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Hashemzadeh MS, Tapeh BE, Mirhosseini SA. The Role of Bacterial Superantigens in the Immune Response: From Biology to Cancer Treatment. CURRENT CANCER THERAPY REVIEWS 2021. [DOI: 10.2174/1573394716666200812150402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Aims:
Encouraging results have been indicated preclinically and in patients using the
bacterial superantigen. This review article intends to summarize the role of the superantigens that
have been recently used in the treatment of cancer. In addition, the vector systems, including lentiviral
vectors, adeno-associated vector systems and retroviral vectors that are increasingly being
used in basic and applied research, were discussed. Most importantly, the new CRISPR technique
has also been discussed in this literature review.
Discussion:
More successful therapies can be achieved by manipulating bacterial vector systems
through incorporating genes related to the superantigens and cytokines. The products of SAg and
cytokine genes contribute to the strong stimulation of the immune system against tumor cells. They
bind to MHC II molecules as well as the V beta regions of TCR and lead to the production of IL2
and other cytokines, the activation of antigen-presenting cells and T lymphocytes. Additionally, superantigens
can be used to eradicate tumor cells. Better results in cancer treatment can be achieved
by transferring superantigen genes and subsequent strong immune stimulation along with other cancer
immunotherapy agents.
Conclusion:
Superantigens induce the proliferation of T lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells
by binding to MHCII molecules and V beta regions in T cell receptors. Therefore, the presentation
of tumor cell antigens is increased. Additionally, the production of important cytokines by T cells
and APCs contributes to the stimulation of immune response against tumor cells. The manipulation
of bacterial vector systems through incorporating genesrelated to SAgs and other immune response
factors is a good strategy for the immune system stimulating and eradicating tumor cells along with
other immunotherapy agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad S. Hashemzadeh
- Nanobiotechnology Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Behnam E.G. Tapeh
- Applied Microbiology Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed A. Mirhosseini
- Applied Microbiology Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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T cell Receptor Vβ9 in Method for Rapidly Quantifying Active Staphylococcal Enterotoxin Type-A without Live Animals. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11070399. [PMID: 31295829 PMCID: PMC6669470 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11070399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Revised: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcal food poisoning is a result of ingestion of Staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs) produced by Staphylococcus aureus. Staphylococcal enterotoxin type A (SEA) is the predominant toxin produced by S. aureus strains isolated from food-poisoning outbreak cases. For public safety, assays to detect and quantify SEA ideally respond only to the active form of the toxin and this usually means employing disfavored live animal testing which suffers also from poor reproducibility and sensitivity. We developed a cell-based assay for SEA quantification in which biologically-active SEA is presented by Raji B-cells to CCRF-CEM T-cells resulting in internalization of Vβ9 within 2 hours with dose dependency over a 6-log range of SEA concentrations. This bioassay can discern biologically active SEA from heat-inactivated SEA and is specific to SEA with no cross reactivity to the homologically-similar SED or SEE. In this study, we terminated any ongoing biochemical reactions in accessory cells while retaining the morphology of the antigenic sites by using paraformaldehyde fixation and challenged the current model for mechanism of action of the SEA superantigen. We demonstrated for the first time that although fixed, dead accessory cells, having no metabolic functions to process the SEA superantigen into short peptide fragments for display on their cell surface, can instead present intact SEA to induce T-cell activation which leads to cytokine production. However, the level of cytokine secretion induced by intact SEA was statistically significantly lower than with viable accessory cells, which have the ability to internalize and process the SEA superantigen.
