β-Sitosterol treatment attenuates cognitive deficits and prevents amyloid plaque deposition in amyloid protein precursor/presenilin 1 mice

Network Pharmacology, Molecular Docking, and In Vitro Insights into the Potential of Mitragyna speciosa for Alzheimer's Disease

Mitragyna speciosa Korth. Havil (MS) has a traditional use in relieving pain, managing hypertension, treating cough, and diarrhea, and as a morphine substitute in addiction recovery. Its potential in addressing Alzheimer's disease (AD), a neurodegenerative condition with no effective treatments, is under investigation. This study aims to explore MS mechanisms in treating AD through network pharmacology, molecular docking, and in vitro studies. Using network pharmacology, we identified 19 MS components that may affect 60 AD-related targets. The compound-target network highlighted significant interactions among 60 nodes and 470 edges, with an average node degree of 15.7. The KEGG enrichment analysis revealed Alzheimer's disease (hsa05010) as a relevant pathway. We connected 20 targets to tau and β-amyloid proteins through gene expression data from the AlzData database. Docking studies demonstrated high binding affinities of MS compounds like acetylursolic acid, beta-sitosterol, isomitraphylline, and speciophylline to AD-related proteins, such as AKT1, GSK3B, NFκB1, and BACE1. In vitro studies showed that ethanolic (EE), distilled water (DWE), and pressurized hot water (PHWE) extracts of MS-treated 100 μM H2O2-induced SH-SY5Y cells significantly reduced oxidative damage. This research underscores the multi-component, multi-target, and multi-pathway effects of MS on AD, providing insights for future research and potential clinical applications.

Revealing the potential therapeutic mechanism of Lonicerae Japonicae Flos in Alzheimer's disease: a computational biology approach

Background

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a degenerative brain disease without a cure. Lonicerae Japonicae Flos (LJF), a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, possesses a neuroprotective effect, but its mechanisms for AD are not well understood. This study aimed to investigate potential targets and constituents of LJF against AD.

Methods

Network pharmacology and bioinformatics analyses were performed to screen potential compounds and targets. Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) datasets related to AD patients were used to screen core targets of differential expression. Gene expression profiling interactive analysis (GEPIA) was used to validate the correlation between core target genes and major causative genes of AD. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was used to evaluate the predictive efficacy of core targets based on GEO datasets. Molecular docking and dynamics simulation were conducted to analyze the binding affinities of effective compounds with core targets.

Results

Network pharmacology analysis showed that 112 intersection targets were identified. Bioinformatics analysis displayed that 32 putative core targets were identified from 112 intersection targets. Only eight core targets were differentially expressed based on GEO datasets. Finally, six core targets of MAPK8, CTNNB1, NFKB1, EGFR, BCL2, and NFE2L2 were related to AD progression and had good predictive ability based on correlation and ROC analyses. Molecular docking and dynamics simulation analyses elucidated that the component of lignan interacted with EGFR, the component of β-carotene interacted with CTNNB1 and BCL2, the component of β-sitosterol interacted with BCL2, the component of hederagenin interacted with NFKB1, the component of berberine interacted with EGFR and BCL2, and the component of baicalein interacted with NFKB1, EGFR and BCL2.

Conclusion

Through a comprehensive analysis, this study revealed that six core targets (MAPK8, CTNNB1, NFKB1, EGFR, BCL2, and NFE2L2) and six practical components (lignan, β-carotene, β-sitosterol, hederagenin, berberine, and baicalein) were involved in the mechanism of action of LJF against AD. Our work demonstrated that LJF effectively treats AD through its multi-component and multi-target properties. The findings of this study will establish a theoretical basis for the expanded application of LJF in AD treatment and, hopefully, can guide more advanced experimental research in the future.

Huang-Pu-Tong-Qiao Formula Alleviates Hippocampal Neuron Damage by Inhibiting NLRP3 Inflammasome-mediated Pyroptosis in Alzheimer's Disease

Huang-Pu-Tong-Qiao (HPTQ), a Traditional Chinese Medicine formula, has achieved remarkable efficacy in clinically treating Alzheimer's disease (AD). Pyroptosis refers to the inflammatory necrosis of cells, which contributes to AD pathological progression. However, it is unclear whether the therapeutic effect of HPTQ on AD is related to reducing pyroptosis. In this study, the network pharmacology analysis was used to predict the molecular mechanism of HPTQ in treating AD and validated our hypothesis through mice and cell experiments. APP/PS1 transgenic mice and Aβ25-35-injured HT22 cells were used as AD models in vivo and in vitro. The pharmacological effects and mechanisms of HPTQ on AD were evaluated by Morris water maze, Y-maze, transmission electron microscope, immunofluorescence, Hoechst/PI staining, western blot, and ELISA. Network pharmacology reveals the correlation between the therapeutic effect of HPTQ on AD and the NOD-like receptor signaling pathway. In APP/PS1 mice, HPTQ reduced the escape latency and maintained cell membrane integrity. In HT22 cells, 15% HPTQ-medicated serum and 10 µM MCC950 increased cell viability and decreased PI positive rate compared with the Model group. In addition, HPTQ treatment in AD animal and cell models reduced the protein expressions of NLRP3, ASC, cleaved caspase-1, GSDMD, GSDMD-N, IL-1β, and IL-18. The experimental results of MCC950 specifically inhibiting the NLRP3 expression suggested that HPTQ might reduce neuronal pyroptosis by reducing NLRP3 inflammasome. Network pharmacology and experimental validation suggested that HPTQ alleviated NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated neuronal pyroptosis in AD, which could provide valuable candidate drugs for AD clinical treatment.

