Role of D-dimer in the Development of Portal Vein Thrombosis in Liver Cirrhosis: A Meta-analysis

Development and validation of an integrated model for the diagnosis of liver cirrhosis with portal vein thrombosis combined with endoscopic characters and blood biochemistry data: a retrospective propensity score matching (PSM) cohort study

BACKGROUND

Liver cirrhosis complicated by portal vein thrombosis (PVT) is a fatal complication with no specific manifestations but often misdiagnosed, it crucially increases the mortality worldwide. This study aimed to identify risk factors and establish a predictive model for diagnosis of venous thrombosis clinical by routine blood tests and endoscopic characteristics.

METHODS

Patients from Gansu Provincial Hospital from October 2019 to December 2023 were enrolled. The retrospective modelling cohort was screened by propensity score matching (PSM) at a 1:1 ratio from the baseline characteristics before endoscopic diagnosis. Variables were collected from blood test and endoscopic signs using machine learning method (ML). Logistic regression determined risk factors. The predictive performance was evaluated by receiver operation curve (ROC), calibration curve, clinical decision analysis (DCA) and influence curve (CIC). Furthermore, external cohort was used for validation, an online nomogram was established.

RESULTS

A total of 1,058 patients were enrolled, and 470 patients were included after PSM 1: 1. The model identified 7 factors, including splenectomy, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), serum sodium, activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), thrombin time (TT), D-dimer, and degree of oesophageal varices. The area under the curve (AUC) was 0.907 (95% CI, 0.877-0.931). The calibration curve, decision and clinical impact curves showed the model demonstrated a good predictive accuracy and clinical benefits. The validation got an AUC of 0.890 (95% CI, 0.831-0.934), A nomogram tool was finally established for application.

CONCLUSION

Blood test combined endoscopic characters could preliminarily predict the liver cirrhosis with portal vein thrombosis for cirrhotic patients undergoing endoscopic examination.

D-dimers in advanced liver cirrhosis: Useful biomarker or not?

In clinical practice, the d-dimer levels rule out venous thromboembolism and diagnose disseminated intravascular coagulation. d-dimers increase in both physiological and pathological conditions. Liver cirrhosis, especially in the final stages, is characterized by complex coagulation and fibrinolysis factor disorders. Multiple mechanisms tried to explain the increased d-dimer levels in patients with liver cirrhosis and ascites. The d-dimer cut-off level used to rule out venous thromboembolism in cirrhosis is higher than that used to confirm the diagnosis of VTE or DIC in noncirrhotic patients. The cut-off d-dimer level used for the prognosis of thrombotic events is not standardized in advanced liver cirrhosis. Thus, it is necessary to update the clinical guidelines regarding the usefulness of d-dimer testing in advanced liver cirrhosis and the cut-off d-dimer levels, which should vary based on the detection method.

Neutrophil extracellular traps formation may be involved in the association of propranolol with the development of portal vein thrombosis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Nonselective β blockers (NSBBs) facilitate the development of portal vein thrombosis (PVT) in liver cirrhosis. Considering the potential effect of NSBBs on neutrophils and neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), we speculated that NSBBs might promote the development of PVT by stimulating neutrophils to release NETs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Serum NETs biomarkers were measured, use of NSBBs was recorded, and PVT was evaluated in cirrhotic patients. Carbon tetrachloride and ferric chloride (FeCl3) were used to induce liver fibrosis and PVT in mice, respectively. After treatment with propranolol and DNase I, neutrophils in peripheral blood, colocalization and expression of NETs in PVT specimens, and NETs biomarkers in serum were measured. Ex vivo clots lysis analysis was performed and portal vein velocity and coagulation parameters were tested.

RESULTS

Serum MPO-DNA level was significantly higher in cirrhotic patients treated with NSBBs, and serum H3Cit and MPO-DNA levels were significantly higher in those with PVT. In fibrotic mice, following treatment with propranolol, DNase I significantly shortened the time of FeCl3-induced PVT formation, lowered the peripheral blood neutrophils labelled by CD11b/Ly6G, inhibited the positive staining of H3Cit and the expression of H3Cit and MPO proteins in PVT tissues, and reduced serum nucleosome level. Furthermore, the addition of DNase I to tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) significantly accelerated clots lysis as compared with tPA alone. Propranolol reduced portal vein velocity in fibrotic mice, but did not influence coagulation parameters.

CONCLUSION

Our study provides a clue to the potential impact of NETs formation on the association of NSBBs with the development of PVT.

Case report: Rapid development of acute symptomatic portal vein system thrombosis after endoscopic variceal therapy in a patient with liver cirrhosis

Acute portal vein thrombosis (PVST), a serious complication of liver cirrhosis, is characterized as abdominal pain secondary to intestinal ischemia, and even intestinal necrosis. Anticoagulation is recommended for the treatment of acute PVST, but is often postponed in cirrhotic patients with acute variceal bleeding or those at a high risk of variceal bleeding. Herein, we reported a 63-year-old male with a 14-year history of alcoholic liver cirrhosis who developed progressive abdominal pain related to acute portal vein and superior mesenteric vein thrombosis immediately after endoscopic variceal ligation combined with endoscopic cyanoacrylate glue injection for acute variceal bleeding. Fortunately, acute PVST was successfully recanalized by the use of low molecular weight heparin. Collectively, this case suggests that acute symptomatic PVST can be secondary to endoscopic variceal therapy in liver cirrhosis, and can be safely and successfully treated by anticoagulation.