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Popugailo A, Rotfogel Z, Supper E, Hillman D, Kaempfer R. Staphylococcal and Streptococcal Superantigens Trigger B7/CD28 Costimulatory Receptor Engagement to Hyperinduce Inflammatory Cytokines. Front Immunol 2019; 10:942. [PMID: 31114583 PMCID: PMC6503043 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcal and streptococcal superantigens are virulence factors that cause toxic shock by hyperinducing inflammatory cytokines. Effective T-cell activation requires interaction between the principal costimulatory receptor CD28 and its two coligands, B7-1 (CD80) and B7-2 (CD86). To elicit an inflammatory cytokine storm, bacterial superantigens must bind directly into the homodimer interfaces of CD28 and B7-2. Recent evidence revealed that by engaging CD28 and B7-2 directly at their dimer interface, staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) potently enhances intercellular synapse formation mediated by B7-2 and CD28, resulting in T-cell hyperactivation. Here, we addressed the question, whether diverse bacterial superantigens share the property of triggering B7-2/CD28 receptor engagement and if so, whether they are capable of enhancing also the interaction between B7-1 and CD28, which occurs with an order-of-magnitude higher affinity. To this end, we compared the ability of distinct staphylococcal and streptococcal superantigens to enhance intercellular B7-2/CD28 engagement. Each of these diverse superantigens promoted B7-2/CD28 engagement to a comparable extent. Moreover, they were capable of triggering the intercellular B7-1/CD28 interaction, analyzed by flow cytometry of co-cultured cell populations transfected separately to express human CD28 or B7-1. Streptococcal mitogenic exotoxin Z (SMEZ), the most potent superantigen known, was as sensitive as SEB, SEA and toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 (TSST-1) to inhibition of inflammatory cytokine induction by CD28 and B7-2 dimer interface mimetic peptides. Thus, superantigens act not only by mediating unconventional interaction between MHC-II molecule and T-cell receptor but especially, by strongly promoting engagement of CD28 by its B7-2 and B7-1 coligands, a critical immune checkpoint, forcing the principal costimulatory axis to signal excessively. Our results show that the diverse superantigens use a common mechanism to subvert the inflammatory response, strongly enhancing B7-1/CD28 and B7-2/CD28 costimulatory receptor engagement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey Popugailo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute of Medical Research Israel-Canada, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ziv Rotfogel
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute of Medical Research Israel-Canada, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Emmanuelle Supper
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute of Medical Research Israel-Canada, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Dalia Hillman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute of Medical Research Israel-Canada, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Raymond Kaempfer
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute of Medical Research Israel-Canada, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
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Abstract
ABSTRACT
Streptococcus pyogenes
(i.e., the group A
Streptococcus
) is a human-restricted and versatile bacterial pathogen that produces an impressive arsenal of both surface-expressed and secreted virulence factors. Although surface-expressed virulence factors are clearly vital for colonization, establishing infection, and the development of disease, the secreted virulence factors are likely the major mediators of tissue damage and toxicity seen during active infection. The collective exotoxin arsenal of
S. pyogenes
is rivaled by few bacterial pathogens and includes extracellular enzymes, membrane active proteins, and a variety of toxins that specifically target both the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system, including the superantigens; however, despite their role in
S. pyogenes
disease, each of these virulence factors has likely evolved with humans in the context of asymptomatic colonization and transmission. In this article, we focus on the biology of the true secreted exotoxins of the group A
Streptococcus
, as well as their roles in the pathogenesis of human disease.
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Shaler CR, Choi J, Rudak PT, Memarnejadian A, Szabo PA, Tun-Abraham ME, Rossjohn J, Corbett AJ, McCluskey J, McCormick JK, Lantz O, Hernandez-Alejandro R, Haeryfar SM. MAIT cells launch a rapid, robust and distinct hyperinflammatory response to bacterial superantigens and quickly acquire an anergic phenotype that impedes their cognate antimicrobial function: Defining a novel mechanism of superantigen-induced immunopathology and immunosuppression. PLoS Biol 2017. [PMID: 28632753 PMCID: PMC5478099 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2001930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Superantigens (SAgs) are potent exotoxins secreted by Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes. They target a large fraction of T cell pools to set in motion a "cytokine storm" with severe and sometimes life-threatening consequences typically encountered in toxic shock syndrome (TSS). Given the rapidity with which TSS develops, designing timely and truly targeted therapies for this syndrome requires identification of key mediators of the cytokine storm's initial wave. Equally important, early host responses to SAgs can be accompanied or followed by a state of immunosuppression, which in turn jeopardizes the host's ability to combat and clear infections. Unlike in mouse models, the mechanisms underlying SAg-associated immunosuppression in humans are ill-defined. In this work, we have identified a population of innate-like T cells, called