Morin, a flavonoid, on lipid peroxidation and antioxidant status in experimental myocardial ischemic rats

Cardioprotective potential of vanillic acid

Nowadays, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a global threat to public health, accounting for almost one-third of all deaths worldwide. One of the key mechanistic pathways contributing to the development of CVDs, including cardiotoxicity (CTX) and myocardial ischaemia-reperfusion injury (MIRI) is oxidative stress (OS). Increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is closely associated with decreased antioxidant capacity and mitochondrial dysfunction. Currently, despite the availability of modern pharmaceuticals, dietary-derived antioxidants are becoming more popular in developed societies to delay the progression of CVDs. One of the antioxidants derived from herbs, fruits, whole grains, juices, beers, and wines is vanillic acid (VA), which, as a phenolic compound, possesses different therapeutic properties, including cardioprotective. Based on experimental evidence, VA improves mitochondrial function as a result of the reduction in ROS production, aggravates antioxidative status, scavenges free radicals, and reduces levels of lipid peroxidation, thereby decreasing cardiac dysfunction, in particular CTX and MIRI. Considering the role of OS in the pathophysiology of CVDs, the purpose of this study is to comprehensively address recent evidence on the antioxidant importance of VA in the cardiovascular system.

Discovery of Flavonoids as Novel Inhibitors of ATP Citrate Lyase: Structure–Activity Relationship and Inhibition Profiles

ATP citrate lyase (ACLY) is a key enzyme in glucolipid metabolism and its aberrantly high expression is closely associated with various cancers, hyperlipemia and atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. Prospects of ACLY inhibitors as treatments of these diseases are excellent. To date, flavonoids have not been extensively reported as ACLY inhibitors. In our study, 138 flavonoids were screened and 21 of them were subjected to concentration–response curves. A remarkable structure–activity relationship (SAR) trend was found: ortho-dihydroxyphenyl and a conjugated system maintained by a pyrone ring were critical for inhibitory activity. Among these flavonoids, herbacetin had a typical structure and showed a non–aggregated state in solution and a high inhibition potency (IC₅₀ = 0.50 ± 0.08 μM), and therefore was selected as a representative for the ligand–protein interaction study. In thermal shift assays, herbacetin improved the thermal stability of ACLY, suggesting a direct interaction with ACLY. Kinetic studies determined that herbacetin was a noncompetitive inhibitor of ACLY, as illustrated by molecular docking and dynamics simulation. Together, this work demonstrated flavonoids as novel and potent ACLY inhibitors with a remarkable SAR trend, which may help design high–potency ACLY inhibitors. In–depth studies of herbacetin deepened our understanding of the interactions between flavonoids and ACLY.

Flavonoids-Rich Plant Extracts Against Helicobacter pylori Infection as Prevention to Gastric Cancer

Gastric cancer is the fifth most common and fourth type to cause the highest mortality rates worldwide. The leading cause is related to Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection. Unfortunately, current treatments have low success rates, highlighting the need for alternative treatments against carcinogenic agents, specifically H. pylori. Noteworthy, natural origin products contain pharmacologically active metabolites such as flavonoids, with potential antimicrobial applications.

Objective: This article overviews flavonoid-rich extracts’ biological and pharmacological activities. It focuses on using these substances against Helicobacter pylori infection to prevent gastric cancer. For this, PubMed and Science Direct databases were searched for studies that reported the activity of flavonoids against H. pylori, published within a 10-year time frame (2010 to August 2020). It resulted in 1,773 publications, of which 44 were selected according to the search criteria. The plant family primarily found in publications was Fabaceae (9.61%). Among the flavonoids identified after extraction, the most prevalent were quercetin (19.61%), catechin (13.72), epicatechin (11.76), and rutin (11.76). The potential mechanisms associated with anti-H. pylori activity to the extracts were: inhibition of urease, damage to genetic material, inhibition of protein synthesis, and adhesion of the microorganism to host cells.

Conclusion: Plant extracts rich in flavonoids with anti-H. pylori potential proved to be a promising alternative therapy source, reinforcing the relevance of studies with natural products.