Portal Vein Thrombosis in Patients with Liver Cirrhosis: What Went Wrong?

Purpose

This study aimed to explore inflammatory biomarkers, stool's functional bacterial groups and their possible link to portal vein thrombosis (PVT) in patients with liver cirrhosis (LC).

Materials and Methods

An observational study of 300 participants: 200 inhospital cirrhotic patients, who met inclusion criteria, equally assigned into two groups, based on the presence or absence of PVT and 100 healthy controls was carried out.

Results

The PVT group displayed significant differences related to older age, cigarettes smoking history, emergency admission, higher Child-Pugh score, metabolic related disorders and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, as well as non-obstructive aspects, with chronic thrombi. The PVT group exhibited significant differences related to biomarkers such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, C-reactive protein (CRP), D-dimers (D-D), as well as gut overall dysbiosis (DB) and alteration of different functional bacterial groups of the gut microbiota. Strong positive correlations were observed between PVT severity, and TNF-alpha, CRP, D-D as well as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) positive bacteria. Esophageal varices, age and abdominal pain were independent predictors for PVT severity as well as CRP, TNF-alpha and D-D.

Conclusion

Patients with LC and PVT displayed elevation of TNF-alpha, CRP, D-D alterations of the functional gut microbiota, as well as several morphological and clinical particularities. Although the LPS positive gut microbiota was linked to inflammatory biomarkers and PVT severity, it was not proven to be an independent predictor of the PVT severity like CRP, TNF-alpha and D-D.

Risk factors for hepatic hydrothorax in patients with cirrhosis: a clinical retrospective study

Aims and background

Hepatic hydrothorax, which presents as an unexplained pleural effusion, is one of the important complications in patients with end-stage cirrhosis. It has a significant correlation with prognosis and mortality. The aim of this clinical study was to detect the risk factors for hepatic hydrothorax in patients with cirrhosis and to better understand potentially life-threatening complications.

Methods

Retrospectively, 978 cirrhotic patients who were hospitalized at the Shandong Public Health Clinical Center from 2013 to 2021 were involved in this study. They were divided into the observation group and the control group based on the presence of hepatic hydrothorax. The epidemiological, clinical, laboratory, and radiological characteristics of the patients were collected and analyzed. ROC curves were used to evaluate the forecasting ability of the candidate model. Furthermore, 487 cases in the experimental group were divided into left, right, and bilateral groups, and the data were analyzed.

Results

The patients in the observation group had a higher proportion of upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB), a history of spleen surgery, and a higher model for end-stage liver disease (MELD) scores compared with the control group. The width of the portal vein (PVW) (P = 0.022), prothrombin activity (PTA) (P = 0.012), D-dimer (P = 0.010), immunoglobulin G (IgG) (P = 0.007), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) (P = 0.022), and the MELD score were significantly associated with the occurrence of the hepatic hydrothorax. The AUC of the candidate model was 0.805 (P < 0.001, 95% CI = 0.758-0.851). Portal vein thrombosis was more common in bilateral pleural effusion compared with the left and right sides (P = 0.018).

Conclusion

The occurrence of hepatic hydrothorax has a close relationship with lower HDL, PTA, and higher PVW, D-dimer, IgG, and MELD scores. Portal vein thrombosis is more common in cirrhotic patients with bilateral pleural effusion compared to those with unilateral pleural effusion.

Analysis of Complications and Risk Factors Other than Bleeding before and after Endoscopic Treatment of Esophagogastric Variceal Bleeding in Patients with Liver Cirrhosis

Objective. To identify any concomitant complications other than bleeding (COTB) before and after endoscopic treatment of esophagogastric variceal bleeding (EGVB) in liver cirrhosis patients and explore the underlying risk factors. Materials and Methods. Cirrhotic patients complicated with EGVB, who underwent interventional endoscopic treatments in our hospital from November 2017 to August 2020, were enrolled in this study. Clinical data were retrospectively analyzed for COTB at admission and within 2 years of the first endoscopic treatment. Patients were screened for potential risk factors of COTB before and after the treatment. Univariate analysis was performed to identify clinical factors of secondary complications, and statistically significant factors were included in the multivariate Cox and logistic regression analyses. Results. Of the 547 patients with cirrhosis, 361 individuals had COTB in the first endoscopic treatment. In this cohort, the top 3 prevalent incidences were portal vein thrombosis (PVT) or spongiosis, cholelithiasis, and pathogenic infections. The COTB did not occur at admission in 171 liver cirrhosis patients but happened at the follow-up. Higher Child-Pugh scores indicated potential risks of multiple concurrent complications, including bleeding. Risk factors for concomitant PVT or cavernous changes after endoscopic treatment of EGVB, pathogenic infections, and cholelithiasis could prolong the cirrhosis symptoms, while noncholestatic cirrhosis patients might have a lower risk than posthepatitis B cirrhosis patients, in the context of a higher degree of EGV and serum level of D-D and a lower blood calcium level. Conclusions. Clinical treatment and interventions can be tailored to avoid other complications during and after EGVB treatment, which can affect the outcome and prognosis of bleeding symptoms.