mucosa-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells, as the most powerful source of pro-inflammatory cytokines after exposure to SAgs. We have utilized primary human peripheral blood and hepatic mononuclear cells, mouse MAIT hybridoma lines, HLA-DR4-transgenic mice, MAIThighHLA-DR4+ bone marrow chimeras, and humanized NOD-scid IL-2Rγnull mice to demonstrate for the first time that: i) mouse and human MAIT cells are hyperresponsive to SAgs, typified by staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB); ii) the human MAIT cell response to SEB is rapid and far greater in magnitude than that launched by unfractionated conventional T, invariant natural killer T (iNKT) or γδ T cells, and is characterized by production of interferon (IFN)-γ, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-2, but not IL-17A; iii) high-affinity MHC class II interaction with SAgs, but not MHC-related protein 1 (MR1) participation, is required for MAIT cell activation; iv) MAIT cell responses to SEB can occur in a T cell receptor (TCR) Vβ-specific manner but are largely contributed by IL-12 and IL-18; v) as MAIT cells are primed by SAgs, they also begin to develop a molecular signature consistent with exhaustion and failure to participate in antimicrobial defense. Accordingly, they upregulate lymphocyte-activation gene 3 (LAG-3), T cell immunoglobulin and mucin-3 (TIM-3), and/or programmed cell death-1 (PD-1), and acquire an anergic phenotype that interferes with their cognate function against Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli; vi) MAIT cell hyperactivation and anergy co-utilize a signaling pathway that is governed by p38 and MEK1/2. Collectively, our findings demonstrate a pathogenic, rather than protective, role for MAIT cells during infection. Furthermore, we propose a novel mechanism of SAg-associated immunosuppression in humans. MAIT cells may therefore provide an attractive therapeutic target for the management of both early and late phases of severe SAg-mediated illnesses.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, Bacterial/metabolism
- Antigens, Bacterial/toxicity
- Bone Marrow Cells/cytology
- Bone Marrow Cells/drug effects
- Bone Marrow Cells/immunology
- Bone Marrow Cells/metabolism
- Cell Line
- Cells, Cultured
- Clonal Anergy/drug effects
- Crosses, Genetic
- Enterotoxins/metabolism
- Enterotoxins/toxicity
- Female
- Humans
- Hybridomas
- Immunity, Innate
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/cytology
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/drug effects
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/immunology
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/metabolism
- Lymphocyte Activation/drug effects
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred NOD
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, SCID
- Mice, Transgenic
- Models, Immunological
- Mucosal-Associated Invariant T Cells/cytology
- Mucosal-Associated Invariant T Cells/drug effects
- Mucosal-Associated Invariant T Cells/immunology
- Mucosal-Associated Invariant T Cells/metabolism
- Specific Pathogen-Free Organisms
- Staphylococcus aureus/immunology
- Staphylococcus aureus/metabolism
- Streptococcus pyogenes/immunology
- Streptococcus pyogenes/metabolism
- Superantigens/metabolism
- Superantigens/toxicity
- Transplantation Chimera/blood
- Transplantation Chimera/immunology
- Transplantation Chimera/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher R. Shaler
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Joshua Choi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Patrick T. Rudak
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Arash Memarnejadian
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Peter A. Szabo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mauro E. Tun-Abraham
- Division of General Surgery, Department of Surgery, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jamie Rossjohn
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- Institute of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Alexandra J. Corbett
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - James McCluskey
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - John K. McCormick
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
- Centre for Human Immunology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
- Lawson Health Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Olivier Lantz
- Laboratoire d'Immunologie and INSERM U932, Institut Curie, Paris, France
| | - Roberto Hernandez-Alejandro
- Division of General Surgery, Department of Surgery, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
- Division of Transplantation, Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, United States of America
| | - S.M. Mansour Haeryfar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
- Centre for Human Immunology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
- Lawson Health Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
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Afshar B, Turner CE, Lamagni TL, Smith KC, Al-Shahib A, Underwood A, Holden MTG, Efstratiou A, Sriskandan S. Enhanced nasopharyngeal infection and shedding associated with an epidemic lineage of emm3 group A Streptococcus. Virulence 2017; 8:1390-1400. [PMID: 28459299 PMCID: PMC5711448 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2017.1325070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: A group A Streptococcus (GAS) lineage of genotype emm3, sequence type 15 (ST15) was associated with a 6 month upsurge in invasive GAS disease in the UK. The epidemic lineage (Lineage C) had lost 2 typical emm3 prophages, Φ315.1 and Φ315.2 associated with the superantigen ssa, but gained a different prophage (ΦUK-M3.1) associated with a different superantigen, speC and a DNAse spd1. Methods and Results: The presence of speC and spd1 in Lineage C ST15 strains enhanced both in vitro mitogenic and DNase activities over non-Lineage C ST15 strains. Invasive disease models in Galleria mellonella and SPEC-sensitive transgenic mice, revealed no difference in overall invasiveness of Lineage C ST15 strains compared with non-Lineage C ST15 strains, consistent with clinical and epidemiological analysis. Lineage C strains did however markedly prolong murine nasal infection with enhanced nasal and airborne shedding compared with non-Lineage C strains. Deletion of speC or spd1 in 2 Lineage C strains identified a possible role for spd1 in airborne shedding from the murine nasopharynx. Conclusions: Nasopharyngeal infection and shedding of Lineage C strains was enhanced compared with non-Lineage C strains and this was, in part, mediated by the gain of the DNase spd1 through prophage acquisition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baharak Afshar