Beta-sitosterol mitigates cognitive deficit and hippocampal neurodegeneration in mice with trimethyltin-induced toxicity

The present study investigated the neural health benefit of beta-sitosterol (BSS) against trimethyltin (TMT)-induced neurodegeneration in mice. Forty male Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) mice were randomly divided into Sham-veh, TMT-veh, TMT-BSS50, and TMT-BSS100. A one-time intraperitoneal injection of 2.6 mg/kg of TMT was given to mice in TMT groups. Vehicle (veh), BSS 50 mg/kg or BSS 100 mg/kg were orally given for 2 weeks. Spatial learning and memory were evaluated. Brain oxidative status, hippocampal neuropathology, and reactive astrocytes were done. White matter pathology was also evaluated. The results indicated the massy effect of TMT on induced motor ability and spatial memory deficits in accordance with increased neuronal degeneration in Cornus ammonis (CA) 1, CA3, and dentate gyrus (DG) and internal capsule white matter damage. TMT also induced the reduction of reactive astrocytes in CA1 and DG. Brain's catalase activity was significantly reduced by TMT, but not in mice with BSS treatments. Both doses of BSS treatment exhibited improvement in motor ability and spatial memory deficits in accordance with the activation of reactive astrocytes in CA1, CA3, and DG. However, they successfully prevented the increase of neuronal degeneration in CA1 found only with the BSS dose of 100 mg/kg, and it was indicated as the effective dose for neuroprotection in the vulnerable brain area. This study demonstrated mitigative effects of BSS against motor ability and memory deficits with neural health benefits, including a protective effect against CA1 neurodegeneration and a nurturing effect on hippocampal reactive astrocytes.

Administration of Young Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Juice Ameliorates Memory Impairment in a Menopausal Rat Model

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

In Southeast Asia, the traditional use of young coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) juice (YCJ) by women to alleviate postmenopausal symptoms suggests potential estrogenic properties. However, few studies explore the impact of YCJ on pathologies associated with estrogen deficiency in postmenopausal animal models. This study examines the impact of YCJ supplementation on memory impairment and depression-like behavior in ovariectomized (Ovx) rats.

METHODS

Ten-week-old female rats underwent either a sham operation (Sham) or bilateral Ovx. The rats in the Ovx + YCJ group received 5×-concentrated YCJ by gavage at a dose of 15 mL/kg body weight. Twelve weeks later, the Morris water maze and forced swim tests were used to evaluate hippocampus-dependent spatial memory and depression-like behavior, respectively.

RESULTS

The Ovx rats displayed significant memory impairment (p < 0.05) and depression-like behaviors (p < 0.05), while the memory performance in the rats in the Ovx + YCJ group resembled that of the Sham rats. However, the administration of YCJ did not result in the improvement of depression-like behavior.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that YCJ consumption may help ameliorate memory impairment in postmenopausal women.

Identifying Potential Human Monoacylglycerol Lipase Inhibitors from the Phytoconstituents of Morinda Citrifolia L. Fruits by in silico Pharmacology and in vitro Study

Background

Human monoacylglycerol lipase (MGL) is accountable for the hydrolysis of 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), thus contributing pivotally to neuroprotection because 2-AG is the main source of arachidonic acid, the precursor of prostaglandins production. Inhibiting MGL reduces inflammatory damage in the ischemic brain and enhances cerebral blood flow. Plants have been reported for their neuroprotective effect, such as Morinda citrifolia on pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced kindling seizures in mice, by reducing the seizures and restoring behavioral and biochemical changes, although the mechanism is not described.

Purpose

To evaluate the binding affinity and stability of phytoconstituents in M. citrifolia fruits toward human MGL (PDB ID 3PE6), compared to the known MGL inhibitors (JZL195 and ZYH). The in silico pharmacology study was validated by an in vitro study of the phytosterols and the ethanol extract of M. citrifolia fruits (EEMC) towards MGL.

Methods

Initially, nine phytoconstituents of M. citrifolia fruits were docked to the catalytic pocket of human MGL (PDB ID: 3PE6), and compounds with the best affinity were subjected to a molecular dynamic (MD) simulation. The in vitro study was performed using the MGL inhibitor screening assay kit.

Results

The best binding affinity and stability toward human MGL were shown by stigmasterol and beta-sitosterol, and the MM-PBSA total binding energy of stigmasterol and beta-sitosterol to MGL is stronger than that of JZL195 and ZYH. Moreover, beta-sitosterol and EEMC inhibit MGL with an IC50 value of, respectively, 8.10 μg/mL and 196.20 μg/mL, while JZL195 shows an IC50 of 0.028 μg/mL.

Conclusion

Beta-sitosterol of Morinda citrifolia fruits may have the potential to protect human neurons by occupying the catalytic site of human MGL, thus competitively inhibiting the substrate of the enzyme. However, the inhibitory activity towards human MGL is lower than JZL195.

Integrated network pharmacology and molecular docking to investigate the potential mechanism of Tufuling on Alzheimer's disease

Objective

This study aimed to investigate the mechanism of Tu Fu Ling in treating Alzheimer's disease (AD) using network pharmacology and molecular docking.

Methods

The TCMSP and Swiss target prediction databases were utilized to confirm the active components of Tu Fu Ling and their corresponding targets, with target gene names converted using the UniProt database. Genes related to AD were collected from DisGeNET, GeneCards, and the Open Target Platform databases. Common target genes between the disease and the drug were obtained using Venny 2.1 tools and visualized using Cytoscape software. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) data were further analyzed to determine correlations between common target genes, and GO and KEGG pathway enrichment analyses were performed for intersecting genes. Finally, PYmol, AutoDock Tool, Discovery Studio 2020, and PyRx software were used for preliminary computer virtual verification and visualization of active drug ingredients and target proteins.

Results

Nine active ingredients meeting the screening criteria yielded a total of 168 genes after removing duplicates. A total of 3833 target genes were collected, with 129 overlapping target genes identified. GO enrichment analysis identified 643 biological processes, 82 cellular components, and 147 molecular functions. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis also revealed a pathway closely related to AD (hsa05010: Alzheimer's disease). In molecular docking analysis, the binding affinity between the 9 active ingredients and 10 core targets ranged from -3.5 to -12.3 kcal/mol, indicating strong binding.

Conclusion

This study preliminarily verified the combination of Tu Fu Ling's screened active ingredient and the calculated core target, suggesting a potential mechanism of action to improve the symptoms of AD patients through multi-target and multi-pathway approaches. This provides a valuable reference for further exploration of the pharmacological mechanism of AD and the formulation of drug therapy.