Anticoagulation therapy early is safe in portal vein thrombosis patients with acute variceal bleeding: a multi-centric randomized controlled trial

Portal vein thrombosis (PVT) and acute variceal bleeding (AVB) are frequent complications of cirrhosis. The efficacy, safety, and timing of anticoagulant treatment in cirrhotic patients with PVT and AVB are contentious issues. We aimed to establish the safety and efficacy of initiating nadroparin calcium-warfarin sequential (NWS) anticoagulation therapy early after esophageal variceal band ligation within PVT patients having cirrhosis and AVB. Cirrhotic patients having AVB and PVT who underwent EVL were included and randomly allocated to either the NWS therapy group (1-month nadroparin calcium by subcutaneous injection following 5-month warfarin through oral administration, n = 43) or the control group (without any anticoagulation therapy, n = 43). The primary endpoint was the rate of PVT recanalization. Secondary endpoints included major bleeding events mainly referring to variceal rebleeding (5-day failure, 14-day, 4-week, 6-week, and 6-month rebleeding rates) and mortality after EVL. The overall recanalization (complete and partial) rate in the NWS therapy group was significantly higher than that in the control group (67.4% vs. 39.5%, P = 0.009). Low Child-Pugh score (P = 0.039, OR: 0.692, 95% CI 0.488-0.982), D-dimer < 2.00 ug/mL (P = 0.030, OR: 3.600, 95% CI 1.134-11.430), and NWS anticoagulation therapy (P = 0.002, OR: 4.189, 95% CI 1.660-10.568) were the predictors of PVT recanalization through univariate analysis of binary logistic regression. NWS anticoagulation therapy (P = 0.003, OR: 4.506, 95% CI 1.687-12.037) was the independent factor of recanalization through multivariate analysis. Nobody bled except for variceal rebleeding. Five-day failure and 14-day rebleeding were zero. There were no significantly different in 4-week (2.3% vs. 4.7%, P = 1.000), 6-week (4.7% vs. 9.3%, P = 0.672) and 6-month rebleeding (18.6% vs. 20.9%, P = 0.787) between the two groups. There was no mortality during six months follow-up. Low serum albumin (P = 0.011, OR: 0.844, 95% CI 0.741-0.962), high MELD score (P = 0.003, OR: 1.564, 95% CI 1.167-2.097) and Child-Pugh score (P = 0.006, OR: 1.950, 95% CI 1.206-3.155) were predictors of rebleeding by univariate analysis of binary logistic regression analysis. The Child-Pugh score (7 [6-8] vs. 6 [5-7], P = 0.003) and albumin levels (33.93 ± 5.30 vs. 37.28 ± 4.32, P = 0.002) were improved in the NWS therapy group at six months. In PVT patients with cirrhosis and AVB, starting NWS anticoagulation therapy early after EVL was safe and effective. It has the potential to raise albumin levels and improve liver function.

Nomogram-based prediction of portal vein system thrombosis formation after splenectomy in patients with hepatolenticular degeneration

Objective

Splenectomy is a vital treatment method for hypersplenism with portal hypertension. However, portal venous system thrombosis (PVST) is a serious problem after splenectomy. Therefore, constructing an effective visual risk prediction model is important for preventing, diagnosing, and treating early PVST in hepatolenticular degeneration (HLD) surgical patients.

Methods

Between January 2016 and December 2021, 309 HLD patients were selected. The data were split into a development set (215 cases from January 2016 to December 2019) and a validation set (94 cases from January 2019 to December 2021). Patients' clinical characteristics and laboratory examinations were obtained from electronic medical record system, and PVST was diagnosed using Doppler ultrasound. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to establish the prediction model by variables filtered by LASSO regression, and a nomogram was drawn. The area under the curve (AUC) of receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve and Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test were used to evaluate the differentiation and calibration of the model. Clinical net benefit was evaluated by using decision curve analysis (DCA). The 36-month survival of PVST was studied as well.

Results

Seven predictive variables were screened out using LASSO regression analysis, including grade, POD14D-dimer (Postoperative day 14 D-dimer), POD7PLT (Postoperative day 7 platelet), PVD (portal vein diameter), PVV (portal vein velocity), PVF (portal vein flow), and SVD (splenic vein diameter). Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed that all seven predictive variables had predictive values (P < 0.05). According to the prediction variables, the diagnosis model and predictive nomogram of PVST cases were constructed. The AUC under the ROC curve obtained from the prediction model was 0.812 (95% CI: 0.756-0.869) in the development set and 0.839 (95% CI: 0.756-0.921) in the validation set. Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test fitted well (P = 0.858 for development set; P = 0.137 for validation set). The nomogram model was found to be clinically useful by DCA. The 36-month survival rate of three sites of PVST was significantly different from that of one (P = 0.047) and two sites (P = 0.023).

Conclusion

The proposed nomogram-based prediction model can predict postoperative PVST. Meanwhile, an earlier intervention should be performed on three sites of PVST.

Nomogram for Predicting Portal Vein Thrombosis in Cirrhotic Patients: A Retrospective Cohort Study

AIM

Portal vein thrombosis (PVT) is a common complication in cirrhotic patients and will aggravate portal hypertension, thus leading to a series of severe complications. The aim of this study was to develop a nomogram based on a simple and effective model to predict PVT in cirrhotic patients.

METHODS

Clinical data of 656 cirrhotic patients with or without PVT in the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University and The Third Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University from January 2017 to March 2022 were retrospectively collected, and all patients were divided into training, internal and external validation cohorts. SPSS and R software were used to identify the independent risk factors and construct a predictive model. We evaluated the predictive value of the model by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve, calibration curve, and decision curve analyses. The feasibility of the model was further validated in the internal and external cohorts. All enrolled patients were followed up to construct the survival curves and calculate the incidence of complications.

