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Kumar B, Mishra M, Talreja D, Cashman S, Kumar-Singh R. Cell-Penetrating Chaperone Nuc1 for Small- and Large-Molecule Delivery Into Retinal Cells and Tissues. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2024; 65:31. [PMID: 39028980 PMCID: PMC11262537 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.65.8.31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose There are currently no means available for the efficient delivery of recombinant proteins into retinal cells in vivo. Although cell-penetrating peptides have been somewhat effective in protein delivery to the retina, they generally require conjugation chemistry with the payload, negatively impacting function of the therapeutic protein. In this study, we developed a novel peptide (Nuc1) that acts as a chaperone for delivery of small and large molecules, including steroids, peptides, antibodies, recombinant proteins, and viruses (adeno-associated viruses [AAVs]) across biological membranes in vivo without the need for conjugation. Methods Nuc1 peptide was designed based on sequences known to bind heparan sulfate proteoglycans and nucleolin found on the surface of retinal cells. Nuc1 was injected into the vitreous of mice with a variety of molecules and retinas examined for uptake and function of these molecules. Results Nuc1 engages the process of macropynocytosis for cell entry. The delivery of functional recombinant X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein to photoreceptors via the intravitreal route of injection inhibited retinal apoptosis. Nuc1 was found to enhance the delivery of anti-VEGF antibodies delivered intravitreally or topically in models of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Nuc1 enhanced delivery of decorin, facilitating significant inhibition of neovascularization and fibrosis in a model of AMD. Finally, Nuc1 was found to enhance penetration of retinal cells and tissues by AAV via both the subretinal and intravitreal routes of injection. Conclusions Nuc1 shows promise as a novel approach for the delivery of recombinant proteins into retinal cells in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binit Kumar
- Department of Developmental, Molecular and Chemical Biology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Manish Mishra
- Department of Developmental, Molecular and Chemical Biology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Deepa Talreja
- Department of Developmental, Molecular and Chemical Biology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Siobhan Cashman
- Department of Developmental, Molecular and Chemical Biology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Rajendra Kumar-Singh
- Department of Developmental, Molecular and Chemical Biology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
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2
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Jiang C, Hu Y, Hou X, Qiu J. Neuroprotective effect of a novel brain-derived peptide, HIBDAP, against oxygen-glucose deprivation through inhibition of apoptosis in PC12 cells. Mol Biol Rep 2023; 50:3045-3051. [PMID: 36680622 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-023-08248-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The effect of a novel brain-derived peptide, hypoxic-ischemic brain damage associated peptide (HIBDAP), on apoptosis after oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) in PC12 cells was investigated. METHODS The HIBDAP sequence (HSQFIGYPITLFVEKER) was coupled with the carrier peptide of the transactivator of transcription (TAT) sequence (YGRKKRRQRRR). FITC-labelled TAT-HIBDAP was observed by fluorescence microscopy. After TAT-HIBDAP treatment and OGD treatment, the PC12 cell apoptosis rate was analysed using lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage and Annexin V-fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) assays. Mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) was examined by fluorescence microscopy. Protein expression of apoptotic factors was examined by Western blotting. RESULTS FITC-labelled TAT-HIBDAP entered the PC12 cell nucleus. Compared with the OGD group, TAT-HIBDAP at low concentrations (1 µM, 5 µM, 10 µM) significantly reduced the apoptosis rate of PC12 cells (except at 20 µM); 5 µM TAT-HIBDAP had the most obvious effect. There were remarkable increases in ΔΨm at different concentrations (1 µM, 5 µM, 10 µM, 20 µM) of TAT-HIBDAP pretreatment, and 5 µM TAT-HIBDAP also had the most obvious effect. TAT-HIBDAP reversed the increased ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 and activation of Caspase-3 induced by OGD. CONCLUSION TAT-HIBDAP is resistant to OGD-induced PC12 cell apoptosis by regulating the Bax/Bcl-2/Caspase-3 pathway, which may provide a novel therapeutic strategy for neonatal HIBD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yina Hu
- Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xuewen Hou
- Dapartment of Paediatrics, Women's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Nanjing, China.
| | - Jie Qiu
- Department of Neonatology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital Clinical College of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.