- a Department of Medicine , Imperial College London , London , U.K.,b National Infection Service, Public Health England , London , U.K
| | - Claire E Turner
- a Department of Medicine , Imperial College London , London , U.K
| | | | - Ken C Smith
- c Pathology and Pathogen Biology , Royal Veterinary College, University of London , Hertfordshire , U.K
| | - Ali Al-Shahib
- b National Infection Service, Public Health England , London , U.K
| | | | - Matthew T G Holden
- d Pathogen Genomics , The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus , Hinxton , Cambridge , U.K.,e School of Medicine , University of St Andrews , St. Andrews , U.K
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7
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Patterson KG, Dixon Pittaro JL, Bastedo PS, Hess DA, Haeryfar SMM, McCormick JK. Control of established colon cancer xenografts using a novel humanized single chain antibody-streptococcal superantigen fusion protein targeting the 5T4 oncofetal antigen. PLoS One 2014; 9:e95200. [PMID: 24736661 PMCID: PMC3988171 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0095200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2014] [Accepted: 03/25/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Superantigens (SAgs) are microbial toxins that cross-link T cell receptors with major histocompatibility class II (MHC-II) molecules leading to the activation of large numbers of T cells. Herein, we describe the development and preclinical testing of a novel tumor-targeted SAg (TTS) therapeutic built using the streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin C (SpeC) SAg and targeting cancer cells expressing the 5T4 tumor-associated antigen (TAA). To inhibit potentially harmful widespread immune cell activation, a SpeC mutation within the high-affinity MHC-II binding interface was generated (SpeCD203A) that demonstrated a pronounced reduction in mitogenic activity, yet this mutant could still induce immune cell-mediated cancer cell death in vitro. To target 5T4+ cancer cells, we engineered a humanized single chain variable fragment (scFv) antibody to recognize 5T4 (scFv5T4). Specific targeting of scFv5T4 was verified. SpeCD203A fused to scFv5T4 maintained the ability to activate and induce immune cell-mediated cytotoxicity of colorectal cancer cells. Using a xenograft model of established human colon cancer, we demonstrated that the SpeC-based TTS was able to control the growth and spread of large tumors in vivo. This required both TAA targeting by scFv5T4 and functional SAg activity. These studies lay the foundation for the development of streptococcal SAgs as ‘next-generation’ TTSs for cancer immunotherapy.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Monoclonal, Humanized/genetics
- Antibodies, Monoclonal, Humanized/immunology
- Antigens, Neoplasm/immunology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Proliferation
- Cell Transformation, Neoplastic
- Colonic Neoplasms/immunology
- Colonic Neoplasms/pathology
- Colonic Neoplasms/therapy
- Humans
- Immunotherapy/methods
- Mice
- Models, Molecular
- Protein Conformation
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/chemistry
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/metabolism
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/genetics
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/immunology
- Single-Chain Antibodies/genetics
- Single-Chain Antibodies/immunology
- Streptococcus/immunology
- Superantigens/genetics
- Superantigens/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes/cytology
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelcey G. Patterson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Peter S. Bastedo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - David A. Hess
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London Ontario, Canada
- Vascular Biology Research Group, Robarts Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - S. M. Mansour Haeryfar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
- Centre for Human Immunology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
- Lawson Health Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - John K. McCormick
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
- Centre for Human Immunology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
- Lawson Health Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
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8