Morin alleviates fructose-induced metabolic syndrome in rats via ameliorating oxidative stress, inflammatory and fibrotic markers

Metabolic syndrome (MBS) is a widespread disease that has strongly related to unhealthy diet and low physical activity, which initiate more serious conditions such as obesity, cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes mellitus. This study aimed to examine the therapeutic effects of morin, as one of the flavonoids constituents, which widely exists in many herbs and fruits, against some metabolic and hepatic manifestations observed in MBS rats and the feasible related mechanisms. MBS was induced in rats by high fructose diet feeding for 12 weeks. Morin (30 mg/kg) was administered orally to both normal and MBS rats for 4 weeks. Liver tissues were used for determination of liver index, hepatic expression of glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2) as well as both inflammatory and fibrotic markers. The fat/muscle ratio, metabolic parameters, systolic blood pressure, and oxidative stress markers were also determined. Our data confirmed that the administration of morin in fructose diet rats significantly reduced the elevated systolic blood pressure. The altered levels of metabolic parameters such as blood glucose, serum insulin, serum lipid profile, and oxidative stress markers were also reversed approximately to the normal values. In addition, morin treatment decreased liver index, serum liver enzyme activities, and fat/muscle ratio. Furthermore, morin relatively up-regulated GLUT2 expression, however, down-regulated NF-κB, TNF-α, and TGF-β expressions in the hepatic tissues. Here, we revealed that morin has an exquisite effect against metabolic disorders in the experimental model through, at least in part, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-fibrotic mechanisms.

Morin hydrate: A comprehensive review on novel natural dietary bioactive compound with versatile biological and pharmacological potential

Flavonoids are natural plant-derived dietary bioactive compounds having a substantial impact on human health. Morin hydrate is a bioflavonoid mainly obtained from fruits, stem, and leaves of Moraceae family members' plants. Plenty of evidences supported that morin hydrate exerts its beneficial effects against various chronic and life-threatening degenerative diseases. Our current article discloses the recent advances that have been studied to explore the biological/pharmacological properties and molecular mechanisms to better understand the beneficial and multiple health benefits of morin hydrate. Indeed, Morin hydrate exerts free radical scavenging, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancerous, anti-microbial, antidiabetic, anti-arthritis, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, nephroprotective, and hepatoprotective effects. Moreover, morin hydrate exhibits its pharmacological activities by modulating various cellular signaling pathways such as Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-қB), Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), Janus kinases/ Signal transducer and activator of transcription proteins (JAKs/STATs), Kelch-like ECH-associated protein1/Nuclear erythroid-2-related factor (Keap1/Nrf2), Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis, Wnt/β-catenin, and Mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR). Most importantly, morin hydrate has the potential to modulate a variety of biological networks. Therefore, it can be predicted that this therapeutically potent compound could serve as a dietary agent for the expansion of human health and might be helpful for the development of the novel drug in the future. However, due to the lack of clinical trials, special human clinical trials are needed to address the effects of morin hydrate on various life-threatening disparities to recommend morin and/or morin-rich foods with other foods or bioactive dietary components, as well as dose-response interaction and safety profile.

Development of Morin-Loaded Nanoemulsions Containing Various Polymers; Role of Polymers in Formulation Properties and Bioavailability

Emulsions for oral delivery are not suitable for sustained drug absorption because such preparations diffuse rapidly in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract after oral administration. In order to generate sustained drug absorption and increase oral bioavailability, various polymers were added to a morin (MO) nanoemulsion to improve retention in the GI tract and alter the surface properties of oil droplets in the nanoemulsion. The influence of these polymers on the formulation properties was investigated. The area under the blood concentration-time curve (AUC) and the mean residence time (MRT) after oral administration of the nanoemulsions were measured, and the influence of the polymers on bioavailability was investigated. Chitosan (Chi) addition MO nanoemulsion (MO-Chi nanoemulsion) showed the highest AUC and MRT. MO-Chi nanoemulsion increased retention in the GI tract because of the relatively higher viscosity and high affinity between mucin and Chi covering the oil droplets. Furthermore, MO-Chi nanoemulsion could maintain the drug in oil droplets by suppression of drug release through the polymer hydration layer, and sustained drug release achieved continuous drug absorption. Nanoemulsions with sodium carboxymethylcellulose and poly-γ-glutamic acid potassium salt showed the next highest AUC and MRT after MO-Chi nanoemulsion. From these results, it was suggested that by increasing the viscosity of the nanoemulsion, there was high affinity between the added polymer and mucin, and sustained drug release was useful for enhancing the bioavailability of the polymer-containing nanoemulsions.