Screening of active components of Ganoderma lucidum and decipher its molecular mechanism to improve learning and memory disorders

Learning and memory impairment (LMI), a common degenerative central nervous system disease. Recently, more and more studies have shown that Ganoderma lucidum (GL) can improve the symptoms of LMI. The active ingredients in GL and their corresponding targets were screened through TCMSP (Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database and Analysis Platform) and BATMAN-TCM (Bioinformatics Analysis Tool for Molecular Mechanism of Traditional Chinese Medicine) databases, and the potential LMI targets were searched for through GeneCard (GeneCards Human Gene Database) and DrugBank. Then, we construct a 'main active ingredient-target' network and a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network diagram.The GO (Gene Ontology) functional enrichment analysis and KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) pathway annotation analysis were performed on the common targets through DAVID (Database for Annotation Visualization and Integrated Discovery) to clarify the potential molecular mechanism of action of active ingredients in GL. The tumor necrosis factor (TNF) protein was verified by Western blot; Twenty one active ingredients in GL and 142 corresponding targets were screened out, including 59 targets shared with LMI. The 448 biological processes shown by the GO functional annotation results and 55 signal pathways shown by KEGG enrichment analysis were related to the improvement of LMI by GL, among which the correlation of Alzheimer's disease pathway is the highest, and TNF was the most important protein; TNF can improve LMI. GL can improve LMI mainly by 10 active ingredients in it, and they may play a role by regulating Alzheimer's disease pathway and TNF protein.

Analysis of the mechanism of fibrauretine alleviating Alzheimer's disease based on transcriptomics and proteomics

The dried rattan stem of the Fibraurea Recisa Pierre plant contains the active ingredient known as fibrauretine (FN). Although it greatly affects Alzheimer's disease (AD), the mechanism of their effects still remains unclear. Proteomics and transcriptomics analysis methods were used in this study to determine the mechanism of FN in the treatment of AD. AD model is used through bilateral hippocampal injection of Aβ1-40. After successful modeling, FN was given for 30 days. The results showed that FN could improve the cognitive dysfunction of AD model rats, reduce the expression of Aβ and P-Tau, increase the content of acetylcholine and reduce the activity of acetylcholinesterase. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enriched differentially expressed genes and proteins are involved in signaling pathways including metabolic pathway, AD, pathway in cancer, PI3K-AKT signaling pathway, and cAMP signaling pathway. Transcriptomics and proteomics sequencing resulted in 19 differentially expressed genes and proteins. Finally, in contrast to the model group, after FN treatment, the protein expressions and genes associated with the PI3K-AKT pathway were significantly improved in RT-qPCR and Western blot and assays. This is consistent with the findings of transcriptomic and proteomic analyses. Our study found that, FN may improve some symptoms of AD model rats through PI3K-AKT signaling pathway.

Network Pharmacology Approach to Identify the Calotropis Phytoconstituents' Potential Epileptic Targets and Evaluation of Molecular Docking, MD Simulation, and MM-PBSA Performance

Epilepsy originates from unusual electrical rhythm within brain cells, causes seizures. Calotropis species have been utilized to treat a wide spectrum of ailments since antiquity. Despite chemical and biological investigations, there have been minimal studies on their anticonvulsant activity, and the molecular targets of this plant constituents are unexplored. This study aimed to investigate the plausible epileptic targets of Calotropis phytoconstituents through network pharmacology, and to evaluate their binding strength and stability with the identified targets. In detail, 125 phytoconstituents of the Calotropis plant (C. procera and C. gigantea) were assessed for their drug-likeness (DL), blood-brain-barrier (BBB) permeability and oral bioavailability (OB). Network analysis revealed that targets PTGS2 and PPAR-γ were ranked first and fourth, respectively, among the top ten hub genes significantly linked with antiepileptic drug targets. Additionally, docking, molecular dynamic (MD) simulation, and Molecular Mechanics-Poisson-Boltzmann Surface Area (MM-PBSA) were employed to validate the compound-gene interactions. Docking studies suggested ergost-5-en-3-ol, stigmasterol and β-sitosterol exhibit stronger binding affinity and favorable interactions than co-crystallized ligands with both the targets. Furthermore, both MD simulations and MM-PBSA calculations substantiated the docking results. Combined data revealed that Calotropis phytoconstituents ergost-5-en-3-ol, stigmasterol, and β-sitosterol might be the best inhibitors of both PTGS2 and PPAR-γ.

Cholesterol-metabolism, plant sterols, and long-term cognitive decline in older people - Effects of sex and APOEe4

Neurodegenerative, vascular, and dementia diseases are linked to dysregulations in cholesterol metabolism. Dietary plant sterols, or phytosterols, may interfere to neurodegeneration and cognitive decline, and have cholesterol-lowering, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant qualities. Here, we investigated the potential associations between circulating cholesterol precursors and metabolites, triglycerides, and phytosterols with cognitive decline in older people by performing multivariate analysis on 246 participants engaged in a population-based prospective study. In our analysis we considered the potential effect of sex and APOEe4. We reveal particular dysregulations of diet-derived phytosterols and endogenous cholesterol synthesis and metabolism, and their variations over time linked to cognitive decline in the general population. These results are significant to the development of interventions to avoid cognitive decline in older adults and suggest that levels of circulating sterols should be taken into account when evaluating risk.

Network pharmacology-and molecular docking-based investigation of Danggui blood-supplementing decoction in ischaemic stroke

Danggui blood-supplementing decoction (DBsD) is an herbal preparation treating several diseases including stroke. The present study sought to investigate the potential mechanism of DBsD in ischaemic stroke (IS) using network pharmacology, molecular docking, and cell experiment. Based on the protein-protein (PPI) network analysis, MAPK1 (0.51, 12), KNG1 (0.57, 28), and TNF (0.64, 39) were found with relatively good performance in degree and closeness centrality. The functional enrichment analysis revealed that DBsD contributed to IS-related biological processes, molecule function, and presynaptic/postsynaptic cellular components. Pathway enrichment indicated that DBsD might protect IS by modulating multi-signalling pathways including the sphingolipid signalling pathway. Molecular docking verified the stigmasterol-KNG1, bifendate-TNF, and formononetin-MAPK1 pairs. Cell experiments confirmed the involvement of KNG1 and sphingolipid signalling pathway in hippocampal neuronal cell apoptosis. This study showed that DBsD can protect neuronal cell injury after IS through multiple components, multiple targets, and multiple pathways.