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Sadeghian I, Heidari R, Raee MJ, Negahdaripour M. Cell-penetrating peptide-mediated delivery of therapeutic peptides/proteins to manage the diseases involving oxidative stress, inflammatory response and apoptosis. J Pharm Pharmacol 2022; 74:1085-1116. [PMID: 35728949 DOI: 10.1093/jpp/rgac038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Peptides and proteins represent great potential for modulating various cellular processes including oxidative stress, inflammatory response, apoptosis and consequently the treatment of related diseases. However, their therapeutic effects are limited by their inability to cross cellular barriers. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), which can transport cargoes into the cell, could resolve this issue, as would be discussed in this review. KEY FINDINGS CPPs have been successfully exploited in vitro and in vivo for peptide/protein delivery to treat a wide range of diseases involving oxidative stress, inflammatory processes and apoptosis. Their in vivo applications are still limited due to some fundamental issues of CPPs, including nonspecificity, proteolytic instability, potential toxicity and immunogenicity. SUMMARY Totally, CPPs could potentially help to manage the diseases involving oxidative stress, inflammatory response and apoptosis by delivering peptides/proteins that could selectively reach proper intracellular targets. More studies to overcome related CPP limitations and confirm the efficacy and safety of this strategy are needed before their clinical usage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Issa Sadeghian
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.,Biotechnology Incubator, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Reza Heidari
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Javad Raee
- Center for Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Manica Negahdaripour
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.,Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
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Physiological and pharmacological modulation of BAX. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2022; 43:206-220. [PMID: 34848097 PMCID: PMC8840970 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2021.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 10/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Bcl-2-associated X protein (BAX) is a critical executioner of mitochondrial regulated cell death through its lethal activity of permeabilizing the mitochondrial outer membrane (MOM). While the physiological function of BAX ensures tissue homeostasis, dysregulation of BAX leads to aberrant cell death. Despite BAX being a promising therapeutic target for human diseases, historically the development of drugs has focused on antiapoptotic BCL-2 proteins, due to challenges in elucidating the mechanism of BAX activation and identifying druggable surfaces of BAX. Here, we discuss recent studies that have provided structure-function insights and identified regulatory surfaces that control BAX activation. Moreover, we emphasize the development of small molecule orthosteric, allosteric, and oligomerization modulators that provide novel opportunities for biological investigation and progress towards drugging BAX.
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Treadmill Exercise Improves Motor Function and Short-term Memory by Enhancing Synaptic Plasticity and Neurogenesis in Photothrombotic Stroke Mice. Int Neurourol J 2020; 24:S28-38. [PMID: 32482055 PMCID: PMC7285698 DOI: 10.5213/inj.2040158.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose Thrombotic stroke is a type of ischemic stroke characterized by motor dysfunction and memory impairments. In the present study, the effect of treadmill exercise on motor function and short-term memory was evaluated in relation with synaptic plasticity in the mice with photothrombotic stroke. Methods Photothrombotic stroke was induced by cortical photothrombotic vascular occlusion. The mice in the treadmill exercise groups performed running on a motorized treadmill for 28 days. Motor function was determined using rota-rod test and foot fault test. Step-through avoidance task was conducted to evaluate short-term memory. Immunohistochemistry for 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine and doublecortin was conducted to detect new cell generation. Postsynaptic density protein 95, synaptophysin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and tyrosine kinase B receptor (TrkB) were determined using western blot. The number of dendritic spines was determined using Golgi stain. Results Treadmill exercise improved motor function and short-term memory in mice with the photothrombotic stroke. The infarct size was reduced and the number of dendritic spines and expression of postsynaptic density protein 95 and synaptophysin in the peri-infarct cortex and hippocampus were increased by treadmill exercise in photothrombotic stroke mice. Treadmill exercise enhanced neurogenesis through increasing the expression of the hippocampal BDNF and TrkB in photothrombotic stroke mice. Conclusions Treadmill exercise improved motor function and short-term memory through increasing synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis in photothrombotic stroke mice. Treadmill exercise can be used as an effective treatment strategy to improve brain function related to stroke.
