Immunomodulatory effects of fermented Platycodon grandiflorum extract through NF-κB signaling in RAW 264.7 cells

Exploring the preventive effects of Jie Geng Tang on pulmonary fibrosis induced in vitro and in vivo: a network pharmacology approach

Pulmonary fibrosis is a debilitating lung disease marked by excessive fibrotic tissue accumulation, which significantly impairs respiratory function. Given the limitations of current therapies, there is an increasing interest in exploring traditional herbal formulations like Jie Geng Tang (JGT) for treatment. This study examines the potential of JGT and its bioactive component, quercetin, in reversing bleomycin (BLM)-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice. We employed a BLM-induced MLE-12 cell damage model for in vitro studies and a bleomycin-induced fibrosis model in C57BL/6 mice for in vivo experiments. In vitro assessments showed that JGT significantly enhanced cell viability and reduced apoptosis in MLE-12 cells treated with BLM. These findings underscore JGT's potential for cytoprotection against fibrotic agents. In vivo, JGT was effective in modulating the expression of E-cadherin and vimentin, key markers of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) pathway, indicating its role in mitigating EMT-associated fibrotic changes in lung tissue. Quercetin, identified through network pharmacology analysis as a potential key bioactive component of JGT, was highlighted for its role in the regulatory mechanisms underlying fibrosis progression, particularly through the modulation of the IL-17 pathway and Il6 expression. By targeting inflammatory pathways and key processes like EMT, JGT and quercetin offer a potent alternative to conventional therapies, meriting further clinical exploration to harness their full therapeutic potential in fibrotic diseases.

Platycodin D Ameliorates Type 2 Diabetes-Induced Myocardial Injury by Activating the AMPK Signaling Pathway

The current study aimed to assess the effectiveness of pharmacological intervention with Platycodin D (PD), a critically active compound isolated from the roots of Platycodon grandiflorum, in mitigating cardiotoxicity in a murine model of type 2 diabetes-induced cardiac injury and in H9c2 cells in vitro. Following oral administration for 4 weeks, PD (2.5 mg/kg) significantly suppressed the elevation of fasting blood glucose (FBG) levels, improved dyslipidemia, and effectively inhibited the rise of the cardiac injury markers creatine kinase isoenzyme MB (CK-MB) and cardiac troponin T (cTnT). PD treatment could ameliorate energy metabolism disorders induced by impaired glucose uptake by activating AMPK protein expression in the DCM mouse model, thereby promoting the GLUT4 transporter and further activating autophagy-related proteins. Furthermore, in vitro experiments demonstrated that PD exerted a concentration-dependent increase in cell viability while also inhibiting palmitic acid and glucose (HG-PA)-stimulated H9c2 cytotoxicity and activating AMPK protein expression. Notably, the AMPK activator AICAR (1 mM) was observed to upregulate the expression of AMPK in H9c2 cells after high-glucose and -fat exposure. Meanwhile, we used AMPK inhibitor Compound C (20 μM) to investigate the effect of PD activation of AMPK on cells. In addition, the molecular docking approach was employed to dock PD with AMPK, revealing a binding energy of -8.2 kcal/mol and indicating a tight interaction between the components and the target. PD could reduce the expression of autophagy-related protein p62, reduce the accumulation of autophagy products, promote the flow of autophagy, and improve myocardial cell injury. In conclusion, it has been demonstrated that PD effectively inhibits cardiac injury-induced type 2 diabetes in mice and enhances energy metabolism in HG-PA-stimulated H9c2 cells by activating the AMPK signaling pathway. These findings collectively unveil the potential cardioprotective effects of PD via modulation of the AMPK signaling pathway.