Implication of Oxysterols and Phytosterols in Aging and Human Diseases

Cholesterol is easily oxidized and can be transformed into numerous oxidation products, among which oxysterols. Phytosterols are plant sterols related to cholesterol. Both oxysterols and phytosterols can have an impact on human health and diseases.Cholesterol is a member of the sterol family that plays essential roles in biological processes, including cell membrane stability and myelin formation. Cholesterol can be metabolized into several molecules including bile acids, hormones, and oxysterols. On the other hand, phytosterols are plant-derived compounds structurally related to cholesterol, which can also have an impact on human health. Here, we review the current knowledge about the role of oxysterols and phytosterols on human health and focus on the impact of their pathways on diseases of the central nervous system (CNS), autoimmune diseases, including inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), vascular diseases, and cancer in both experimental models and human studies. We will first discuss the implications of oxysterols and then of phytosterols in different human diseases.

Plant sterols and cholesterol metabolism are associated with five-year cognitive decline in the elderly population

Dysregulations in cholesterol metabolism are associated with neurodegenerative and vascular pathologies, and dementia. Diet-derived plant sterols (phytosterols) have cholesterol-lowering, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties and may interfere with neurodegeneration and cognitive decline. Here we performed multivariate analysis in 720 individuals enrolled in a population-based prospective study to determine whether circulating cholesterol precursors and metabolites, triglycerides, and phytosterols, are associated with cognitive impairment and decline in the older population. We report specific dysregulations of endogenous cholesterol synthesis and metabolism, and diet-derived phytosterols, and their changes over time associated with cognitive impairment, and decline in the general population. These findings suggest circulating sterols levels could be considered in risk evaluation and are relevant for the development of strategies to prevent cognitive decline in older people.

Current trends in natural products for the treatment and management of dementia: Computational to clinical studies

The number of preclinical and clinical studies evaluating natural products-based management of dementia has gradually increased, with an exponential rise in 2020 and 2021. Keeping this in mind, we examined current trends from 2016 to 2021 in order to assess the growth potential of natural products in the treatment of dementia. Publicly available literature was collected from various databases like PubMed and Google Scholar. Oxidative stress-related targets, NF-κB pathway, anti-tau aggregation, anti-AChE, and A-β aggregation were found to be common targets and pathways. A retrospective analysis of 33 antidementia natural compounds identified 125 sustainable resources distributed among 65 families, 39 orders, and 7 classes. We found that families such as Berberidaceae, Zingiberaceae, and Fabaceae, as well as orders such as Lamiales, Sapindales, and Myrtales, appear to be important and should be researched further for antidementia compounds. Moreover, some natural products, such as quercetin, curcumin, icariside II, berberine, and resveratrol, have a wide range of applications. Clinical studies and patents support the importance of dietary supplements and natural products, which we will also discuss. Finally, we conclude with the broad scope, future challenges, and opportunities for field researchers.

Molecular mechanisms of Huanglian Jiedu decoction in treating Alzheimer’s disease by regulating microbiome via network pharmacology and molecular docking analysis

Background

Huanglian Jiedu decoction (HLJDD) is a famous traditional Chinese medicine prescription, which is widely used in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, the interaction between bioactive substances in HLJDD and AD-related targets has not been well elucidated.

Aim

A network pharmacology-based approach combined with molecular docking was performed to determine the bioactives, key targets, and potential pharmacological mechanism of HLJDD against AD, through the regulation of microbial flora.

Materials and methods

Bioactives and potential targets of HLJDD, as well as AD-related targets, were retrieved from Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Analysis Database (TCMSP). Key bioactive components, potential targets, and signaling pathways were obtained through bioinformatics analysis, including protein-protein interaction (PPI), Gene Ontology (GO), and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis. Subsequently, molecular docking was performed to predict the binding of active compounds with core targets.

Results

102 bioactive ingredients of HLJDD and 76 HLJDD-AD-related targets were screened. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that kaempferol, wogonin, beta-sitosterol, baicalein, acacetin, isocorypalmine, (S)-canadine, (R)-canadine may be potential candidate agents. AKT1, TNF, TP53, VEGFA, FOS, PTGS2, MMP9 and CASP3 could become potential therapeutic targets. 15 important signaling pathways including the cancer pathway, VEGF signaling pathway, and NF-κB signaling pathway might play an important role in HLJDD against AD. Moreover, molecular docking analysis suggested that kaempferol, wogonin, beta-sitosterol, baicalein, acacetin, isocorypalmine, (S)-canadine, and (R)-canadine combined well with AKT1, TNF, TP53, VEGFA, FOS, PTGS2, MMP9, CASP3, respectively.

Conclusion

Our results comprehensively illustrated the bioactives, potential targets, and possible molecular mechanisms of HLJDD against AD. HLJDD may regulate the microbiota flora homeostasis to treat AD through multiple targets and multiple pathways. It also provided a promising strategy for the use of traditional Chinese medicine in treating human diseases.

The Effective Components, Core Targets, and Key Pathways of Ginseng against Alzheimer's Disease

Background

Panax ginseng C. A. Mey (ginseng) is a traditional Chinese medicinal herb used for the treatment of nervous system disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the pharmacological mechanisms of ginseng involved in AD have not been systematically investigated. Here, a network pharmacology approach was adopted to explore the effective components, core targets, and key pathways of ginseng against AD.

Methods

TCMSP database was used to screen the active ingredients of ginseng. Prediction of the targets of ginseng and AD-related genes was performed using online public databases. "Compound-Target," "Compound-Target-Disease," "Protein-Protein Interaction (PPI)," "Compound-Target-Pathway," and "Compound-Target-GO-Pathway" networks were constructed with Cytoscape 3.7.2 software. Gene Ontology (GO) function annotation and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment were performed by using the DAVID database.

Results

A total of 22 bioactive compounds were identified from ginseng, and 481 targets of ginseng and 763 AD-related targets were obtained from public databases. The PPI network screened out 19 hub genes of ginseng against AD. According to GO function enrichment, ginseng influenced cell proliferation, death, the nitric oxide biosynthetic process, hypoxia response, and synaptic transmission. Neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, serotonergic synapse, calcium signaling, cAMP signaling, FoxO signaling, Ras signaling, and PI3K-AKT signaling were among the most key regulatory pathways. The compound-target-GO-route network found EGFR, MAPK1, MAPK14, AKT1, CASP3, and PRKACA as key genes, with PI3K-AKT signaling being the most important pathway for ginseng's anti-AD activity.