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Walker MJ, Barnett TC, McArthur JD, Cole JN, Gillen CM, Henningham A, Sriprakash KS, Sanderson-Smith ML, Nizet V. Disease manifestations and pathogenic mechanisms of Group A Streptococcus. Clin Microbiol Rev 2014; 27:264-301. [PMID: 24696436 PMCID: PMC3993104 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00101-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 556] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pyogenes, also known as group A Streptococcus (GAS), causes mild human infections such as pharyngitis and impetigo and serious infections such as necrotizing fasciitis and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Furthermore, repeated GAS infections may trigger autoimmune diseases, including acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis, acute rheumatic fever, and rheumatic heart disease. Combined, these diseases account for over half a million deaths per year globally. Genomic and molecular analyses have now characterized a large number of GAS virulence determinants, many of which exhibit overlap and redundancy in the processes of adhesion and colonization, innate immune resistance, and the capacity to facilitate tissue barrier degradation and spread within the human host. This improved understanding of the contribution of individual virulence determinants to the disease process has led to the formulation of models of GAS disease progression, which may lead to better treatment and intervention strategies. While GAS remains sensitive to all penicillins and cephalosporins, rising resistance to other antibiotics used in disease treatment is an increasing worldwide concern. Several GAS vaccine formulations that elicit protective immunity in animal models have shown promise in nonhuman primate and early-stage human trials. The development of a safe and efficacious commercial human vaccine for the prophylaxis of GAS disease remains a high priority.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J. Walker
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and the Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Timothy C. Barnett
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and the Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Jason D. McArthur
- School of Biological Sciences and Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Jason N. Cole
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and the Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Department of Pediatrics and Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Christine M. Gillen
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and the Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Anna Henningham
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and the Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Department of Pediatrics and Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - K. S. Sriprakash
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Martina L. Sanderson-Smith
- School of Biological Sciences and Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Victor Nizet
- Department of Pediatrics and Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Rady Children's Hospital, San Diego, California, USA
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9
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Xu SX, McCormick JK. Staphylococcal superantigens in colonization and disease. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2012; 2:52. [PMID: 22919643 PMCID: PMC3417409 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2012.00052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Accepted: 03/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Superantigens (SAgs) are a family of potent immunostimulatory exotoxins known to be produced by only a few bacterial pathogens, including Staphylococcus aureus. More than 20 distinct SAgs have been characterized from different S. aureus strains and at least 80% of clinical strains harbor at least one SAg gene, although most strains encode many. SAgs have been classically associated with food poisoning and toxic shock syndrome (TSS), for which these toxins are the causative agent. TSS is a potentially fatal disease whereby SAg-mediated activation of T cells results in overproduction of cytokines and results in systemic inflammation and shock. Numerous studies have also shown a possible role for SAgs in other diseases such as Kawasaki disease (KD), atopic dermatitis (AD), and chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS). There is also now a rich understanding of the mechanisms of action of SAgs, as well as their structures and function. However, we have yet to discover what purpose SAgs play in the life cycle of S. aureus, and why such a wide array of these toxins exists. This review will focus on recent developments within the SAg field in terms of the molecular biology of these toxins and their role in both colonization and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey X Xu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Centre for Human Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London ON, Canada
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10
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Hayworth JL, Mazzuca DM, Maleki Vareki S, Welch I, McCormick JK, Haeryfar SMM. CD1d-independent activation of mouse and human iNKT cells by bacterial superantigens. Immunol Cell Biol 2011; 90:699-709. [PMID: 22041925 DOI: 10.1038/icb.2011.90] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Invariant NKT (iNKT) cells are infrequent but important immunomodulatory lymphocytes that exhibit CD1d-restricted reactivity with glycolipid Ags. iNKT cells express a unique T-cell receptor (TCR) composed of an invariant α-chain, paired with a limited range of β-chains. Superantigens (SAgs) are microbial toxins defined by their ability to activate conventional T cells in a TCR β-chain variable domain (Vβ)-specific manner. However, whether iNKT cells are directly activated by bacterial SAgs remains an open question. Herein, we explored the responsiveness of mouse and human iNKT cells to a panel of staphylococcal and streptococcal SAgs and examined the contribution of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II and CD1d to these responses. Bacterial SAgs that target mouse Vβ8, such as staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB), were able to activate mouse hybridoma and primary hepatic iNKT cells in the presence of mouse APCs expressing human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DR4. iNKT cell-mediated cytokine secretion in SEB-challenged HLA-DR4-transgenic mice was CD1d-independent and accompanied by a high interferon-γ:interleukin-4 ratio consistent with an in vivo Th1 bias. Furthermore, iNKT cells from SEB-injected HLA-DR4-transgenic mice, and iNKT cells from SEB-treated human PBMCs, showed early activation by intracellular cytokine staining and CD69 expression. Unlike iNKT cell stimulation by α-galactosylceramide, stimulation by SEB did not induce TCR downregulation of either mouse or human iNKT cells. We conclude that Vβ8-targeting bacterial SAgs can activate iNKT cells by utilizing a novel pathway that requires MHC class II interactions, but not CD1d. Therefore, iNKT cells fulfill important effector functions in response to bacterial SAgs and may provide attractive targets in the management of SAg-induced illnesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline L Hayworth