RESULTS

The predictors of PVT included serum albumin, D-dimer, portal vein diameter, splenectomy, and esophageal and gastric varices. Based on the clinical and imaging findings, the final model served as a potential tool for predicting PVT in cirrhotic patients, with an AUC of 0.806 (0.766 in the internal validation cohort and 0.845 in the external validation cohort). The decision curve analysis revealed that the model had a high level of concordance between different medical centers. There was a significant difference between the PVT and non-PVT groups in survival analyses, with p values of 0.0477 and 0.0319 in the training and internal validation groups, respectively, along with p value of 0.0002 in the external validation group according to log-rank test; meanwhile, the median survival times of the PVT group were 54, 43, and 40 months, respectively. The incidence of recurrent esophageal and gastric variceal bleeding (EGVB) during the follow-up showed significant differences among the three cohorts (p = 0.009, 0.048, and 0.001 in the training, internal validation, and external validation cohorts, respectively).

CONCLUSION

The nomogram based on our model provides a simple and convenient method for predicting PVT in cirrhotic patients. Cirrhotic patients with PVT had a shorter survival time and were prone to recurrent EGVB compared with those in the non-PVT group.

Research on Portal Venous Hemodynamics and Influencing Factors of Portal Vein System Thrombosis for Wilson’s Disease after Splenectomy

Objective

Splenectomy is one crucial solution for hypersplenism with portal hypertension. However, portal vein system thrombosis (PVST) caused by hemodynamic changes affects the prognosis of patients. We analyze the changes in portal vein hemodynamics following splenectomy for Wilson’s disease combined with portal hypertension and the influencing factors that lead to PVST.

Methods

A retrospective cohort study was conducted, in which 237 Wilson’s disease patients with hypersplenism underwent splenectomy. The hemodynamic indices of the portal vein were monitored before surgery and on the 1st, 7th, and 14th days around surgery. The patients were divided into PVST and non-PVST groups. The clinical factors were identified by univariate and multivariate logistic regression. The Logit P was calculated according to the logistic regression prediction model, and the ROC curve for each independent factor was plotted.

Results

The portal vein velocity, flow, and inner diameter showed a downward trend around surgery, with statistically significant differences between each time point (P < 0.01). The PVST incidence rate was 55.7%. Univariate analysis revealed that the platelet (PLT) levels on the postoperative 3rd and 7th days (P = 0.001; P < 0.001), D-dimer (D-D) on the postoperative 7th and 14th days (P = 0.002; P < 0.001), preoperative portal vein velocity, flow, diameter (P < 0.001), and splenic vein diameter (P < 0.001) were all statistically and significantly different between the two groups. Multivariate logistic regression revealed a significant increase in PLT on the postoperative 7th day (OR = 1.043, 95% CI, 1.027–1.060, P < 0.001) and D-D on the postoperative 14th day (OR = 1.846, 95% CI, 1.400–2.435, P < 0.001). Preoperative portal and splenic vein diameters (OR = 1.565, 95% CI, 1.213–2.019, P = 0.001; OR = 1.671, 95% CI, 1.305–2.140, P < 0.001) were the risk factors for PVST. However, preoperative portal vein velocity and flow (OR = 0.578, 95% CI, 0.409–0.818, P = 0.002; OR = 0.987, 95% CI, 0.975–0.990, P = 0.046) were protective factors for PVST. Logit P was calculated using a logistic regression prediction model with a cut-off value of −0.32 and an area under receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.952 with 88.61% accuracy.

Conclusions

Splenectomy relieves portal hypertension by reducing the hemodynamics index. PVST is linked to multiple factors, including preoperative portal vein diameter, velocity, flow, and splenic vein diameter, especially PLT on the postoperative 7th day and D-D on the postoperative 14th day. The predictive model is accurate in predicting PVST.

Absence of large portal collateral vessels is associated with spontaneous improvement of cirrhotic portal vein thrombosis

AIM

Portal vein thrombosis (PVT) is a major complication in patients with liver cirrhosis (LC). In some cases, PVT decreases spontaneously, but the factors that predict this are still not fully understood.

METHODS

This was a retrospective, multicenter study that included 77 consecutive patients with cirrhotic PVT. Forty-eight patients did not undergo anticoagulation and 29 patients did between the time of the first diagnosis of PVT and the follow-up radiological imaging undertaken 1-6 months later. A complete disappearance and 25% shrinkage of PVT was defined as complete remission (CR) and partial remission (PR), respectively. Portosystemic collateral vessels larger than 9 mm in diameter were defined as large collateral vessels.

RESULTS

Complete remission + PR was found in 37.5% of the anticoagulation-naïve patients. On univariate analysis, the absence of large collateral vessels, absence of PVT in the main trunk of the portal vein, a high platelet count, and a low FIB-4 index were significant factors associated with CR + PR. On multivariate analysis, the absence of large collateral vessels was the unique factor associated with CR + PR of PVT (odds ratio 5.9; 95% confidence interval, 1.73-20.1). The CR + PR rate for anticoagulated patients was 44.8%. However, no predictors for a good treatment effect of anticoagulation for PVT were identified.

CONCLUSIONS

Spontaneous improvement of PVT in patients with LC can be expected when large collateral vessels are absent. For these patients, the option of observing them without anticoagulation can be considered in expectation of spontaneous reduction of PVT.