Conclusion

Ginseng exerts neuroprotective effects in AD patients through multicomponent, multitarget, and multipathway modes, providing novel insight into the pharmacological and experimental research on ginseng against AD.

Paulownia Organs as Interesting New Sources of Bioactive Compounds

Paulownia spp. is a genus of trees in the Paulowniaceae family. It is native to southeastern Asia (especially China), where it has been cultivated for decorative, cultural, and medicinal purposes for over 2000 years. Depending on taxonomic classification, there are 6 to 17 species of Paulownia; P. tomentosa, P. elongata, P. fortunei, and P. catalpifolia are considered the most popular. Nowadays, Paulownia trees are planted in Asia, Europe, North America, and Australia for commercial, medical, and decorative purposes. Lately, growing interest in Paulownia has led to the development of various hybrids, the best-known being Clone in vitro 112, Shan Tong, Sundsu 11, and Cotevisa 2. Paulownia Clone in vitro 112 is an artificially created hybrid of two species of Paulownia: P. elongata and P. fortunei. The present review of selected papers from electronic databases including PubMed, ScienceDirect, and SCOPUS before 15 November 2022 describes the phytochemical characteristics, biological properties, and economic significance of various organs from different Paulownia species and hybrids, including P. tomentosa, P. elongata, P. fortunei, and Paulownia Clone in vitro 112. Many compounds from Paulownia demonstrate various biological activities and are promising candidates for natural preparations; for example, the leaves of Clone in vitro 112 have anti-radical and anticoagulant potential. However, further in vivo studies are needed to clarify the exact mechanism of action of the active substances and their long-term effects.

Selected Seeds as Sources of Bioactive Compounds with Diverse Biological Activities

Seeds contain a variety of phytochemicals that exhibit a wide range of biological activities. Plant-derived compounds are often investigated for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, hypoglycemic, anti-hypercholesterolemic, anti-hypertensive, anti-platelet, anti-apoptotic, anti-nociceptive, antibacterial, antiviral, anticancer, hepatoprotective, or neuroprotective properties. In this review, we have described the chemical content and biological activity of seeds from eight selected plant species-blackberry (Rubus fruticosus L.), black raspberry (Rubus coreanus Miq.), grape (Vitis vinifera L.), Moringa oleifera Lam., sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.), Gac (Momordica cochinchinensis Sprenger), hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), and sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L). This review is based on studies identified in electronic databases, including PubMed, ScienceDirect, and SCOPUS. Numerous preclinical, and some clinical studies have found that extracts, fractions, oil, flour, proteins, polysaccharides, or purified chemical compounds isolated from the seeds of these plants display promising, health-promoting effects, and could be utilized in drug development, or to make nutraceuticals and functional foods. Despite that, many of these properties have been studied only in vitro, and it's unsure if their effects would be relevant in vivo as well, so there is a need for more animal studies and clinical trials that would help determine if they could be applied in disease prevention or treatment.

Mechanistic Insights into the Neuroprotective Potential of Sacred Ficus Trees

Ficus religiosa (Bo tree or sacred fig) and Ficus benghalensis (Indian banyan) are of immense spiritual and therapeutic importance. Various parts of these trees have been investigated for their antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticonvulsant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, hepatoprotective, dermoprotective, and nephroprotective properties. Previous reviews of Ficus mostly discussed traditional usages, photochemistry, and pharmacological activities, though comprehensive reviews of the neuroprotective potential of these Ficus species extracts and/or their important phytocompounds are lacking. The interesting phytocompounds from these trees include many bengalenosides, carotenoids, flavonoids (leucopelargonidin-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside, leucopelargonidin-3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranoside, lupeol, cetyl behenate, and α-amyrin acetate), flavonols (kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin), leucocyanidin, phytosterols (bergapten, bergaptol, lanosterol, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol), terpenes (α-thujene, α-pinene, β-pinene, α-terpinene, limonene, β-ocimene, β-bourbonene, β-caryophyllene, α-trans-bergamotene, α-copaene, aromadendrene, α-humulene, alloaromadendrene, germacrene, γ-cadinene, and δ-cadinene), and diverse polyphenols (tannin, wax, saponin, leucoanthocyanin), contributing significantly to their pharmacological effects, ranging from antimicrobial action to neuroprotection. This review presents extensive mechanistic insights into the neuroprotective potential, especially important phytochemicals from F. religiosa and F. benghalensis. Owing to the complex pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disorders (NDDs), the currently existing drugs merely alleviate the symptoms. Hence, bioactive compounds with potent neuroprotective effects through a multitarget approach would be of great interest in developing pharmacophores for the treatment of NDDs.

Phytochemicals from Calophyllum canum Hook f. ex T. Anderson and their neuroprotective effects

Previous phytochemical investigations reported that Calophyllum spp have biosynthesized a wide range of bioactive phenolics such as xanthones and coumarins. The phytochemical study conducted on the stem bark of C. canum has led to the isolation of eight trioxygenated xanthones namely: 5-methoxytrapezifolixanthone (1), 5-methoxyananixanthone (2), caloxanthone C (3), 1,5-dihydroxy-3-methoxy-4-isoprenylxanthone (4), 6-deoxyisojacareubin (5), euxanthone (6), trapezifolixanthone (7), ananixanthone (8), together with three common triterpenoids, β-sitosterol (9), friedelin (10), and stigmasterol (11). Furthermore, xanthones 1 and 2 were isolated for the first time as naturally occurring xanthones from the plant extract. The structures of these compounds were identified and elucidated using advanced spectroscopic techniques such as 1 D & 2 D NMR, MS, and FTIR. The neuroprotective property of selected compounds was tested through in vitro stroke model. Among all tested compounds, 1 µm of compounds 8, 9, and 10 showed significant neuroprotective activity via reduction of apoptosis by ∼ 50%.