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Liang Q, Yang J, He J, Chen X, Zhang H, Jia M, Liu K, Jia C, Pan Y, Wei J. Stigmasterol alleviates cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury by attenuating inflammation and improving antioxidant defenses in rats. Biosci Rep 2020; 40:BSR20192133. [PMID: 32149332 PMCID: PMC7160377 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20192133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Revised: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS The paper aimed to investigate the effects of Stigmasterol on inflammatory factors, antioxidant capacity, and apoptotic signaling pathways in brain tissue of rats with cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. METHODS The neurological deficits of the rats were analyzed and HE staining was performed. The cerebral infarct volume was calculated by means of TTC staining, and neuronal apoptosis was detected by TUNEL staining. At the same time, the contents of glutathione peroxidase, glutathione, superoxide dismutase (SOD), nitric oxide, and malondialdehyde in brain tissue were measured. The expression of the relevant protein was detected by means of Western blotting. RESULTS The results showed that the neurological deficit score and infarct area of the I/R rats in the soy sterol treatment group were significantly lower than those in the I/R group. Moreover, the levels of carbon monoxide and malondialdehyde in the soysterol group were significantly lower than those in the I/R group, and the expressions of cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2) and NF-κB (p65) in the soysterol group were also significantly lower than those in the I/R group. The expression of Nrf2 (nucleus) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) increased significantly, and the activities of antioxidant enzymes and SOD were increased. In addition, the stigmasterol treatment can inhibit apoptosis, down-regulate Bax and cleaved caspase-3 expression, and up-regulate Bcl-Xl expression. CONCLUSION Stigmasterol protects the brain from brain I/R damage by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qilong Liang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Hospital of Lanzhou, Lanzhou City 730046, Gansu Province, P.R. China
| | - Jun Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Hospital of Lanzhou, Lanzhou City 730046, Gansu Province, P.R. China
| | - Jiaji He
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Hospital of Lanzhou, Lanzhou City 730046, Gansu Province, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoling Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Hospital of Lanzhou, Lanzhou City 730046, Gansu Province, P.R. China
| | - Hong Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Hospital of Lanzhou, Lanzhou City 730046, Gansu Province, P.R. China
| | - Maolin Jia
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Hospital of Lanzhou, Lanzhou City 730046, Gansu Province, P.R. China
| | - Kai Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Hospital of Lanzhou, Lanzhou City 730046, Gansu Province, P.R. China
| | - Chuangchuang Jia
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Hospital of Lanzhou, Lanzhou City 730046, Gansu Province, P.R. China
| | - Yanhong Pan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Hospital of Lanzhou, Lanzhou City 730046, Gansu Province, P.R. China
| | - Jinwang Wei
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Hospital of Lanzhou, Lanzhou City 730046, Gansu Province, P.R. China
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7
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Perinatal Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy and Neuroprotective Peptide Therapies: A Case for Cationic Arginine-Rich Peptides (CARPs). Brain Sci 2018; 8:brainsci8080147. [PMID: 30087289 PMCID: PMC6119922 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci8080147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Revised: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 08/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Perinatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is the leading cause of mortality and morbidity in neonates, with survivors suffering significant neurological sequelae including cerebral palsy, epilepsy, intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorders. While hypothermia is used clinically to reduce neurological injury following HIE, it is only used for term infants (>36 weeks gestation) in tertiary hospitals and improves outcomes in only 30% of patients. For these reasons, a more effective and easily administrable pharmacological therapeutic agent, that can be used in combination with hypothermia or alone when hypothermia cannot be applied, is urgently needed to treat pre-term (≤36 weeks gestation) and term infants suffering HIE. Several recent studies have demonstrated that cationic arginine-rich peptides (CARPs), which include many cell-penetrating peptides [CPPs; e.g., transactivator of transcription (TAT) and poly-arginine-9 (R9; 9-mer of arginine)], possess intrinsic neuroprotective properties. For example, we have demonstrated that poly-arginine-18 (R18; 18-mer of arginine) and its D-enantiomer (R18D) are neuroprotective in vitro following neuronal excitotoxicity, and in vivo following perinatal hypoxia-ischemia (HI). In this paper, we review studies that have used CARPs and other peptides, including putative neuroprotective peptides fused to TAT, in animal models of perinatal HIE. We critically evaluate the evidence that supports our hypothesis that CARP neuroprotection is mediated by peptide arginine content and positive charge and that CARPs represent a novel potential therapeutic for HIE.