Diagnostic accuracy of D-dimer in patients at high-risk for splanchnic vein thrombosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

D-dimer is included in the diagnostic algorithm for deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. However, its role in the diagnosis of splanchnic vein thrombosis (SVT) is still controversial. The aim of this study was to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of D-dimer for SVT.

METHODS

We performed a systematic review of the literature with meta-analysis (PROSPERO protocol registration number: CRD42020184300). The electronic databases MEDLINE, EMBASE, and CENTRAL were searched from inception to March 2021 week 4. Studies which evaluated D-dimer accuracy for SVT in any category of patients were selected. The index test was any D-dimer assay; the reference standard was any radiological imaging. The QUADAS-2 checklist was used for the risk of bias assessment. A bivariate random-effects regression model was used to calculate summary estimates of sensitivity and specificity.

RESULTS

12 studies (with a total of 1298 patients) evaluating the accuracy of D-dimer in patients at high risk of SVT (surgical patients, patients with liver cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma) were included. None of the included studies was at low risk of bias. The weighted mean prevalence of SVT was 33.4% (95% CI, 22.5-45.2%, I2 = 94.8%). D-dimer accuracy was expressed by sensitivity 96% (95% CI, 72-100%); specificity 25% (95% CI, 5-67%); positive likelihood ratio 1.3 (95% CI, 0.9-1.9); negative likelihood ratio 0.16 (95% CI, 0.03-0.84); area under the ROC curve 0.80 (95% CI, 0.76-0.83).

CONCLUSIONS

D-dimer seems to have high sensitivity in the diagnosis of patients at high-risk for SVT. However, there is a strong need for more robust evidence on this topic.

Hemorheological Alteration in Patients with Cirrhosis Clinically Diagnosed with Portal Vein System Thrombosis After Splenectomy

Background

Portal vein system thrombosis (PVST) is a common and serious complication after splenectomy. Key factors, including wider diameters of the portal vein, decreased liver function, and high flow volume of portosystemic collateral vessel, are recognized PVST risks. Relationships between PVST and altered hemorheology, including increased plasma viscosity, remain unclear. We investigated hemorheological alterations and explored risk factors of PVST in patients with cirrhosis after splenectomy.

Material/Methods

Data on patients with cirrhosis who underwent splenectomy were collected retrospectively from January 2018 to June 2020. Color Doppler ultrasonography was performed after splenectomy. Hemorheological indexes were compared between groups. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was conducted to analyze risk factor cutoff values. Univariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to explore risk factors of PVST.

Results

A total of 50 patients were divided into a PVST group (n=30) and control group (n=20). Hemorheological indexes of activated partial thromboplastin time, fibrinogen degradation products (FDP), D-dimer, middle shear rates 50 and 30, low shear rates 5 and 1, and hematocrit in the PVST group were significantly higher than those of the control group (P<0.05). FDP and low shear rate 1 were found to be risk factors of PVST after splenectomy by multivariate analysis. ROC analysis showed that the cutoff points for FDP and low shear rate 1 were ≥38.6 ug/mL and ≥16.855 mPa.s, respectively.

Conclusions

PVST after splenectomy is closely related to hemorheological alteration. FDP and low shear rate 1 may be valuable markers of PVST.

Splanchnic Vein Thrombosis in Liver Cirrhosis After Splenectomy or Splenic Artery Embolization: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

INTRODUCTION

Splenectomy and splenic artery embolization are major treatment options for hypersplenism and portal hypertension in liver cirrhosis, but may lead to splanchnic vein thrombosis (SVT), which is potentially lethal. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to explore the incidence of SVT in liver cirrhosis after splenectomy or splenic artery embolization and the risk factors for SVT.

METHODS

All relevant studies were searched through the PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library databases. The incidence of SVT in liver cirrhosis after splenectomy or splenic artery embolization was pooled. Odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated.

RESULTS

Sixty-six studies with 5632 patients with cirrhosis were included. The pooled incidence of SVT after splenectomy and splenic artery embolization was 24.6% (95% CI 20.2-29.3%) and 11.7% (95% CI 7.1-17.3%), respectively. A meta-analysis of three comparative studies demonstrated that the incidence of SVT after splenectomy was statistically similar to that after splenic artery embolization (OR 3.15, P = 0.290). Platelet count, mean platelet volume, preoperative splenic or portal vein diameter, preoperative or postoperative portal blood velocity, splenic volume and weight, and periesophagogastric devascularization were significant risk factors for SVT after splenectomy. Postoperative use of preventive antithrombotic therapy was a significant protective factor against SVT after splenectomy.

CONCLUSIONS

SVT is common in liver cirrhosis after splenectomy and splenic artery embolization. Coagulation and hemostasis factors, anatomical factors, and surgery-related factors have been widely identified for the assessment of high risk of SVT after splenectomy. Prophylactic strategy after splenectomy, such as antithrombotic therapy, might be considered in such high-risk patients.

STUDY REGISTRATION

This study was registered in PROSPERO with a registration number of CRD42019129673.

Advances in diagnosis and treatment of portal venous thrombosis

Portal vein thrombosis (PVT) is one of the common complications of liver cirrhosis, which can further increase portal vein pressure and aggravate liver function decompensation. However, due to the insidious onset and atypical symptoms, the importance of PVT has been neglected in clinical work for quite a long time. With the development of clinical diagnostic technology, the detection rate of PVT has increased year by year. At present, the well-established treatment methods for PVT include anticoagulant therapy, interventional therapy, and surgical treatment. However, the optimal choice for PVT treatment remains unclear. In this paper, we briefly review the recent progress in the diagnosis and treatment of PVT in order to provide a theoretical reference for the refined clinical management of patients with PVT.