Antigenotoxic effects of morin against lead induced genomic damage in cultured human peripheral blood lymphocytes

Lead (Pb) is a well-known carcinogenic heavy metal. Exposure to Pb induces DNA damage by enhancing the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). One of the possible ways to shield DNA from this damage is to supply antioxidants that can remove free radicals generated by genotoxicants. Hence, the current study was designed to evaluate the antigenotoxic potential of a flavonoid compound; morin against Pb-induced genomic damage on cultured human peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL). The effect of Pb or morin or their combination was evaluated on the DNA damage using comet and sister chromatid exchange (SCE) assays. The results indicated a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the SCE frequency and various comet parameters in a dose-dependent manner upon treatment with lead as compared to control in cultured PBL. Supplementation of morin along with Pb effectively negated DNA damage as measured by SCE frequency and comet parameters. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Results of our current study suggest that the DNA damage induced by genotoxicants can be overcome by co-treatment with natural antioxidants, found in dietary supplements such as vegetables and fruits.

Blockade of Cardiac Proton Pump Impairs Ventricular Remodeling Through a Superoxide-DDAH-Dependent Pathway in Infarcted Rats

Background

Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are frequently used to prevent or treat peptic ulcers. Recently, PPIs have been shown to increase the risk of myocardial infarction. The purpose of this study was to determine whether PPIs adversely affect ventricular remodeling in infarcted rats.

Methods

Male Wistar rats were randomly assigned to receive either vehicle, omeprazole, omeprazole + vitamin C, omeprazole + olmesartan, or famotidine treatment for 4 weeks starting 24 hours after inducing myocardial infarction by ligating coronary arteries.

Results

Compared with vehicle-treated infarcted rats, omeprazole-treated infarcted rats had significant changes with reduced myocardial vitamin C levels, increased oxidant production, and decreased dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase 2 (DDAH2) activity, which in turn increased asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) levels and impaired ventricular remodeling. With gastric protection similar to omeprazole, the H2 blocker famotidine had no effect on ventricular remodeling. In contrast to the in vivo results, the ex vivo study showed similar superoxide and DDAH2 protein levels between vehicle- and omeprazole-treated infarcted rats, suggesting involvement of gastric vitamin C uptake rather than myocardial vitamin C in mediating the impaired axis of vitamin C-superoxide-DDAH2 in the in vivo measurements. The administration of PPIs was associated with impaired DDAH2 expression and increased myocardial ADMA, which impaired ventricular remodeling after infarction. These effects were prevented by the coadministration of vitamin C or olmesartan.

Conclusions

Our results indicate that the administration of PPIs was associated with impaired DDAH2 expression and increased myocardial ADMA by reducing gastric vitamin C uptake, which impaired ventricular remodeling after infarction.

Morin has protective potential against ER stress induced apoptosis in renal proximal tubular HK-2 cells

ER stress is an early event of acute kidney injury and has been linked to accelerate the development of chronic kidney disease. Therefore, the compounds that can mimic ER stress inhibitor may confer regulatory effects on ER stress induced apoptosis. In this study, we investigated the protective effects of flavonoid morin against ER stress induced apoptosis in human renal proximal tubular HK-2 cells. Morin downregulated the expression of GRP78, central regulator of ER stress response, induced by ER stress inducer tunicamycin. Interestingly, morin selectively inhibited the IRE1 pathway among the three major arms of the ER stress responses. The increased expression of XBP1-sp, phosphor-IRE-1α, and phosphor-JNK by TM were markedly suppressed by the pretreatment of morin. Morin also decreased the intracellular ROS production and the apoptosis induced by TM in HK-2 cells. Taken together, our finding show that morin acts as an ER stress inhibitor, and can be a good candidate in various ER-stress associated kidney diseases.