Paraprobiotic derived from Bacillus velezensis GV1 improves immune response and gut microbiota composition in cyclophosphamide-treated immunosuppressed mice

Paraprobiotics that benefit human health have the capacity to modulate innate and adaptive immune systems. In this study, we prepared the paraprobiotic from Bacillus velezensis GV1 using the heat-killing method and investigated its effects on immunity and gut microbiota in vitro and in vivo. The morphology of inactivated strain GV1 was observed using scanning electron microscopy. Treatment with GV1 promoted nitric oxide production and augmented cytokine (IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α) expression and secretion in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Moreover, the strain GV1 could alleviate cyclophosphamide monohydrate (CTX)-induced immunosuppression by reversing spleen damage and restoring the immune organ index, as well as by increasing the expression of immune-related cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IFN-γ, and IL-2) in the spleen and thymus, respectively. Furthermore, GV1 treatment dramatically healed the CTX-damaged colon and regulated gut microbiota by increasing the relative abundance of beneficial bacterial families (Lactobacillaceae, Akkermansiaceae, and Coriobacteriaceae) and decreasing that of harmful bacterial families (Desulfovibrionaceae, Erysipelotrichaceae, and Staphylococcaceae). Thus, the heat-killed GV1 can be considered a potential immunoregulatory agent for use as a functional food or immune-enhancing medicine.

In vitro immune-enhancing effects of Platycodon grandiflorum combined with Salvia plebeian via MAPK and NF-κB signaling in RAW264.7 cells

The immune-enhancing activity of the combination of Platycodon grandiflorum and Salvia plebeian extracts (PGSP) was evaluated through macrophage activation using RAW264.7 cells. PGSP (250-1000 μg/mL) showed a higher release of NO in a dose-dependent manner. The results showed that PGSP could significantly stimulate the production of PGE2, COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in RAW264.7 cells and promote iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-4, and IL-6 mRNA expression. Western blot analysis demonstrated that the protein expression of iNOS and COX-2 and the phosphorylation of ERK, JNK, p38, and NF-κB p65 were greatly increased in PGSP-treated cells. PGSP also promoted the phagocytic activity of RAW264.7 cells. All these results indicated that PGSP might activate macrophages through MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways. Taken together, PGSP may be considered to have immune-enhancing activity and might be used as a potential immune-enhancing agent.

Valorization of coffee bean processing waste for the sustainable extraction of biologically active pectin

The dry method of coffee processing generates a significant amount of coffee husk, an agricultural waste for which currently there is a lack of profitable use, and their disposal constitutes a major environmental problem. Pectin was extracted from coffee husk using citric acid solution (pH 1.5) by microwave-assisted extraction method, followed by using ice-cold ethanol. The coffee husk pectin (CHP) with a yield of 40.2% was characterized using SEM, FT-IR, and XRD techniques. The CHP exhibited significant in-vitro antioxidant activity as measured by using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; (IC50 value of 395.1 ± 0.42 μg/mL), ferrous reducing antioxidant capacity (A700 nm = 0.55 ± 0.08), 2,2'-Azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical scavenging (42.02 ± 0.38%) and ascorbic acid auto-oxidation inhibition (92.01 ± 0.28%) assays. CHP demonstrated antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Bacillus cereus with an inhibition diameter of 20 ± 1.01 mm and 18 ± 0.84 mm, respectively. Interestingly, CHP showed a significant anti-inflammatory effect by negatively modulating the expressions of TNF-α and TGF- β in LPS-stimulated macrophage cell lines. Collectively, our findings suggest that the coffee husk is a potential source of commercial pectin, microwave-assisted extraction has a great potency on the commercial pectin extraction from the coffee husk and CHP demonstrates significant biological activity.

Research Progress of Immunomodulation on Anti-COVID-19 and the Effective Components from Traditional Chinese Medicine