Serum Lipoprotein (a) on Postoperative Day 3: A Strong Predictor of Portal and/or Splenic Vein Thrombosis in Cirrhotic Patients With Splenectomy

Elevated lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)] is related to the incidence of lower limb deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Its role in portal and/or splenic vein thrombosis (PSVT) is not established. A total of 77 consecutive patients who underwent splenectomy for cirrhotic portal hypertension were prospectively studied between 2014 and 2017. The impact of Lp(a) on preoperative day 1 and postoperative days (PODs) 1, 3, 5, 7, and 14 was analyzed. Color Doppler ultrasound examination was performed for the diagnosis of PSVT. The median interval between surgery and postoperative PSVT was 6 days (range: 2-13 days). The levels of Lp(a) were highly increased in patients with PSVT and significant intergroup differences (vs non-PSVT) were found until day 3 and day 5 after operation, respectively. On POD 3, at a threshold of 309.06 mg/L, Lp(a) was a better predictor of PSVT (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.872) compared to the levels on PODs 1, 5, and 7 (AUC = 0.775, 0.796, and 0.791, respectively). The median Lp(a) values peaked at 382.5 mg/L on POD 5 for patients without PSVT. After POD 5, the Lp(a) decreased with values at 347.4 mg/L on POD 7 and 150.7 mg/L on POD 14. For the first time, Lp(a) was shown to be abnormal in patients with PSVT following splenectomy. Monitoring of serum Lp(a) levels on POD 3 might represent a valuable tool to predict early PSVT after splenectomy in cirrhotic patients.

Thromboelastography maximum amplitude predicts short-term mortality in patients with hepatitis B virus-related acute-on-chronic liver failure

Patients with hepatitis B virus (HBV)-related acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) exhibit complex hemostatic defects. Thromboelastography (TEG) can be used to reveal global hemostasis in patients with liver disease; however, little is known about the association between TEG and the outcome of patients with HBV-related ACLF. The present study aimed to investigate the value of TEG for predicting 90 day mortality in patients with HBV-related ACLF. A total of 51 patients with HBV-related ACLF, 26 patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB) and 26 healthy controls (HC) were enrolled in the present study. TEG, standard coagulation tests, routine blood tests, biochemical markers and demographic variables were recorded and assessed for prognostic value. The results indicated that a prolonged reaction and kinetics (K) time, a shortened α angle and a decreased maximum amplitude (MA) and coagulation index (CI) were observed in patients with HBV-related ACLF, compared with CHB and HC subjects. Patients with HBV-related ACLF in the mortality group exhibited a decrease in α angle, MA, lysis at 30 min, CI, fibrinogen and platelet count, and an increase in K time, international normalized ratio (INR) and the model for end-stage liver disease (MELD) score in comparison with the survival group. MA and INR were two independent predictors of 90 day mortality in patients with HBV-related ACLF, with hazard ratios of 0.918 (95% CI, 0.867-0.971; P=0.003) and 3.141 (95% CI, 1.843-5.354; P<0.001) respectively. When predicting 90 day mortality, MA + INR exhibited the highest area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, followed by INR, MELD score and MA. Patients with ACLF and MA ≤51.5 mm exhibited a poorer outcome than those with MA >51.5 mm, as revealed via the Kaplan-Meier analysis. In summary, the findings of the present study suggested that TEG MA was associated with 90 day mortality in patients with HBV-related ACLF, and a combination of MA and INR was superior to MA, INR and MELD score in terms of prognostic value.

Portal vein thrombosis in cirrhosis: Why a well-known complication is still matter of debate

Portal vein thrombosis (PVT) represents a well-known complication during the natural course of liver cirrhosis (LC), ranging from asymptomatic cases to life-threating conditions related to portal hypertension and hepatic decompensation. Portal flow stasis, complex acquired hypercoagulable disorders and exogenous factors leading to endothelial dysfunction have emerged as key factors for PVT development. However, PVT occurrence remains unpredictable and many issues regarding its natural history, prognostic significance and treatment are still elusive. In particular although spontaneous resolution or disease stability occur in most cases of PVT, factors predisposing to disease progression or recurrence after spontaneous recanalization are not clarified as yet. Moreover, PVT impact on LC outcome is still debated, as PVT may represent itself a consequence of liver fibrosis and hepatic dysfunction progression. Anticoagulation and transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt are considered safe and effective in this setting and are recommended in selected cases, even if the safer therapeutic option and the optimal therapy duration are still unknown. Nevertheless, their impact on mortality rates should be addressed more extensively. In this review we present the most debated questions regarding PVT, whose answers should come from prospective cohort studies and large sample-size randomized trials.

D-dimer level in liver transplant recipients on the first day after surgery is correlated with postoperative thrombosis recurrence

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between plasma D-dimer level, preoperative complications, and thrombosis in liver transplant recipients.

METHODS

The clinical data of 525 liver transplant recipients with end-stage liver disease (ESLD) in the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University from October 2012 to December 2015 were retrospectively analyzed. The patients were grouped based on thrombosis before and after surgery to determine the risk factors for postoperative thrombosis recurrence.