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8
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Pease-Raissi SE, Pazyra-Murphy MF, Li Y, Wachter F, Fukuda Y, Fenstermacher SJ, Barclay LA, Bird GH, Walensky LD, Segal RA. Paclitaxel Reduces Axonal Bclw to Initiate IP 3R1-Dependent Axon Degeneration. Neuron 2017; 96:373-386.e6. [PMID: 29024661 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2017.09.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Revised: 07/19/2017] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) is a debilitating side effect of many cancer treatments. The hallmark of CIPN is degeneration of long axons required for transmission of sensory information; axonal degeneration causes impaired tactile sensation and persistent pain. Currently the molecular mechanisms of CIPN are not understood, and there are no available treatments. Here we show that the chemotherapeutic agent paclitaxel triggers CIPN by altering IP3 receptor phosphorylation and intracellular calcium flux, and activating calcium-dependent calpain proteases. Concomitantly paclitaxel impairs axonal trafficking of RNA-granules and reduces synthesis of Bclw (bcl2l2), a Bcl2 family member that binds IP3R1 and restrains axon degeneration. Surprisingly, Bclw or a stapled peptide corresponding to the Bclw BH4 domain interact with axonal IP3R1 and prevent paclitaxel-induced degeneration, while Bcl2 and BclxL cannot do so. Together these data identify a Bclw-IP3R1-dependent cascade that causes axon degeneration and suggest that Bclw-mimetics could provide effective therapy to prevent CIPN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Pease-Raissi
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Departments of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Maria F Pazyra-Murphy
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Departments of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Yihang Li
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Departments of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Franziska Wachter
- Departments of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA; Linde Program in Cancer Chemical Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Yusuke Fukuda
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Departments of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Sara J Fenstermacher
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Departments of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Lauren A Barclay
- Departments of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA; Linde Program in Cancer Chemical Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Gregory H Bird
- Departments of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA; Linde Program in Cancer Chemical Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Loren D Walensky
- Departments of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA; Linde Program in Cancer Chemical Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Rosalind A Segal
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Departments of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
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9
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Kollek M, Voigt G, Molnar C, Murad F, Bertele D, Krombholz CF, Bohler S, Labi V, Schiller S, Kunze M, Geley S, Niemeyer CM, Garcia-Saez A, Erlacher M. Transient apoptosis inhibition in donor stem cells improves hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. J Exp Med 2017; 214:2967-2983. [PMID: 28882984 PMCID: PMC5626392 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20161721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2016] [Revised: 06/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/17/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
During hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, a substantial number of donor cells are lost because of apoptotic cell death. Transplantation-associated apoptosis is mediated mainly by the proapoptotic BCL-2 family proteins BIM and BMF, and their proapoptotic function is conserved between mouse and human stem and progenitor cells. Permanent inhibition of apoptosis in donor cells caused by the loss of these BH3-only proteins improves transplantation outcome, but recipients might be exposed to increased risk of lymphomagenesis or autoimmunity. Here, we address whether transient inhibition of apoptosis can serve as a safe but efficient alternative to improve the outcome of stem cell transplantation. We show that transient apoptosis inhibition by short-term overexpression of prosurvival BCL-XL, known to block BIM and BMF, is not only sufficient to increase the viability of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells during engraftment but also improves transplantation outcome without signs of adverse pathologies. Hence, this strategy represents a promising and novel therapeutic approach, particularly under conditions of limited donor stem cell availability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Kollek
- Division of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Gesina Voigt
- Division of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Christian Molnar
- Division of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Spemann Graduate School of Biology and Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Fabronia Murad
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Daniela Bertele
- Division of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Christopher Felix Krombholz
- Division of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Sheila Bohler
- Division of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Verena Labi
- Division of Developmental Immunology, Biocenter, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Stefan Schiller
- Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Center for Biological Systems Analysis, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Mirjam Kunze
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Medical Center Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Stephan Geley
- Division of Molecular Pathophysiology, Biocenter, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Charlotte M Niemeyer
- Division of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ana Garcia-Saez
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Miriam Erlacher
- Division of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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10
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Sanna MD, Monti M, Casella L, Roggeri R, Galeotti N, Morbidelli L. Neuronal effects of a nickel-piperazine/NO donor complex in rodents. Pharmacol Res 2015; 99:162-73. [PMID: 26094781 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2015.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Revised: 06/10/2015] [Accepted: 06/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
In the brain, NO is a very important molecule in the regulation of cerebral and extra cerebral cranial blood flow and arterial diameters. It is also importantly involved in many neuronal functions and innumerable roles of NO in many brain related disorders including epilepsy, schizophrenia, drug addiction, anxiety, major depression, have been postulated. The present study aimed to explore the neuronal role exerted by the metal-nonoate compound Ni(PipNONO)Cl, a novel NO donor whose vascular protective effects have been recently demonstrated. Ni(PipNONO)Cl showed antidepressant-like properties in the tail suspension test and antiamnesic activity in the passive avoidance test in the absence of any hypernociceptive response to a mechanical stimulus. These effects were related to the NO-releasing properties of the compound within the central nervous system as demonstrated by the increase of iNOS levels in the brain, spinal cord and dura mater. The modulation of neuronal functions appeared after acute and repeated treatment, showing the lack of any tolerance to neuronal effects. At the dose used (10 mg/kg i.p.), Ni(PipNONO)Cl did not induce any visible sign of toxicity and experiments were performed in the absence of locomotor impairments. In addition to the NO-related neuronal activities of Ni(PipNONO)Cl, the decomposition control compound Ni(Pip)Cl2 showed anxiogenic-like and procognitive effects. The present findings showed neuronal modulatory activity of Ni(PipNONO)Cl through a NO-mediated mechanism. The activities of the decomposition compound Ni(Pip)Cl2 attributed to Ni(PipNONO)Cl the capability to modulate additional neuronal functions independently from NO releasing properties extending and improving the therapeutic perspectives of the NO donor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Domenica Sanna
- Laboratory of Neuropsychopharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Florence, Viale G. Pieraccini 6, 50139 Florence, Italy
| | - Martina Monti
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, Via A. Moro 2, 53100 Siena, Italy; Noxamet Ltd, Via Besana 2, 20122 Milano, Italy
| | - Luigi Casella
- Noxamet Ltd, Via Besana 2, 20122 Milano, Italy; Department of Chemistry, University of Pavia, Via Taramelli 12, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | | | - Nicoletta Galeotti
- Laboratory of Neuropsychopharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Florence, Viale G. Pieraccini 6, 50139 Florence, Italy.
| | - Lucia Morbidelli
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, Via A. Moro 2, 53100 Siena, Italy; Noxamet Ltd, Via Besana 2, 20122 Milano, Italy
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11
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Barclay LA, Wales TE, Garner TP, Wachter F, Lee S, Guerra RM, Stewart ML, Braun CR, Bird GH, Gavathiotis E, Engen JR, Walensky LD. Inhibition of Pro-apoptotic BAX by a noncanonical interaction mechanism. Mol Cell 2015; 57:873-886. [PMID: 25684204 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2015.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2014] [Revised: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 12/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BCL-2 is a negative regulator of apoptosis implicated in homeostatic and pathologic cell survival. The canonical anti-apoptotic mechanism involves entrapment of activated BAX by a groove on BCL-2, preventing BAX homo-oligomerization and mitochondrial membrane poration. The BCL-2 BH4 domain also confers anti-apoptotic functionality, but the mechanism is unknown. We find that a synthetic α-helical BH4 domain binds to BAX with nanomolar affinity and independently inhibits the conformational activation of BAX. Hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry demonstrated that the N-terminal conformational changes in BAX induced by a triggering BIM BH3 helix were suppressed by the BCL-2 BH4 helix. Structural analyses localized the BH4 interaction site to a groove formed by residues of α1, α1-α2 loop, and α2-α3 and α5-α6 hairpins on the BAX surface. These data reveal a previously unappreciated binding site for targeted inhibition of BAX and suggest that the BCL-2 BH4 domain may participate in apoptosis blockade by a noncanonical interaction mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren A Barclay
- Department of Pediatric Oncology and the Linde Program in Cancer Chemical Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Thomas E Wales
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Barnett Institute of Chemical and Biological Analysis, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Thomas P Garner
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Franziska Wachter
- Department of Pediatric Oncology and the Linde Program in Cancer Chemical Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Susan Lee