SARS-CoV-2 has posed a threat to the health of people around the world because of its strong transmission and high virulence. Currently, there is no specific medicine for the treatment of COVID-19. However, for a wide variety of medicines used to treat COVID-19, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) plays a major role. In this paper, the effective treatment of COVID-19 using TCM was consulted first, and several Chinese medicines that were frequently used apart from their huge role in treating it were found. Then, when exploring the active ingredients of these herbs, it was discovered that most of them contained flavonoids. Therefore, the structure and function of the potential active substances of flavonoids, including flavonols, flavonoids, and flavanes, respectively, are discussed in this paper. According to the screening data, these flavonoids can bind to the key proteins of SARS-CoV-2, 3CLpro, PLpro, and RdRp, respectively, or block the interface between the viral spike protein and ACE2 receptor, which could inhibit the proliferation of coronavirus and prevent the virus from entering human cells. Besides, the effects of flavonoids on the human body systems are expounded on in this paper, including the respiratory system, digestive system, and immune system, respectively. Normally, flavonoids boost the body's immune system. However, they can suppress the immune system when over immunized. Ultimately, this study hopes to provide a reference for the clinical drug treatment of COVID-19 patients, and more TCM can be put into the market accordingly, which is expected to promote the development of TCM on the international stage.

The Wu-Shi-Cha formula protects against ulcerative colitis by orchestrating immunity and microbiota homeostasis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ulcerative colitis (UC) has become a healthy burden worldwide due to its insidious onset and repetitive relapse, with a rather complex etiology, including inappropriate immune response, dysbiosis, genetic susceptibility, and unhealthy diets. The Wu-Shi-Cha (WSC) formula is a widely utilized drug to protect against gastrointestinal disorders.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The study aspired to dissect the pertinent mechanisms of the WSC to treat UC.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Network pharmacology and weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) were performed to predict the targets of WSC in the context of UC and colorectal cancer. Dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) was used to construct murine models of experimental colitis, and the WSC was given to colitis mice for 14 days. Feces and colon samples were subjected to 16S rRNA gene sequencing combined with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and biochemical experiments, respectively.

RESULTS

Network pharmacology analysis predicted that the WSC formula could orchestrate inflammation, infection, and tumorigenesis, and WGCNA based on The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database showed a potent anti-neoplastic effect of the WSC therapy for colorectal cancer. The WSC therapy rescued bursts of pro-inflammatory cytokines and colonic epithelial collapse in DSS-induced colitis mice. Moreover, the high dose of WSC treatment facilitated the alternative activation of peritoneal macrophages (Mφs) and these Mφs were conducive to the survival of intestinal stem cells (ISCs), and the disturbed homeostasis of gut microbiota was re-established after WSC treatment, as evidenced by the decreased colonization of pathological taxa in the fecal samples.

CONCLUSION

The WSC formula suppresses inflammation and re-establishes the homeostasis of gut microbiota, thereby ameliorating colitis progression.

Platycodin D-Induced Immunotoxicity in RAW 264.7 Macrophages via Oxidative Stress-Mediated Apoptosis

Platycodin D (PD) is a naturally occurring, biologically active triterpenoid saponin isolated from a medicinal food homology plant called Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A. DC. It is involved in the processing of various biological activities. While investigating the anti-inflammatory property of PD using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated murine RAW 264.7 macrophage cells, we unexpectedly found that PD exhibited toxicity to RAW 264.7 cells. In this study, the toxic effect of PD on RAW 264.7 cells was systematically evaluated for the first time. The results showed that PD (12.5−200 µM) significantly reduced cell viability and inhibited cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. At a concentration of 20 µM, PD significantly increased lactate dehydrogenase activity and the mRNA and protein expression of Bax, p53, Casp3, IL-1β, and TNF-α. Interestingly, PD (0.8−20 µM) inhibited the expression of inflammatory cytokines in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. PD (20 µM) also significantly increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and the expression of oxidative stress-related genes and proteins. This study revealed that PD exhibited immunotoxicity to RAW 264.7 cells, with possible mechanisms including oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis resulting in activation of the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway and dysregulated expression of inflammatory cytokines. This study evaluated the impact of PD on immunity and provided guidelines for its future biological application.

Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC.: A review of phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology and traditional use

BACKGROUND

The traditional Chinese medicine Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC. (PG, balloon flower) has medicinal and culinary value. It consists of a variety of chemical components including triterpenoid saponins, polysaccharides, flavonoids, polyphenols, polyethylene glycols, volatile oils and mineral components, which have medicinal and edible value.

PURPOSE

The ultimate goal of this review is to summarize the phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, safety and uses of PG in local and traditional medicine.