Development of morin/hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex: Enhancement of bioavailability, antihyperalgesic and anti-inflammatory effects

Morin is a flavonoid has been reported with several pharmacological effects such as, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, etc. However, morin has low solubility in water, which decreases the bioavailability and limits its clinical application. In this way, to improve the pharmaceutical properties, morin was complexed in hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) and its oral bioavailability and anti-inflammatory effects were evaluated. Initially, a phase solubility study was performed, which showed that HP-β-CD would be the better cyclodextrin for the formation of complexes with morin. The morin/HP-β-CD inclusion complex (1:1) was prepared by freeze-drying method. The sample obtained was characterized by DSC, FTIR, PXRD, SEM and ¹H NMR techniques, evidencing the formation of morin/HP-β-CD inclusion complex. In addition, complexation efficiency (98.3%) and loading content (17.63%), determined by HPLC demonstrated that morin was efficiently complexed in HP-β-CD. In vitro dissolution study confirmed that morin/HP-β-CD inclusion complex increased the solubility and dissolution rate of morin. The oral bioavailability of the morin/HP-β-CD complex and free morin were evaluated through a pharmacokinetic study in rat plasma. The oral bioavailability of morin complexed with HP-β-CD was increased by 4.20 times compared with the free morin. Hyperalgesia induced by carrageenan and carrageenan-induced pleurisy were carried out in mice to evaluate the antihyperalgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of free morin and inclusion complex. Morin/HP-β-CD inclusion complex showed antihyperalgesic effect in inflammatory pain model and anti-inflammatory effect decreasing leukocyte migration and TNF-α levels at a lower dose than free morin. Therefore, the morin/HP-β-CD inclusion complex improved the solubility, dissolution rate, oral bioavailability, antihyperalgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of morin. In this way, the morin/HP-β-CD inclusion complex exhibits potential for development of new pharmaceutical product for future clinical applications.

Role of MAPK/NF-κB pathway in cardioprotective effect of Morin in isoproterenol induced myocardial injury in rats

Oxidative stress plays a major role in myocardial injury. Morin, a bioflavonoid has known to possess various biological activities in previous studies. Hence, this study evaluated the cardioprotective mechanism(s) of Morin against isoproterenol induced myocardial necrosis in rats. Male albino Wistar rats were divided into five groups (n = 8) i.e., I (normal), II (ISO-control), III, IV and V (morin 20, 40 and 80 mg/kg respectively). Groups III, IV and V were treated orally with daily doses of Morin accordingly for 28 days. On 26th and 27th day, a single injection of isoproterenol was injected (85 mg/kg s.c.) at 24 h interval to induce myocardial necrosis in group II, III, IV and V. On 28th day, hemodynamic parameters were evaluated, animals were euthanised and heart was excised for measurement of various parameters. In ISO-control rats, there was deterioration of hemodynamic parameters, decreased anti-oxidants levels, increased cardiac injury markers and pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6). Also, there was increased level of Bax, Caspase-3, p-JNK, p-38 and NF-κB and decreased expression of Bcl-2 and p-ERK1/2 in ISO-C group. Morin dose-dependently improved hemodynamic profile, increased anti-oxidant levels, normalized myocardial architecture and reduced inflammatory markers and apoptosis. Furthermore, immunoblot analysis of MAPK pathway proteins demonstrated the mechanism responsible for anti-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory potential of morin. Thus, this study substantiated the beneficial effect of Morin by virtue of its modulation of MAPK pathway in myocardial injury.