- Department of Pediatric Oncology and the Linde Program in Cancer Chemical Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Rachel M Guerra
- Department of Pediatric Oncology and the Linde Program in Cancer Chemical Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Michelle L Stewart
- Department of Pediatric Oncology and the Linde Program in Cancer Chemical Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Craig R Braun
- Department of Pediatric Oncology and the Linde Program in Cancer Chemical Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Gregory H Bird
- Department of Pediatric Oncology and the Linde Program in Cancer Chemical Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Evripidis Gavathiotis
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - John R Engen
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Barnett Institute of Chemical and Biological Analysis, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Loren D Walensky
- Department of Pediatric Oncology and the Linde Program in Cancer Chemical Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
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12
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Arif E, Rathore YS, Kumari B, Ashish F, Wong HN, Holzman LB, Nihalani D. Slit diaphragm protein Neph1 and its signaling: a novel therapeutic target for protection of podocytes against glomerular injury. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:9502-18. [PMID: 24554715 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.505743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Podocytes are specialized epithelial cells that are critical components of the glomerular filtration barrier, and their dysfunction leads to proteinuria and renal failure. Therefore, preserving podocyte function is therapeutically significant. In this study, we identified Neph1 signaling as a therapeutic target that upon inhibition prevented podocyte damage from a glomerular injury-inducing agent puromycin aminonucleoside (PAN). To specifically inhibit Neph1 signaling, we used a protein transduction approach, where the cytoplasmic domain of Neph1 (Neph1CD) tagged with a protein transduction domain trans-activator of transcription was transduced in cultured podocytes prior to treatment with PAN. The PAN-induced Neph1 phosphorylation was significantly reduced in Neph1CD-transduced cells; in addition, these cells were resistant to PAN-induced cytoskeletal damage. The biochemical analysis using subfractionation studies showed that unlike control cells Neph1 was retained in the lipid raft fractions in the transduced cells following treatment with PAN, indicating that transduction of Neph1CD in podocytes prevented PAN-induced mislocalization of Neph1. In accordance, the immunofluorescence analysis further suggested that Neph1CD-transduced cells had increased ability to retain endogenous Neph1 at the membrane in response to PAN-induced injury. Similar results were obtained when angiotensin was used as an injury-inducing agent. Consistent with these observations, maintaining high levels of Neph1 at the membrane using a podocyte cell line overexpressing chimeric Neph1 increased the ability of podocytes to resist PAN-induced injury and PAN-induced albumin leakage. Using a zebrafish in vivo PAN and adriamycin injury models, we further demonstrated the ability of transduced Neph1CD to preserve glomerular function. Collectively, these results support the conclusion that inhibiting Neph1 signaling is therapeutically significant in preventing podocyte damage from glomerular injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehtesham Arif
- From the Renal Electrolyte and Hypertension Division, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104 and
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13
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Manley NC, Caso JR, Works MG, Cutler AB, Zemlyak I, Sun G, Munhoz CD, Chang S, Sorrells SF, Ermini FV, Decker JH, Bertrand AA, Dinkel KM, Steinberg GK, Sapolsky RM. Derivation of injury-responsive dendritic cells for acute brain targeting and therapeutic protein delivery in the stroke-injured rat. PLoS One 2013; 8:e61789. [PMID: 23613937 PMCID: PMC3627911 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0061789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2012] [Accepted: 03/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Research with experimental stroke models has identified a wide range of therapeutic proteins that can prevent the brain damage caused by this form of acute neurological injury. Despite this, we do not yet have safe and effective ways to deliver therapeutic proteins to the injured brain, and this remains a major obstacle for clinical translation. Current targeted strategies typically involve invasive neurosurgery, whereas systemic approaches produce the undesirable outcome of non-specific protein delivery to the entire brain, rather than solely to the injury site. As a potential way to address this, we developed a protein delivery system modeled after the endogenous immune cell response to brain injury. Using ex-vivo-engineered dendritic cells (DCs), we find that these cells can transiently home to brain injury in a rat model of stroke with both temporal and spatial selectivity. We present a standardized method to derive injury-responsive DCs from bone marrow and show that injury targeting is dependent on culture conditions that maintain an immature DC phenotype. Further, we find evidence that when loaded with therapeutic cargo, cultured DCs can suppress initial neuron death caused by an ischemic injury. These results demonstrate a non-invasive method to target ischemic brain injury and may ultimately provide a way to selectively deliver therapeutic compounds to the injured brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan C Manley
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America.