METHODS

A comprehensive search of published literature up to March 2022 was conducted using the PubMed, China Knowledge Network and Web of Science databases to identify original research related to PG, its active ingredients and pharmacological activities.

RESULTS

Triterpene saponins are the primary bioactive compounds of PG. To date, 76 triterpene saponin compounds have been isolated and identified from PG. In addition, there are other biological components, such as flavonoids, polyacetylene and phenolic acids. These extracts possess antitussive, immunostimulatory, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor, antiobesity, antidepressant, and cardiovascular system activities. The mechanisms of expression of these pharmacological effects include inhibition of the expression of proteins such as MDM and p53, inhibition of the activation of enzymes, such as AKT, the secretion of inflammatory factors, such as IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2 and IL-1β, and activation of the AMPK pathway.

CONCLUSION

This review summarizes the chemical composition, pharmacological activities, molecular mechanism, toxicity and uses of PG in local and traditional medicine over the last 12 years. PG contains a wide range of chemical components, among which triterpene saponins, especially platycoside D (PD), play a strong role in pharmacological activity, representing a natural phytomedicine with low toxicity that has applications in food, animal feed and cosmetics. Therefore, PG has value for exploitation and is an excellent choice for treating various diseases.

Platycodon grandiflorum root fermentation broth reduces inflammation in a mouse IBD model through the AMPK/NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway

The effect of Platycodon grandiflorum (PG) on colitis and its underlying mechanism were rarely studied. In this study, Lactobacillus rhamnosus 217-1 was used to ferment PG roots, and the concentrations of platycodin-D, flavonoids, and polyphenols and the DPPH free radical scavenging rate were significantly increased. Treatment with a PG root fermentation broth (PGRFB) could reduce dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) induced ulcerative colitis (UC) in mice. Meanwhile, the PGRFB significantly reduced the content of inflammatory factors in mouse serum and the expression of inflammatory factor mRNA in the intestinal tract, regulated the polarization of M1/M2 macrophages, and increased the expression of tight junction protein mRNA in intestinal epithelial cells. In summary, it was proved that the PGRFB could inhibit the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway and the expression of Nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasomes by activating AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and lowering the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Impact of the Plastein Reaction of Casein Hydrolysates in the Presence of Exogenous Amino Acids on Their Anti-Inflammatory Effect in the Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated Macrophages

In this study, papain-generated casein hydrolysates (CH) with a degree of hydrolysis of 13.7% were subjected to a papain-mediated plastein reaction in the absence or presence of one of the exogenous amino acids-Gly, Pro, and Hyp-to prepare four plastein modifiers, or mixed with one of three amino acids to prepare three mixtures. The assay results confirmed that the reaction reduced free NH2 for the modifiers and caused amino acid incorporation and peptide condensation. When RAW264.7 macrophages were exposed to the CH, modifiers, and mixtures, these samples promoted macrophage growth and phagocytosis in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, the CH shared similar activity in the cells as the mixtures, while the modifiers (especially the PCH-Hyp prepared with Hyp addition) exerted higher potential than CH, the mixtures, and PCH (the modifier prepared without amino acid addition). The plastein reaction thus enhanced CH bioactivity in the cells. When RAW264.7 macrophages were stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the inflammatory cells produced more lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release and reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, and caused more four inflammatory mediators (NO, PGE2, TNF-α, and IL-6) and two anti-inflammatory mediators (TGF-β1 and IL-10). However, the PCH-Hyp, PCH, and CH at dose levels of 100 μg/mL could combat against the LPS-induced inflammation. Overall, the PCH-Hyp was more active than the CH and PCH in reducing LDH release, ROS formation, and the secretion of these inflammatory mediators, or in increasing the secretion of the anti-inflammatory mediators. The qPCR and Western blot analysis results further confirmed that these samples had anti-inflammatory effects on the stimulated cells by suppressing the LPS-induced activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway, via regulating the mRNA/miRNA expression of iNOS, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, COX-2, TLR4, IL-10, TGF-β1, miR-181a, miR-30d, miR-155, and miR-148, as well as the protein expression of MyD88, p-IKKα, p-IκBα, p-NF-κB p65, and iNOS, involved in this signaling pathway. In addition, the immunofluorescence assay results revealed that these samples could block the LPS-mediated nuclear translocation of the p65 protein and displayed the same function as the NF-κB inhibitor BAY 11-7082. It was concluded that CH could be endowed with higher anti-inflammatory activity to the macrophages by performing a plastein reaction, particularly that in the presence of exogenous Hyp.