RESULTS

Of the preoperative complications assessed, esophageal varices and thrombosis were significantly correlated (P = 0.000); ascites, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, and hepatic encephalopathy were significantly correlated with preoperative D-dimer level (P < 0.001, P < 0.001, and P = 0.002, respectively); during the first week after surgery, the D-dimer level was significantly and consecutively higher than that before surgery and was significantly higher in the group with both preoperative and postoperative thrombosis than in the other groups on the first day after surgery (P < 0.001); the area under the curve (AUC) for diagnosis of postoperative thrombosis recurrence in the preoperative thrombosis group using plasma D-dimer level on the first day after surgery was 0.698 (P = 0.001); Cox regression analysis showed that D-dimer was an independent risk factor for postoperative thrombosis recurrence (HR = 3.062, P = 0.029).

CONCLUSION

D-dimer level on the first day after liver transplant is related to thrombosis recurrence and is an independent risk factor for postoperative thrombosis recurrence.

Clinical value of liver and spleen shear wave velocity in predicting the prognosis of patients with portal hypertension

AIM

To explore the relationship of liver and spleen shear wave velocity in patients with liver cirrhosis combined with portal hypertension, and assess the value of liver and spleen shear wave velocity in predicting the prognosis of patients with portal hypertension.

METHODS

All 67 patients with liver cirrhosis diagnosed as portal hypertension by hepatic venous pressure gradient in our hospital from June 2014 to December 2014 were enrolled into this study. The baseline information of these patients was recorded. Furthermore, 67 patients were followed-up at 20 mo after treatment, and liver and spleen shear wave velocity were measured by acoustic radiation force impulse at the 1^st week, 3^rd month and 9^th month after treatment. Patients with favorable prognosis were assigned into the favorable prognosis group, while patients with unfavorable prognosis were assigned into the unfavorable prognosis group. The variation and difference in liver and spleen shear wave velocity in these two groups were analyzed by repeated measurement analysis of variance. Meanwhile, in order to evaluate the effect of liver and spleen shear wave velocity on the prognosis of patients with portal hypertension, Cox’s proportional hazard regression model analysis was applied. The ability of those factors in predicting the prognosis of patients with portal hypertension was calculated through receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves.

RESULTS

The liver and spleen shear wave velocity in the favorable prognosis group revealed a clear decline, while those in the unfavorable prognosis group revealed an increasing tendency at different time points. Furthermore, liver and spleen shear wave velocity was higher in the unfavorable prognosis group, compared with the favorable prognosis group; the differences were statistically significant (P < 0.05). The prognosis of patients with portal hypertension was significantly affected by spleen hardness at the 3^rd month after treatment [relative risk (RR) = 3.481]. At the 9^th month after treatment, the prognosis was affected by liver hardness (RR = 5.241) and spleen hardness (RR = 7.829). The differences between these two groups were statistically significant (P < 0.05). The ROC analysis revealed that the area under the curve (AUC) of spleen hardness at the 3^rd month after treatment was 0.644, while the AUCs of liver and spleen hardness at the 9^th month were 0.579 and 0.776, respectively. These might predict the prognosis of patients with portal hypertension.

CONCLUSION

Spleen hardness at the 3^rd month and liver and spleen shear wave velocity at the 9^th month may be used to assess the prognosis of patients with portal hypertension. This is hoped to be used as an indicator of predicting the prognosis of patients with portal hypertension.

The disseminated intravascular coagulation score is a novel predictor for portal vein thrombosis in cirrhotic patients with hepatitis B

BACKGROUND

The development of portal vein thrombosis (PVT) in cirrhotic patients has not been fully elucidated. The disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) score, which is based on readily available and relatively inexpensive coagulation parameters, including platelet count, fibrin-related markers, prothrombin time and fibrinogen, has not been reported regarding PVT development in cirrhotic patients to date. We aimed to evaluate the prognostic value of the DIC score in predicting PVT development in cirrhotic patients with hepatitis B.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A total of 109 cirrhotic patients with hepatitis B were included. Clinical data, laboratory tests and imaging were collected from the patients at baseline and every three months after enrollment. All patients were followed until the study endpoint (either occurrence of PVT or 12months after baseline). We measured routine laboratory parameters and conducted imaging examinations in cirrhotic patients and evaluated the prognostic value of the DIC score as a novel predictor for PVT in patients with cirrhosis. We also compared the effectiveness of the DIC score with other common coagulation and hemodynamic parameters.

RESULTS

Among the 109 patients, 14 (12.8%) developed PVT. At the study endpoint, significant increases in D-dimer, Child-Pugh score and DIC score (all P<0.001) and significantly reduced portal flow velocity (P<0.001) were noted in the PVT group. Among the selected factors, the DIC score had the largest area under the curve (AUC) (0.845), followed by the Child-Pugh score (0.778), D-dimer (0.732), and portal vein velocity (0.709).

CONCLUSION

Among the selected factors, the DIC score showed non-significantly higher diagnostic performance in predicting the PVT development in cirrhotic patients compared with other factors. A validation cohort of the study is needed in the near future.