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14
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Solito R, Corti F, Chen CH, Mochly-Rosen D, Giachetti A, Ziche M, Donnini S. Mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 activation prevents β-amyloid-induced endothelial cell dysfunction and restores angiogenesis. J Cell Sci 2013; 126:1952-61. [PMID: 23447675 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.117184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Amyloid β peptides (Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42) cause cerebral degeneration by impairing the activity of angiogenic factors and inducing apoptosis and senescence in the endothelium. Amyloid peptides are known to induce oxidative stress. Impairment of mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) following oxidative stress, results in accumulation of toxic aldehydes, particularly 4-hydroxynoneal (4-HNE). We sought to determine the role of mitochondrial ALDH2 in Aβ-related impairment of angiogenesis. We hypothesized that by increasing the detoxification activity of ALDH2 we would reduce Aβ-driven endothelial injuries and restore angiogenesis. We used a selective ALDH2 activator, Alda-1, assessing its ability to repair mitochondrial dysfunction in the endothelium. Treatment of human endothelial cells with Aβ1-40 (5-50 µM) induced loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, increased cytochrome c release and ROS accumulation. These events were associated with 4-HNE accumulation and decrease in ALDH2 activity (40%), and resulted in disassembly of endothelial junctions, as evidenced by β-catenin phosphorylation, disorganization of adherens and tight junctions, and by disruption of pseudocapillary formation. Alda-1 (10-40 µM) abolished Aβ-induced 4-HNE accumulation, apoptosis and vascular leakiness, fully restoring the pro-angiogenic endothelial phenotype and responses to FGF-2. Our data document that mitochondrial ALDH2 in the endothelium is a target for the vascular effect of Aβ, including loss of barrier function and angiogenesis. ALDH2 activation, by restoring mitochondrial functions in the endothelium, prevents Aβ-induced dysfunction and anti-angiogenic effects. Thus, agents activating ALDH2 may reduce endothelial injuries including those occurring in cerebral amyloid angiopathy, preserving the angiogenic potential of the endothelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaella Solito
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Siena, 53100-Siena, Italy
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15
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A novel protein from the serum of Python sebae, structurally homologous with type-γ phospholipase A(2) inhibitor, displays antitumour activity. Biochem J 2012; 440:251-62. [PMID: 21834793 DOI: 10.1042/bj20100739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Cytotoxic and antitumour factors have been documented in the venom of snakes, although little information is available on the identification of cytotoxic products in snake serum. In the present study, we purified and characterized a new cytotoxic factor from serum of the non-venomous African rock python (Python sebae), endowed with antitumour activity. PSS (P. sebae serum) exerted a cytotoxic activity and reduced dose-dependently the viability of several different tumour cell lines. In a model of human squamous cell carcinoma xenograft (A431), subcutaneous injection of PSS in proximity of the tumour mass reduced the tumour volume by 20%. Fractionation of PSS by ion-exchange chromatography yielded an active protein fraction, F5, which significantly reduced tumour cell viability in vitro and, strikingly, tumour growth in vivo. F5 is composed of P1 (peak 1) and P2 subunits interacting in a 1:1 stoichiometric ratio to form a heterotetramer in equilibrium with a hexameric form, which retained biological activity only when assembled. The two peptides share sequence similarity with PIP {PLI-γ [type-γ PLA(2) (phospholipase A(2)) inhibitor] from Python reticulatus}, existing as a homohexamer. More importantly, although PIP inhibits the hydrolytic activity of PLA(2), the anti-PLA(2) function of F5 is negligible. Using high-resolution MS, we covered 87 and 97% of the sequences of P1 and P2 respectively. In conclusion, in the present study we have identified and thoroughly characterized a novel protein displaying high sequence similarity to PLI-γ and possessing remarkable cytotoxic and antitumour effects that can be exploited for potential pharmacological applications.
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16
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Boisguerin P, Redt-Clouet C, Franck-Miclo A, Licheheb S, Nargeot J, Barrère-Lemaire S, Lebleu B. Systemic delivery of BH4 anti-apoptotic peptide using CPPs prevents cardiac ischemia–reperfusion injuries in vivo. J Control Release 2011; 156:146-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2011.07.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2011] [Revised: 07/24/2011] [Accepted: 07/25/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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17
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Dietz GPH. Protection by neuroglobin and cell-penetrating peptide-mediated delivery in vivo: a decade of research. Comment on Cai et al: TAT-mediated delivery of neuroglobin protects against focal cerebral ischemia in mice. Exp Neurol. 2011; 227(1): 224-31. Exp Neurol 2011; 231:1-10. [PMID: 21620833 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2011] [Revised: 05/04/2011] [Accepted: 05/10/2011] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
Over the last decade, numerous studies have suggested that neuroglobin is able to protect against the effects of ischemia. However, such results have mostly been based on models using transgenic overexpression or viral delivery. As a therapy, new technology would need to be applied to enable delivery of high concentrations of neuroglobin shortly after the patient suffers the stroke. An approach to deliver proteins in ischemia in vivo in a timely manner is the use of cell-penetrating peptides (CPP). CPP have been used in animal models for brain diseases for about a decade as well. In a recent issue of Experimental Neurology, Cai and colleagues test the effect of CPP-coupled neuroglobin in an in vivo stroke model. They find that the fusion protein protects the brain against the effect of ischemia when applied before stroke onset. Here, a concise review of neuroglobin research and the application of CPP peptides in hypoxia and ischemia is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunnar P H Dietz
- Dep. 851, Neurodegeneration II, H. Lundbeck A/S, Ottiliavej 9, 2500 Valby, Denmark.