Mechanism of Zhinao Capsule in Treating Alzheimer’s Disease Based on Network Pharmacology Analysis and Molecular Docking Validation

Objective

This study aimed to determine the active components of Zhinao capsule (ZNC) and the targets in treating Alzheimer's disease (AD) so as to investigate and explore the mechanism of ZNC for AD.

Methods

The active components and targets of ZNC were determined from the traditional Chinese medicine systems pharmacology database (TCMSP). The target genes of AD were searched for in GeneCards. Cytoscape was used to construct an herb-component-target-disease network. A protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed by STRING. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses were performed using the OmicShare. UCSF Chimera and SwissDock were used for molecular docking verification. Finally, four key target genes were validated by Western blotting.

Results

In total, 55 active components, 287 targets of active components, 1197 disease genes, and 134 common genes were screened, which were significantly enriched in 3975 terms of biological processes (BP), 284 terms of cellular components (CC), 433 terms of molecular functions (MF), and 245 signaling pathways. Caspase-3 (CASP3) and beta-sitosterol, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and quercetin, vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) and baicalein, and mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 (MAPK1) and quercetin showed good-to-better docking. Moreover, ZNC not only downregulated CASP3 and TNF-α protein expression but also upregulated the protein expression of VEGFA and MAPK1.

Conclusions

The active components of ZNC, such as beta-sitosterol, quercetin, and baicalein may act on multiple targets like CASP3, VEGFA, MAPK1, and TNF-α to affect T cell receptor (TCR), TNF, and MAPK signaling pathway, thereby achieving the treatment of AD. This study provides a scientific basis for further exploring the potential mechanism of ZNC in the treatment of AD and a reference for its clinical application.

Medication Rules in Herbal Medicine for Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Network Pharmacology and Data Mining Study

Background

Although traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has good efficacy in the treatment of mild cognitive impairment (MCI), especially memory improvement and safety, its substance basis and intervention mechanism are particularly complex and unknown. Therefore, based on network pharmacology and data mining, this study aims to explore the rules, active ingredients and mechanism of TCM in the treatment of MCI.

Methods

By searching the GeneCard, OMIM, DisGeNET and DrugBank databases, we obtained the critical targets associated with MCI. We matched the components and herbs corresponding to the important targets in the TCMSP platform. Using Cytoscape 3.7.2 software, we constructed a target-component-herb network and conducted a network topology analysis to obtain the core components and herbs. Molecular docking was used to preliminarily analyze and predict the binding activities and main binding combinations of the core targets and components. Based on the analysis of the properties, flavor and meridian distribution of herbs, the rules of herbal therapy for MCI were summarized.

Results

Twenty-eight critical targets were obtained after the screening. Using the TCMSP platform, 492 components were obtained. After standardization, we obtained 387 herbs. Based on the target-composition-herb network analysis, the core targets were ADRB2, ADRA1B, DPP4, ACHE and ADRA1D. According to the screening, the core ingredients were beta-sitosterol, quercetin, kaempferol, stigmasterol and luteolin. The core herbs were matched to Danshen, Yanhusuo, Gancao, Gouteng and Jiangxiang. It was found that the herbs were mainly warm in nature, pungent in taste and liver and lung in meridian. The molecular docking results showed that most core components exhibited strong binding activity to the target combination regardless of the in or out of network combination.

Conclusion

The results of this study indicate that herbs have great potential in the treatment of MCI. This study provides a reference and basis for clinical application, experimental research and new drug development of herbal therapy for MCI.

Effects of Artemisia macrocephala Jacquem on Memory Deficits and Brain Oxidative Stress in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Mice

Different species of Artemisia have been reported to have therapeutic potential in treating various health disorders, including diabetes and memory dysfunction. The present study was planned to evaluate the effects of Artemisia macrocephala Jacquem crude extract and its subfractions as antiamnesic agents in streptozotocin-induced (STZ) diabetic mice. The in vivo behavioral studies were performed using the Y Maze test and novel object recognition test (NORT) test at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg of crude extract and 75 and 150 mg/kg of fractions. The in vitro and ex vivo anticholinesterase activities, along with biochemical parameters (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione and lipid peroxidation) in the brain, were evaluated. Blood glucose levels were monitored with a glucometer; crude extract and fractions reduced the glucose level considerably, with some differences in the extent of their efficacies. The crude extract and fractions demonstrated significant inhibitory activity against cholinesterases (AChE and BuChE) in vitro. Crude, chloroform and ethyl acetate extract were found to be more potent than the other fractions, with IC50 of Crd-Am = 116.36 ± 1.48 and 240.52 ± 1.35 µg/mL, Chl-Am = 52.68 ± 1.09 and 57.45 ± 1.39 µg/mL and Et-Am = 75.19 ± 1.02 and 116.58 ± 1.09 µg/mL, respectively. Oxidative stress biomarkers like superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione levels were elevated, whereas MDA levels were reduced by crude extract and all fractions with little difference in their respective values. The Y-maze test and novel object recognition test demonstrated declines in memory impairment in groups (n = 6) treated with crude extract and fractions as compared to STZ diabetic (amnesic) group. The most active fraction, Chl-Am, was also subjected to isolation of bioactive compounds; three compounds were obtained in pure state and designated as AB-I, AB-II and AB-III. Overall, the results of the study showed that Artemisia macrocephala Jacquem enhanced the memory impairment associated with diabetes, elevated acetylcholine levels and ameliorated oxidative stress. Further studies are needed to explore the beneficial role of the secondary metabolites isolated in the present study as memory enhancers. Toxicological aspects of the extracts are also important and need to be evaluated in other animal models.

Advances in Research on Chemical Constituents and Their Biological Activities of the Genus Actinidia

Kiwi, a fruit from plants of the genus Actinidia, is one of the famous fruits with thousand years of edible history. In the past twenty years, a great deal of research has been done on the chemical constituents of the Actinidia species. A large number of secondary metabolites including triterpenoids, flavonoids, phenols, etc. have been identified from differents parts of Actinidia plants, which exhibited significant in vitro and in vivo pharmacological activities including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, anti-oxidative, anti-bacterial, and anti-diabetic activities. In order to fully understand the chemical components and biological activities of Actinidia plants, and to improve their further research, development and utilization, this review summarizes the compounds extracted from different parts of Actinidia plants since 1959 to 2020, classifies the types of constituents, reports on the pharmacological activities of relative compounds and medicinal potentials.