Protective effect of morin on myocardial ischemia‑reperfusion injury in rats

Morin, a natural flavonol, exhibits antioxidative, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects in various pathological and physiological processes. However, whether morin exerts a protective effect on myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury (MIRI) is unknown. The present study aimed to determine the effect of morin on MIRI in cultured cardiomyocytes and isolated rat hearts, and to additionally explore the underlying mechanism. The effect of morin on the viability, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity and apoptosis of H9c2 cardiomyocytes subjected to hypoxia/reoxygenation, and cardiac function and infarct size of rat hearts following ischemia/reperfusion in an animal model were measured. Furthermore, the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP) opening, mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), and the change in the expression levels of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl2)-associated X protein (Bax), Bcl-2 and mitochondrial apoptosis-associated proteins following MPTP opening were also detected. The results indicated that morin treatment significantly increased cell viability, decreased LDH activity and cell apoptosis, improved the recovery of cardiac function and decreased the myocardial infarct size. Furthermore, morin treatment markedly inhibited MPTP opening, prevented the decrease of ΔΨm, and decreased the expression of cytochrome c, apoptotic protease activating factor-1, caspase-9, caspase-3 and the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio. However, these beneficial effects were reversed by treatment with atractyloside, an MPTP opener. The present study demonstrated that morin may prevent MIRI by inhibiting MPTP opening and revealed the possible mechanism of the cardioprotection of morin and its acting target. It also provided an important theoretical basis for the research on drug interventions for MIRI in clinical applications.

Protection by Ethanolic Extract from Ulva lactuca L. against Acute Myocardial Infarction: Antioxidant and Antiapoptotic Activities

Background

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a major role in myocardial damage during acute myocardial infarction (AMI). This study aimed to determine the antioxidant and antiapoptotic activities of an ethanolic extract from Ulva lactuca L. (EEUL) against AMI.

Methods

Thirty-six male Wistar rats were divided into six groups: one control group and five treatment groups. Treatment group II was given 85 mg/kg body weight (BW) of isoproterenol (ISO). Group III, IV and V were given ISO and EEUL at 250, 500 and 750 mg/kg BW, respectively. Group VI were given 10 mg/kg BW of ISO and melatonin. EEUL and melatonin were orally administered for 28 days. ISO was injected subcutaneously on day 29 and 30 to chemically induce AMI. On day 31, blood was collected for antioxidant assay and heart tissues were collected for histological examination.

Results

The activity of catalase (CAT), an endogenous antioxidant, in the EEUL-treatment groups was significantly increased compared to the ISO-treatment group (P < 0.001). The EEUL-treatment groups showed significantly decreased expression of caspase-3 (P < 0.001) and better myocardial tissue morphology.

Conclusion

EEUL possibly protects against AMI because of its antioxidant and antiapoptotic properties.

Evaluation of expression levels and mechanism of complement activation

The present study aimed to reveal the expression changes of complement system activation and complement activation product C3a receptor during acute myocardial infarction. Blood samples were collected from healthy individuals and from patients with coronary artery stenosis or acute myocardial infarction. The subjects received physical examination in hospital between January and July 2015 (n=5). Cytometric bead array was performed to measure the levels of complement system activation product anaphylatoxin C3a, C4a and C5a. Immunohistochemical investigations were performed in tissues of patients who underwent coronary artery bypass grafting between January and July 2015 to detect the expression of C3a receptor. The results of cytometric bead array showed that the content of complement activation products C3a, C4a and C5a in the plasma of patients with coronary artery stenosis and acute myocardial infarction were significantly higher than those of the control group (P<0.01). The results of immunoblotting suggested that the protein expression of C3a receptor in infarct tissues of patients with acute myocardial infarction was significantly higher than that of normal tissues adjacent to the infarcted area (P<0.05). There is complement system activation in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Additionally, the increase in the expression of complement C3a receptor in tissues of infarct area suggested that C3a-C3a receptor signaling pathway may be involved in the development of myocardial infarction.