D-dimer level for predicting the in-hospital mortality in liver cirrhosis: A retrospective study

The present study aimed to examine the correlation of D-dimer levels with the Child-Pugh and MELD scores, as well as to determine the predictive ability of D-dimer level for the in-hospital mortality of liver cirrhosis patients. All cirrhotic patients who were consecutively admitted to our hospital between January 2011 and June 2014, and underwent D-dimer tests on admission were retrospectively analyzed. Pearson's χ² tests were employed to evaluate the correlations of D-dimer levels with Child-Pugh and MELD scores. In addition, receiver operating curve (ROC) analysis was employed to evaluate the specificity and sensitivity of D-dimer levels for predicting the in-hospital mortality. In total, 703 cirrhotic patients were included in the study, with an in-hospital mortality of 5.4% (38/703). The D-dimer levels were correlated with Child-Pugh (correlation coefficient, 0.219; P<0.001) and MELD scores (correlation coefficient, 0.207; P<0.001). The highest D-dimer level was observed in the Child-Pugh class C patients, followed by the class B and A patients. Furthermore, D-dimer was significantly higher in the MELD score >15 group compared with the MELD score <15 group. The area under the ROC of D-dimer levels for predicting the in-hospital mortality of liver cirrhosis was 0.729 (P<0.0001), while the best cut-off D-dimer value was 0.28 µg/ml with a sensitivity of 86.84% and a specificity of 49.17%. In conclusion, the D-dimer level is significantly associated with the degree of liver dysfunction. Therefore, D-dimer testing could be employed for the prognostic stratification of liver cirrhosis.

Portal vein thrombosis in cirrhosis is not associated with intestinal barrier disruption or increased platelet aggregability

OBJECTIVE

Portal vein thrombosis (PVT) is a common complication of cirrhosis, but its pathogenesis is unclear. We tested the hypotheses that PVT is the result of platelet hyperactivity or intestinal barrier disruption.

METHODS

This study included 49 patients with cirrhosis (15 females) of mixed etiology. Based on spiral computed-tomography, the patients were divided into two groups: with PVT (n=16) and without PVT (n=33). Serum biomarkers of intestinal barrier integrity were endotoxins and zonulin, and platelet activity was assessed with multiple electrode aggregometry.

RESULTS

The levels of endotoxin (43.5±18.3ng/ml vs. 36.9±7.5ng/ml; P=0.19) and zonulin (56.3±31.1ng/ml vs. 69.3±63.1ng/ml; P=0.69) were not different between the patients with and without PVT. Moreover, endotoxin and zonulin did not correlate with the coagulation and platelet parameters. The platelet aggregability measured with the TRAP and the ADP tests was decreased in PVT patients. In the logistic regression analysis the PVT incidence was related to the levels of D-dimer and bilirubin as well as the TRAP test results. Patients with PVT presented with significantly higher levels of D-dimer (4.45±2.59 vs. 3.03±2.97mg/l; P<0.05) and prothrombin levels (175±98.8μg/ml vs. 115±72.9μg/ml; P<0.05) than patients without thrombosis. PVT could be excluded with a 90% negative predictive value when the D-dimer level was below 1.82mg/l.

CONCLUSIONS

Endotoxemia and platelet activity are not determinants of PVT in patients with cirrhosis. The D-dimer measurement has diagnostic significance for PVT in patients with liver cirrhosis.

Novel insights into the development of portal vein thrombosis in cirrhosis patients

The prognostic impact of portal vein thrombosis (PVT) in liver cirrhosis remains controversial among studies, primarily because the risk stratification of PVT is often lacking. A definition of clinically significant PVT should be proposed and actively improved. Moreover, the risk factors for the development of PVT in liver cirrhosis should be fully recognized to screen and identify high-risk patients. Currently, well-recognized risk factors include a reduced portal vein flow velocity, a worse liver function, splenectomy, liver transplantation, and factor V Leiden and prothrombin G20210A mutations. Novel risk factors include an increased flow volume of portosystemic collateral vessel, thrombopoietin receptor agnonists, and non-selective beta-blockers. In contrast to the traditional perspectives, the abnormalities of procoagulant and anticoagulant factors may not contribute to the development of PVT in liver cirrhosis. Further studies should explore the role of other risk factors, such as antiphospholipid antibodies, methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase C677T gene mutation, hyperhomocysteinemia, and myeloproliferative neoplasms.

Association between D-dimer level and portal venous system thrombosis in liver cirrhosis: a retrospective observational study

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to explore the association between D-dimer levels and presence of portal venous system thrombosis (PVST) in liver cirrhosis.

METHODS

All consecutive patients with a diagnosis of liver cirrhosis who underwent D-dimer test were retrospectively enrolled. Normal reference range of D-dimer level was 0-0.3 µg/mL. PVST was diagnosed on the basis of contrast-enhanced computed tomography and/or magnetic resonance imaging scans.

RESULTS

Of the 66 included patients, 24 were diagnosed with PVST. Mean D-dimer level was 0.51±0.72 µg/mL (range: 0.10-3.44). Mean D-dimer level was not significantly different between PVST and non-PVST groups (0.68±0.93 µg/mL versus 0.41±0.56 µg/mL, P=0.146). Area under the receiver operating curve for D-dimer level for predicting the presence of PVT was 0.606 (95% confidence interval: 0.478-0.724, P=0.1393). The optimal cut-off value for D-dimer was 0.22 with a sensitivity of 58.3% and a specificity of 69.0%. The subgroup analyses of patients without splenectomy or those with different Child-Pugh classes demonstrated no significant difference in the D-dimer level between PVST and non-PVST groups.

CONCLUSION

D-dimer might not be useful to identify the presence of PVST in liver cirrhosis. However, given the retrospective nature of this study, further well-designed prospective study should be necessary to confirm this finding.