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18
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Baratchi S, Kanwar RK, Kanwar JR. Survivin mutant protects differentiated dopaminergic SK-N-SH cells against oxidative stress. PLoS One 2011; 6:e15865. [PMID: 21249229 PMCID: PMC3018429 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0015865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2010] [Accepted: 11/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress is due to an imbalance of antioxidant/pro-oxidant homeostasis and is associated with the progression of several neurological diseases, including Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Furthermore, oxidative stress is responsible for the neuronal loss and dysfunction associated with disease pathogenesis. Survivin is a member of the inhibitors of the apoptosis (IAP) family of proteins, but its neuroprotective effects have not been studied. Here, we demonstrate that SurR9-C84A, a survivin mutant, has neuroprotective effects against H₂O₂-induced neurotoxicity. Our results show that H₂O₂ toxicity is associated with an increase in cell death, mitochondrial membrane depolarisation, and the expression of cyclin D1 and caspases 9 and 3. In addition, pre-treatment with SurR9-C84A reduces cell death by decreasing both the level of mitochondrial depolarisation and the expression of cyclin D1 and caspases 9 and 3. We further show that SurR9-C84A increases the antioxidant activity of GSH-peroxidase and catalase, and effectively counteracts oxidant activity following exposure to H₂O₂. These results suggest for the first time that SurR9-C84A is a promising treatment to protect neuronal cells against H₂O₂-induced neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Baratchi
- Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Biomedical Research, Centre for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Biosciences, Institute for Technology Research and Innovation, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Victoria, Australia
| | - Rupinder K. Kanwar
- Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Biomedical Research, Centre for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Biosciences, Institute for Technology Research and Innovation, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jagat R. Kanwar
- Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Biomedical Research, Centre for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Biosciences, Institute for Technology Research and Innovation, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail:
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19
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Postischemic administration of liposome-encapsulated luteolin prevents against ischemia-reperfusion injury in a rat middle cerebral artery occlusion model. J Nutr Biochem 2010; 22:929-36. [PMID: 21190830 DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2010.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2010] [Revised: 04/24/2010] [Accepted: 07/28/2010] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Oxidative stress-induced neuronal cell death has been implicated in neurodegenerative diseases; one such disease is ischemic stroke. Using reactive oxygen species (ROS)-insulted primary neurons, we screened neuroprotectants with clinical potential and then, using ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) model, investigated the anti-ischemic potential of candidate neuroprotectants. Here, we showed that luteolin, isolated from the ripe fruit of Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt, exhibited a neuroprotective action upon the in vitro platform, thus serving as candidate for in vivo pharmacological evaluation. Liposome-encapsulated luteolin produced dramatic preventing effects on I/R-induced behavioral and histological injuries after a 13-day post-ischemic treatment. Furthermore, this phytochemical not only lowered the increased level of mitochondrial ROS but also substantially up-regulated the decreased activity of catalase and glutathione in I/R rat brains. Collectively, luteolin as a neuroprotectant acts by anti-ischemic activity likely through a rebalancing of pro-oxidant/antioxidant status. Its multitarget mechanisms implicate potential effectiveness for clinically treating ischemia stroke.
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Baratchi S, Kanwar RK, Kanwar JR. Survivin: A target from brain cancer to neurodegenerative disease. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 2010; 45:535-54. [DOI: 10.3109/10409238.2010.516740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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21
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Rutin protects the neural damage induced by transient focal ischemia in rats. Brain Res 2009; 1292:123-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2009] [Revised: 07/06/2009] [Accepted: 07/09/2009] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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