Immunometabolism modulation, a new trick of edible and medicinal plants in cancer treatment

The edible and medicinal plants (EMPs) are becoming an abundant source for cancer prevention and treatment since the natural and healthy trend for modern human beings. Currently, there are more than one hundred species of EMPs widely used and listed by the national health commission of China, and most of them indicate immune or metabolic regulation potential in cancer treatment with numerous studies over the past two decades. In the present review, we focused on the metabolic influence in immunocytes and tumor microenvironment, including immune response, immunosuppressive factors and cancer cells, discussing the immunometabolic potential of EMPs in cancer treatment. There are more than five hundred references collected and analyzed through retrieving pharmacological studies deposited in PubMed by medical subject headings and the corresponding names derived from pharmacopoeia of China as a sole criterion. Finally, the immunometabolism modulation of EMPs was sketch out implying an immunometabolic control in cancer treatment.

Platycodin D inhibits the malignant progression of papillary thyroid carcinoma by NF-κB and enhances the therapeutic efficacy of pembrolizumab

Papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) is the most common pathological type of thyroid cancer. Studies have shown that platycodin D has several pharmacological effects like anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and anti-tumor effects, while the effect and mechanism of platycodin D on PTC are still unclear. This study was designed to investigate the effects of platycodin D on PTC by a series of in vitro and in vivo experiments. The results revealed that platycodin D inhibits PTC cell viability and clonal levels and affects PTC cell cycle. Platycodin D promotes apoptosis in PTC cells. Furthermore, it inhibits the activation of NF-κB signaling pathway and affects cell growth. Platycodin D inhibits PD-L1 expression and enhances the effect of pembrolizumab on PTC cells. In conclusion, platycodin D can effectively block the progression of PTC through the NF-κB signaling pathway, accompanied by cell cycle arrest and enhanced cell apoptosis. In vitro and in vivo, platycodin D was shown to enhance pembrolizumab's sensitivity to PTC. Platycodin D is a promising monomer for therapy of PTC, providing references for future research on PTC treatment.

An 8-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of red Platycodon grandiflorus root extract on enhancement of immune function

BACKGROUND

The immune-enhancing effects of red Platycodon grandiflorus root extract (RPGE) has been reported in vitro and in vivo, but there are few studies on humans. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the efficacy and safety of RPGE in enhancing immune function in healthy subjects.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

An 8-week randomized, double-blind, parallel, placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted at the Gachon University Gil Medical Center, Incheon, South Korea. A total of 100 adults aged 20-75 years with white blood cell counts of 3000-10,000 cell/µL were randomly divided into two groups (RPGE group, 50 and placebo group, 50) using a computer-generated random list with a 1:1 allocation ratio. The subjects consumed RPGE (2 times/day, 2 tablets/time, 375 mg RPGE powder/tablet) or placebo for 8 weeks. All test foods for the human study were coded and administered under double-blind conditions. The primary outcome was a change in the NK cell activity after 8 weeks of treatment compared to the baseline.

RESULTS

Among 100 subjects enrolled for the study, 87 completed the study. NK cell activity (p = 0.005) and IFN-γ level (p = 0.003) of the RPGE group (n = 41) were higher than those of the placebo group (n = 46). The findings of the safety assessment revealed absence of clinically significant changes in any test and serious adverse events throughout the study.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, these results demonstrate the efficacy and safety of RPGE, suggesting it to be a beneficial agent for enhancing immune function in humans.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

CRIS Registration Number KCT0005945, https://cris.nih.go.kr.