The effects of green tea on cognitive impairments in the rat model of Alzheimer's disease: protection against inflammatory and oxidative damage

INTRODUCTION

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a decrement in the number of synapses, an increment in the production of oxygen free radicals and inflammatory cytokines. Green tea (GT) plays a defensive performance in different neurodegenerative conditions, such as cognition deficit. This study investigated the neuroprotective effect of green tea (GT) on cognitive disorder, inflammation, and oxidative stress in the streptozotocin (STZ)- induced AD model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The rats were divided into four groups: (1) Control, (2) GT, (3) Alz, and (4) GT + Alz. AD was induced by the injection of STZ (3 mg/kg, bilaterally, ICV). Morris water maze and passive avoidance tests were done to evaluate the memory and learning of rats. Biochemical parameters were measured with specialized ELISA kits.

RESULTS

Briefly, data analysis revealed that GT administration for 21 days improved memory impairment induced by the injection of STZ. Pretreatment with GT enhanced time spent in the goal quarter and reduced latency time and path length. Furthermore, pretreatment with GT prevented the increment of malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration in STZ-treated rats. As a pro-inflammatory cytokine, tumor necrosis factor- α (TNF-α) concentration was suppressed with the GT pretreatment. Total antioxidant capacity was increased after GT administration in rats treated compared with AD rats.

CONCLUSIONS

GT pretreatment attenuated STZ-induced learning and memory impairment through the suppression of TNF-α and MDA concentrations. The beneficial effects of GT on memory could be attributed to its protective effects on oxidative defenses.

Identifying mechanisms of Epimedii Folium against Alzheimer’s disease via a network pharmacology approach Epimedii Folium treats Alzheimer’s disease via PI3K-AKT

To elucidate the mechanism of the multi-target action of Epimedii Folium on Alzheimer’s disease, this study focuses on the analysis of network pharmacology. Based on a bioinformatics approach, this study obtained the effective components of Epimedium through the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database and Analysis Platform, predicted the compound targets through the Pharmapper and Swiss target prediction database and then through Gene Expression Omnibus Datasets and Therapeutic Target Database. We collected and analysed of heral and disease targets, constructed the network. Through the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway, Gene Ontology enrichment, then the key targets and pathways of Epimedii Folium to cope with Alzheimer’s disease have been identified. Twenty-three bioactive components and 477 potential target genes of Epimedii Folium were identified. A total of 1612 target diseases were identified. Through network module analysis, 30 hub target genes were identified. Through enrichment analysis of the KEGG pathway, hub target genes were largely enriched in the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway. Through the analysis of network pharmacology, it was found that Epimedii Folium might play the role of multi-compound and multi-target therapy through the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway. These findings provide helpful directions for future clinical studies.

Phytosterols: Potential Metabolic Modulators in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Phytosterols constitute a class of natural products that are an important component of diet and have vast applications in foods, cosmetics, and herbal medicines. With many and diverse isolated structures in nature, they exhibit a broad range of biological and pharmacological activities. Among over 200 types of phytosterols, stigmasterol and β-sitosterol were ubiquitous in many plant species, exhibiting important aspects of activities related to neurodegenerative diseases. Hence, this mini-review presented an overview of the reported studies on selected phytosterols related to neurodegenerative diseases. It covered the major phytosterols based on biosynthetic considerations, including other phytosterols with significant in vitro and in vivo biological activities.

Effect of Low-Dose Gamma Radiation and Lipoic Acid on High- Radiation-Dose Induced Rat Brain Injuries

Aim

This work aims to investigate the possible radio-adaptive mechanisms induced by low-dose (LD) whole-body γ-irradiation alone or combined with alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) administration in modulating high-dose (HD) head irradiation–induced brain injury in rats.

Materials and Methods

Rats were irradiated with LD (.25 Gy) 24 hours prior HD (20 Gy), and subjected to ALA (100 mg/kg/day) 5 minutes after HD and continued for 10 days. At the end of the experiment, animals were sacrificed and brain samples were dissected for biochemical and histopathological examinations.

Results

HD irradiation-induced brain injury as manifested by elevation of oxidative stress, DNA damage, apoptotic, and inflammatory markers in brain tissue. Histological examination of brain sections showed marked alterations. However, LD alone or combined with ALA ameliorated the changes induced by HD.

Conclusion

Under the present experimental conditions, LD whole-body irradiation exhibited neuroprotective activity against detrimental effects of a subsequent HD head irradiation. This effect might be due to the adaptive response induced by LD that activated the anti-oxidative, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory mechanisms in the affected animals making them able to cope with the subsequent high-dose exposure. However, the combined LD exposure and ALA supplementation produced a further modulating effect in the HD-irradiated rats.

24(S)-Saringosterol Prevents Cognitive Decline in a Mouse Model for Alzheimer's Disease

We recently found that dietary supplementation with the seaweed Sargassum fusiforme, containing the preferential LXRβ-agonist 24(S)-saringosterol, prevented memory decline and reduced amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition in an Alzheimer's disease (AD) mouse model without inducing hepatic steatosis. Here, we examined the effects of 24(S)-saringosterol as a food additive on cognition and neuropathology in AD mice. Six-month-old male APPswePS1ΔE9 mice and wildtype C57BL/6J littermates received 24(S)-saringosterol (0.5 mg/25 g body weight/day) (APPswePS1ΔE9 n = 20; C57BL/6J n = 19) or vehicle (APPswePS1ΔE9 n = 17; C57BL/6J n = 19) for 10 weeks. Cognition was assessed using object recognition and object location tasks. Sterols were analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, Aβ and inflammatory markers by immunohistochemistry, and gene expression by quantitative real-time PCR. Hepatic lipids were quantified after Oil-Red-O staining. Administration of 24(S)-saringosterol prevented cognitive decline in APPswePS1ΔE9 mice without affecting the Aβ plaque load. Moreover, 24(S)-saringosterol prevented the increase in the inflammatory marker Iba1 in the cortex of APPswePS1ΔE9 mice (p < 0.001). Furthermore, 24(S)-saringosterol did not affect the expression of lipid metabolism-related LXR-response genes in the hippocampus nor the hepatic neutral lipid content. Thus, administration of 24(S)-saringosterol prevented cognitive decline in APPswePS1ΔE9 mice independent of effects on Aβ load and without adverse effects on liver fat content. The anti-inflammatory effects of 24(S)-saringosterol may contribute to the prevention of cognitive decline.

