a macrophages using human cytokines. For a side-by-side comparison, we compared the canine cells to human MDMs, and the human monocytic cell line U937 activated towards M1 and M2a cells on the cellular and molecular level. In analogy to activated human M2a cells, canine M2a, differentiated from both DH82 and MDMs, showed an increase in CD206 surface receptor expression compared to M1. Interestingly, canine M2a, but not M1 derived from MDM, upregulated the high-affinity IgE receptor (FcεRI). Transcription levels of M2a-associated genes (IL10, CCL22, TGFβ, CD163) showed a diverse pattern between the human and dog species, whereas M1 genes (IDO1, CXCL11, IL6, TNF-α) were similarly upregulated in canine and human M1 cells (cell lines and MDMs). We suggest that our novel in vitro method will be suitable in comparative allergology studies focussing on macrophages.

Role of a macrophage receptor with collagenous structure (MARCO) in regulating monocyte/macrophage functions in ayu, Plecoglossus altivelis

Macrophage receptor with collagenous structure (MARCO) plays essential roles in phagocytic cell-mediated innate immune responses. However, studies regarding MARCO, especially its functions, are limited in teleost species. In this study, we identified a MARCO molecule (PaMARCO) from ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis). PaMARCO shared conserved functional domains with its mammalian counterparts. Sequence analysis showed that PaMARCO was most closely related to its rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) counterpart. PaMARCO expression was upregulated in all tested immune tissues and monocytes/macrophages (MO/MΦ) upon Vibrio anguillarum infection, and blocking its function significantly decreased the immune responses of MO/MΦ during infection. PaMARCO could bind to the tested gram-positive and -negative bacteria in a Ca²⁺-dependent manner in vitro. Furthermore, the phagocytosis and bacterial killing activities of MO/MΦ were significantly decreased upon PaMARCO blockade using anti-PaMARCO IgG. PaMARCO was also involved in the polarization processes of ayu MO/MΦ. The upregulated expression of representative cytokines in LPS-induced M1 type (TNF-α, IL-1β) or cAMP-induced M2 type (TGF-β, IL-10) were inhibited in the anti-PaMARCO IgG-treated group, indicating that PaMARCO may be involved in the regulation of both inflammation priming and inflammation resolution of MO/MΦ. In conclusion, our results implicate that PaMARCO has essential regulatory roles for bacterial binding, clearance, and the polarization processes of ayu MO/MΦ.

Molecular characterization of a CC motif chemokine 19-like gene in ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis) and its role in leukocyte trafficking

The CC motif chemokine 19 (CCL19) functions in acute inflammation by recruiting lymphocytes and other cells. However, CCL19 has only been investigated in few fish species. In this study, we characterized a CCL19-like molecule (PaCCL19l) in ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis), a teleost fish. Sequence analysis revealed that PaCCL19l was most closely related to Atlantic salmon (Salmon salar) CCL19l1, which belonged to the fish CCL19a.1 subcluster. PaCCL19l was constitutively expressed in the tested ayu tissues and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), with the highest transcript level in PBMCs. Upon infection with Vibrio anguillarum, the expressions of PaCCL19l in the head kidney, liver, spleen, PBMCs, and monocytes/macrophages (MO/MΦ) were dramatically up-regulated. Recombinant PaCCL19l (rPaCCL19l) exhibited a significant effect on the chemotaxis of lymphocytes and MO/MΦ in vitro and in vivo. Meanwhile, rPaCCL19l exerted a high chemotaxic activity for lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated MO/MΦ (M1-type), but not for cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-stimulated MO/MΦ (M2-type). When ayu MO/MΦ was treated with rPaCCL19l along with Vibrio anguillarum infection, the mRNA expression of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNFα, IL-6, IL-12b, and IFN-γ) was up-regulated, while that of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10, TGFβ, and IL-22) was down-regulated. Ayu MO/MΦ treated with anti-PaCCL19l IgG gave the opposite result. These results implicated that PaCCL19l is involved in the selective chemotaxis of ayu immune cells and promotes the host at a pro-inflammatory state.