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
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Nur-ur Rahman AKM, Bonsor DA, Herfst CA, Pollard F, Peirce M, Wyatt AW, Kasper KJ, Madrenas J, Sundberg EJ, McCormick JK. The T cell receptor beta-chain second complementarity determining region loop (CDR2beta governs T cell activation and Vbeta specificity by bacterial superantigens. J Biol Chem 2010; 286:4871-81. [PMID: 21127057 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.189068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Superantigens (SAgs) are microbial toxins defined by their ability to activate T lymphocytes in a T cell receptor (TCR) β-chain variable domain (Vβ)-specific manner. Although existing structural information indicates that diverse bacterial SAgs all uniformly engage the Vβ second complementarity determining region (CDR2β) loop, the molecular rules that dictate SAg-mediated T cell activation and Vβ specificity are not fully understood. Herein we report the crystal structure of human Vβ2.1 (hVβ2.1) in complex with the toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 (TSST-1) SAg, and mutagenesis of hVβ2.1 indicates that the non-canonical length of CDR2β is a critical determinant for recognition by TSST-1 as well as the distantly related SAg streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin C. Frame work (FR) region 3 is uniquely critical for TSST-1 function explaining the fine Vβ-specificity exhibited by this SAg. Furthermore, domain swapping experiments with SAgs, which use distinct domains to engage both CDR2β and FR3/4β revealed that the CDR2β contacts dictate T lymphocyte Vβ-specificity. These findings demonstrate that the TCR CDR2β loop is the critical determinant for functional recognition and Vβ-specificity by diverse bacterial SAgs.
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Affiliation(s)
- A K M Nur-ur Rahman
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada
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Gupta G, Khan AA, Rao DN. Cell-Mediated Immune Response and Th1/Th2Cytokine Profile of B-T Constructs of F1 and V Antigen ofYersinia pestis. Scand J Immunol 2010; 71:186-98. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3083.2009.02365.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Haggar A, Flock JI, Norrby-Teglund A. Extracellular adherence protein (Eap) from Staphylococcus aureus does not function as a superantigen. Clin Microbiol Infect 2009; 16:1155-8. [PMID: 19769600 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.03058.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular adherence protein (Eap) from Staphylococcus aureus has been reported to have strong anti-inflammatory properties, which make Eap a potential anti-inflammatory agent. However, Eap has also been demonstrated to trigger T-cell activation and to share structural homology with superantigens. In this study, we focused on whether Eap fulfilled the definition criteria for a superantigen. We demonstrate that T-cell activation by Eap is dependent on both major histocompatibility complex class II and intercellular adhesion molecule type 1, that cellular processing is required for Eap to elicit T-cell proliferation, and that the kinetics of proliferation resemble the profile of a conventional antigen and not that of a superantigen.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Haggar
- Centre for Infectious Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Byrne JLB, Aagaard-Tillery KM, Johnson JL, Wright LJ, Silver RM. Group A streptococcal puerperal sepsis: initial characterization of virulence factors in association with clinical parameters. J Reprod Immunol 2009; 82:74-83. [PMID: 19682751 DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2009.06.126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2008] [Revised: 03/30/2009] [Accepted: 06/10/2009] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus (GAS) is an uncommon but potentially fatal source of postpartum infection. Pathogenesis in invasive GAS infections has been linked to bacterial virulence factors. In this study, we sought to provide an initial description of potential virulence factors in association with puerperal morbidity by virtue of specific M-protein type antigens. Women with confirmed GAS puerperal infection in the Salt Lake City region were prospectively identified over a 6-year interval (1991-1997). From this cohort, GAS isolates were analyzed with respect to M-serotype and presence of genes encoding the Streptococcal Pyogenic Exotoxins A and B (SPE-A and SPE-B). Bacterial isolates from 18 subjects with GAS puerperal infection underwent M-serotyping and PCR-based genotyping for the speA and speB genes. Among these, 8/18 subjects manifest criteria of severe disease. All 18 isolate strains expressed speB; 6/18 isolates expressed speA. Of the M-serotypes, 8/8 severe disease isolates expressed M-types 1 (N=3) or 28 (N=5). Pulse-field gel electrophoresis did not indicate an outbreak strain among similar isolates. We conclude that in this initial characterization, morbidity among women with GAS puerperal infection is associated with M-types 1 and 28, but not speB genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janice L B Byrne
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Utah Health Sciences Center, Salt Lake City, USA
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