Linking phytosterols and oxyphytosterols from food to brain health: origins, effects, and underlying mechanisms

Phytosterols and their oxidation products, namely oxyphytosterols, are natural compounds present in plant foods. With increased intake of phytosterol-enriched functional food products, the exposure of both phytosterols and oxyphytosterols is rising. Over the past ten years, researches have been focused on their absorption and metabolism in human body, as well as their biological effects. More importantly, recent studies showed that phytosterols and oxyphytosterols can traverse the blood-brain barrier and accumulate in the brain. As brain health problems resulting from ageing being more serious, attenuating central nervous system (CNS) disorders with active compounds in food are becoming a hot topic. Phytosterols and oxyphytosterols have been shown to implicated in cognition altering and the pathologies of several CNS disorders, including Alzheimer's disease and multiple sclerosis. We will overview these findings with a focus on the contents of phytosterols and oxyphytosterols in food and their dietary intake, as well as their origins in the brain, and illustrate molecular pathways through which they affect brain health, in terms of inflammation, cholesterol homeostasis, oxidative stress, and mitochondria function. The existing scientific gaps of phytosterols and oxyphytosterols to brain health in knowledge are also discussed, highlighting research directions in the future.

Identifying the Mechanisms and Molecular Targets of Yizhiqingxin Formula on Alzheimer's Disease: Coupling Network Pharmacology with GEO Database

Background

Yizhiqingxin formula (YZQX) is a promising formula for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) with significant clinical effects. Here, we coupled a network pharmacology approach with the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database to illustrate comprehensive mechanisms and screen for molecular targets of YZQX for AD treatment.

Methods

First, active ingredients of YZQX were screened for the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology (TCMSP) database with the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) parameters. Subsequently, putative targets of active ingredients were predicted using the DrugBank database. AD-related targets were retrieved by analyzing published microarray data (accession number GSE5281). Protein–protein interaction (PPI) networks of YZQX putative targets and AD-related targets were constructed visually and merged to identify candidate targets for YZQX against AD using Cytoscape 3.7.2 software. We performed gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis to further clarify the biological functions of the candidate targets. The gene-pathway network was established to filter for key target genes.

Results

Forty-three active ingredients were identified, and 193 putative target genes were predicted. Seven hundred and ten targets related to AD were screened with |log2 FC| > 1 and P < 0.05. Based on the PPI network, 110 target genes of YZQX against AD were identified. Moreover, 32 related pathways including the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, MAPK signaling pathway, ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis, apoptosis and the NF-kappa B signaling pathway were significantly enriched. In the gene-pathway network, MAPK1, AKT1, TP53, MDM2, EGFR, RELA, SRC, GRB2, CUL1, and MYC targets are putative core genes for YZQX in AD treatment.

Conclusion

YZQX against AD may exert its neuroprotective effect via the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, MAPK signaling pathway, and ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis. YZQX may be a promising drug that can be used in the treatment of AD.

Resveratrol targeting tau proteins, amyloid-beta aggregations, and their adverse effects: An updated review

Resveratrol (Res) is a non-flavonoid compound with pharmacological actions such as antioxidant, antiinflammatory, hepatoprotective, antidiabetes, and antitumor. This plant-derived chemical has a long history usage in treatment of diseases. The excellent therapeutic impacts of Res and its capability in penetration into blood-brain barrier have made it an appropriate candidate in the treatment of neurological disorders (NDs). Tau protein aggregations and amyloid-beta (Aβ) deposits are responsible for the induction of NDs. A variety of studies have elucidated the role of these aggregations in NDs and the underlying molecular pathways in their development. In the present review, based on the recently published articles, we describe that how Res administration could inhibit amyloidogenic pathway and stimulate processes such as autophagy to degrade Aβ aggregations. Besides, we demonstrate that Res supplementation is beneficial in dephosphorylation of tau proteins and suppressing their aggregations. Then, we discuss molecular pathways and relate them to the treatment of NDs.

Uncovering the active compounds and effective mechanisms of the dried mature sarcocarp of Cornus officinalis Sieb. Et Zucc. For the treatment of Alzheimer's disease through a network pharmacology approach

BACKGROUND

Shanzhuyu (the dried mature sarcocarp of Cornus officinalis Sieb. et Zucc., DMSCO) is a Chinese herb that can be used for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD), but its mechanism remains unknown. The present study aimed to investigate the active ingredients and effective mechanisms of DMSCO for the treatment of AD based on a network pharmacology approach.

METHODS

The active components of DMSCO were collected from the TCMSP and ETCM databases and the target proteins of these compounds were predicted using TCMSP, SwissTargetPrediction and the STITCH database. The AD-related target proteins were identified from the OMIM, DisGeNet, GEO and GeneCards databases. The network interaction model of the compound-target-disease was established and was used to obtain the key targets of DMSCO on AD through network topology analysis. Subsequently, gene enrichment in Gene Ontology (GO) and KEGG pathways were conducted using the David 6.8 online tool.

RESULTS

A total of 30 DMSCO effective compounds and 209 effective drug targets were obtained. A total of 172 AD-related genes and 37 shared targets of DMSCO and AD were identified. A total of 43 key targets for the treatment of AD were obtained from the topological analysis of the DMSCO-AD target network. These key targets were involved in a variety of biological processes, including amyloid deposition, apoptosis, autophagy, inflammatory response and oxidative stress and pathways, such as the PI3K-AKT, MAPK and TNF pathways. Three key compounds, namely ursolic acid, anethole and β-sitosterol were obtained from the analysis of the key targets.

CONCLUSIONS

Ursolic acid, anethole and β-sitosterol may be the main active components of DMSCO in the treatment of AD. DMSCO can treat AD by regulating amyloid deposition, apoptosis, autophagy, inflammatory response and oxidative stress via the PI3K-AKT, MAPK and other signaling pathways.