MECHANISMS UNDERLYING ACTION OF XINMAILONG INJECTION, A TRADITIONAL CHINESE MEDICINE IN CARDIAC FUNCTION IMPROVEMENT

BACKGROUND

As a bioactive composite extracted from American cockroach, Xinmailong injection (XML) is used for the treatment of congestive heart failure (CHF) in China. Clinical data has provided evidence that XML has positive inotropic properties. The objective of this study was to assess the mechanisms involved in the therapeutical effect of XML on CHF.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effects of XML on the cardiac function in isolated rat heart were measured. A Ca2+ imaging technology was used in rat cardiomyocytes (H9c2 cells) to reveal the role of XML on Ca2+ channels. Meanwhile, the effects of XML on the activities of Na+/K+ ATPase and sodium/calcium exchanger were measured. In addition, the level of reactive oxygen species and the protein expressions for the superoxide dismutase and hemeoxygenase were determined in the cardiomyocytes.

RESULTS

The results showed that XML increased the electrical impulse-induced [Ca2+]i in H9c2 cells, which was dependant on extracellular Ca2+ and was abolished by ML218-HCl (a T-type Ca2+channels antagonist) but not nimodipine (a L-type Ca2+channels antagonist). Ouabain, a Na+/K+-ATPase inhibitor, increased the electrical impulse-induced [Ca2+]i, which was significantly inhibited by XML. Moreover, XML markedly inhibited the Na+/K+ ATPase activity in H9c2 cells. In addition, XML notably reduced the production of reactive oxygen species and enhanced the protein expressions of antioxidant enzymes including superoxide dismutase 1, superoxide dismutase 2 and hemeoxygenase 1 in H9c2 cell.

CONCLUSION

Our findings pave the ways to the better understandings of the therapeutic effects of XML on cardiovascular system.

Morin exerts cytoprotective effects against oxidative stress in C2C12 myoblasts via the upregulation of Nrf2-dependent HO-1 expression and the activation of the ERK pathway

In the present study, we investigated the cytoprotective efficacy of morin, a natural flavonoid, against oxidative stress and elucidated the underlying mechanisms in C2C12 myoblasts. Our results indicated that morin treatment prior to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) exposure significantly increased cell viability and prevented the generation of reactive oxygen species. H2O2-induced comet-like DNA formation and γH2AX phosphorylation were also markedly suppressed by morin with a parallel inhibition of apoptosis in C2C12 myoblasts, suggesting that morin prevented H2O2-induced cellular DNA damage. Furthermore, morin markedly enhanced the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) associated with the induction and phosphorylation of nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and the inhibition of Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) expression. Notably, these events were eliminated by transient transfection with Nrf2‑specific small interfering RNA. Additional experiments demonstrated that the activation of the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway by morin was mediated by the extracellular signal‑regulated kinase (ERK) signaling cascade. This phenomenon was confirmed with suppressed Nrf2 phosphorylation and consequently diminished HO-1 expression in cells treated with a pharmacological inhibitor of ERK. Collectively, these results demonstrated that morin augments the cellular antioxidant defense capacity through the activation of Nrf2/HO‑1 signaling, which involves the activation of the ERK pathway, thereby protecting C2C12 myoblasts from H2O2-induced oxidative cytotoxicity.

Neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects of morin in a murine model of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative disorders and is characterized by loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN). Although the causes of PD are not understood, evidence suggests that oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and inflammation are associated with its pathogenesis. Morin (3,5,7,2',4'-pentahydroxyflavone) is a flavonol found in wine and many herbs and fruits. Previous studies have suggested that morin prevents oxidative damage and inflammation and ameliorates mitochondrial dysfunction. The present study describes the neuroprotective effects of morin in a 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced mouse model of PD, and we report the results of our investigation into its neuroprotective mechanism in primary neurons and astrocytes. In the mouse model, morin pretreatment ameliorated motor dysfunction, protected against dopaminergic neuronal losses in SN and striatum, and alleviated MPTP-induced astrocyte activation. In vitro studies revealed that morin protected primary cultured neurons against 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridine (MPP(+) )-mediated reactive oxygen species production and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) disruption. In addition, morin effectively reduced MPP(+) -induced astroglial activation and nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB in primary cultured astrocytes. These results indicate that morin acts via multiple neuroprotective mechanisms in our mouse model and suggest that morin be viewed as a potential treatment and preventative for PD. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.