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Dallner M, Harlow J, Nasheri N. Efficacy of washing produce in removing human coronavirus OC43 and murine norovirus. J Appl Microbiol 2022; 133:1800-1807. [PMID: 35702940 PMCID: PMC9545982 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Fresh produce is often a vehicle for the transmission of foodborne pathogens such as human norovirus. Thus, it is recommended to wash the surface of produce before consumption, and one of the most common ways to wash produce is by rinsing under running tap water. This study determined the effectiveness of removal of human coronavirus-OC43 (HCoV-OC43), as a surrogate for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) and murine norovirus-1 (MNV-1), as a surrogate for human norovirus, from contaminated lettuce, apples and cucumbers. METHODS AND RESULTS The produce surfaces were artificially inoculated in conjunction with faecal material to represent natural contamination. Rinsing under tap water for 10 s at 40 ml/s removed 1.94 ± 0.44, 1.42 ± 0.00 and 1.42 ± 0.42 log of HCoV-OC43 from apple, cucumber and lettuce respectively. The same washing technique removed 1.77 ± 0.17, 1.42 ± 0.07 and 1.79 ± 0.14 log of MNV-1 from apple, cucumber and lettuce respectively. This washing technique was effective at reducing a significant amount of viral contamination, however, it was not enough to eliminate the entire contamination. There was no significant difference in the reduction of viral load between the two viruses, nor between the three surfaces tested in this study. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest that washing under tap water would be an efficient way of reducing the risk of foodborne viral transmission only if the level of contamination is less than 2 log PFU. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF STUDY This study demonstrates that running tap water was effective at reducing the amount of infectious HCoV-OC43 and MNV on produce surfaces, and washing produce continues to be an important task to perform prior to consumption to avoid infection by foodborne viruses, particularly for foods which are eaten raw.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Dallner
- National Food Virology Reference CentreBureau of Microbial Hazards, Health CanadaOttawaOntarioCanada
| | - Jennifer Harlow
- National Food Virology Reference CentreBureau of Microbial Hazards, Health CanadaOttawaOntarioCanada
| | - Neda Nasheri
- National Food Virology Reference CentreBureau of Microbial Hazards, Health CanadaOttawaOntarioCanada
- Department of BiochemistryMicrobiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of OttawaOttawaOntarioCanada
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Emilse PV, Matías V, Cecilia ML, Oscar GM, Gisela M, Guadalupe D, Elizabeth RV, Victorio PJ, Rodney C, Viviana NS, Angélica BP. Enteric virus presence in green vegetables and associated irrigation waters in a rural area from Argentina. A quantitative microbial risk assessment. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Anfruns-Estrada E, Bottaro M, Pintó RM, Guix S, Bosch A. Effectiveness of Consumers Washing with Sanitizers to Reduce Human Norovirus on Mixed Salad. Foods 2019; 8:E637. [PMID: 31817024 PMCID: PMC6963976 DOI: 10.3390/foods8120637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Human norovirus (HuNoV) is a foremost cause of domestically acquired foodborne acute gastroenteritis and outbreaks. Despite industrial efforts to control HuNoV contamination of foods, its prevalence in foodstuffs at retail is significant. HuNoV infections are often associated with the consumption of contaminated produce, including ready-to-eat (RTE) salads. Decontamination of produce by washing with disinfectants is a consumer habit which could significantly contribute to mitigate the risk of infection. The aim of our study was to measure the effectiveness of chemical sanitizers in inactivating genogroup I and II HuNoV strains on mixed salads using a propidium monoazide (PMAxx)-viability RTqPCR assay. Addition of sodium hypochlorite, peracetic acid, or chlorine dioxide significantly enhanced viral removal as compared with water alone. Peracetic acid provided the highest effectiveness, with log10 reductions on virus levels of 3.66 ± 0.40 and 3.33 ± 0.19 for genogroup I and II, respectively. Chlorine dioxide showed lower disinfection efficiency. Our results provide information useful to the food industry and final consumers for improving the microbiological safety of fresh products in relation to foodborne viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduard Anfruns-Estrada
- Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (E.A.-E.); (M.B.); (R.M.P.); (A.B.)
- Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute (INSA·UB), University of Barcelona, Santa Coloma de, 08921 Gramenet, Spain
| | - Marilisa Bottaro
- Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (E.A.-E.); (M.B.); (R.M.P.); (A.B.)
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70010 Bari, Italy
| | - Rosa M. Pintó
- Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (E.A.-E.); (M.B.); (R.M.P.); (A.B.)
- Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute (INSA·UB), University of Barcelona, Santa Coloma de, 08921 Gramenet, Spain
| | - Susana Guix
- Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (E.A.-E.); (M.B.); (R.M.P.); (A.B.)
- Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute (INSA·UB), University of Barcelona, Santa Coloma de, 08921 Gramenet, Spain
| | - Albert Bosch
- Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (E.A.-E.); (M.B.); (R.M.P.); (A.B.)
- Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute (INSA·UB), University of Barcelona, Santa Coloma de, 08921 Gramenet, Spain
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Rong S, Zhou Y, Wang M, Guan S, Zhang S, Cai B, Wang D, Tian P, Li Q. Characterization of conditions for bacteria-human norovirus capsid P protein complex (BPC) binding to and removal from Romaine lettuce extract. Int J Food Microbiol 2019; 298:11-19. [PMID: 30889474 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2019.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Revised: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Norovirus is a very contagious virus that causes acute gastroenteritis. Contaminated produce is a main vehicle for dissemination of human noroviruses (HuNoVs). As HuNoVs could bind to bacteria effectively, it is highly possible that produce could be contaminated by bacteria-HuNoVs complex. In this study, we used a bacterial-surface-display system to express genogroup I (GI) or genogroup II (GII) HuNoV capsid protein (P protein) on the surface of bacteria. The bacteria-P protein complex (BPC) was used to characterize the conditions for binding to Romaine lettuce extract and removal of the bound BPCs. We demonstrated both GI and GII BPCs could bind to extract from leaf (LE) and vein (VE) effectively. Carbohydrates in LE and VE were involved in GI BPCs binding, and both carbohydrates and proteins were involved in GII BPCs binding. Saliva from both type A and O secretors could completely block binding of both BPCs to LE and VE. Saliva from type B secretors only partially blocked binding of GII but not GI BPCs to LE and VE. However, LE- and VE-bound BPCs could not be reversely removed by washing solution containing free HBGAs from saliva. The binding of GI BPCs to LE and VE was enhanced when pH was below pI (6.1) of GI and reduced when pH was above pI of GI (p < 0.05). The optimal binding for GII BPCs to LE and VE occurred at pI (6.4) of GII. All LE- or VE-bound BPCs could be reversely removed by washing with low (3.0-5.0) or high (9.0-10.0) pH buffer. The effect of ionic strength (NaCl and MgCl2, from zero to 100 g/L) on binding of BPCs to LE and VE was tested. The optimal ionic strength for binding of BPCs to LE and VE was 10.0 g/L (GI) and 5.0 g/L (GII) for NaCl, and 5.0 g/L for MgCl2. LE- and VE-bound BPCs could be reversely removed by washing with high ionic solutions. All LE- or VE- bound BPCs could be released when washed with NaCl concentrations of above 75.0 g/L (GI) and 25.0 g/L (GII), or with MgCl2 concentrations of above 75.0 g/L (GI) and 50.0 g/L (GII). Binding of BPCs to LE and VE was inhibited in the presence of Tween-80 (nonionic surfactant) as low as 0.05% (v/v). All LE- and VE-bound BPCs could be reversed by Tween-80 concentrations over 0.1% (v/v). The study provided important parameters for BPCs binding to and removal from lettuce extract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaofeng Rong
- Department of Bioengineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, 100 Haiquan Rd, Fengxian District, Shanghai 201418, China
| | - Yue Zhou
- Department of Bioengineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, 100 Haiquan Rd, Fengxian District, Shanghai 201418, China
| | - Ming Wang
- Department of Bioengineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, 100 Haiquan Rd, Fengxian District, Shanghai 201418, China
| | - Shimin Guan
- Department of Bioengineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, 100 Haiquan Rd, Fengxian District, Shanghai 201418, China
| | - Shuo Zhang
- Department of Bioengineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, 100 Haiquan Rd, Fengxian District, Shanghai 201418, China
| | - Baoguo Cai
- Department of Bioengineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, 100 Haiquan Rd, Fengxian District, Shanghai 201418, China
| | - Dapeng Wang
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Rd, Minhang District, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Peng Tian
- Produce Safety and Microbiology Research Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agriculture Research Service - United States Department of Agriculture, 800 Buchanan Street, Albany, CA 94710, USA.
| | - Qianqian Li
- Department of Bioengineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, 100 Haiquan Rd, Fengxian District, Shanghai 201418, China.
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Guix S, Pintó RM, Bosch A. Final Consumer Options to Control and Prevent Foodborne Norovirus Infections. Viruses 2019; 11:E333. [PMID: 30970561 PMCID: PMC6520945 DOI: 10.3390/v11040333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Revised: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Norovirus (NoV) causes about one-fifth of all cases of foodborne diseases and is a foremost cause of domestically acquired foodborne acute gastroenteritis and outbreaks. NoV infections are often associated with the consumption of contaminated fresh and ready-to-eat produce, fresh and frozen berries, raw/undercooked bivalve mollusks and products which become contaminated during handling. Despite many industrial efforts to control and prevent NoV contamination of foods, the prevalence of NoV in high-risk foodstuffs at retail is still significant. Although certain consumer behaviors may even increase the risk of virus transmission, interventions aiming at changing/implementing consumer habits may be considered as opportunities for risk mitigation. This review aims at providing an update on the progress made in characterizing the effect that consumer habits, which are most critical to prevent NoV transmission (food choice and hygiene, disinfection and cooking during food preparation), may have on reducing the risk of NoV infection. A better understanding of the options for NoV control and prevention may be translated into innovative educational, social or even technological tools targeting consumers with the objective of mitigating the risk of NoV transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana Guix
- Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety (INSA·UB), University of Barcelona, 08291 Santa Coloma de Gramenet, Spain.
| | - Rosa M Pintó
- Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety (INSA·UB), University of Barcelona, 08291 Santa Coloma de Gramenet, Spain.
| | - Albert Bosch
- Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety (INSA·UB), University of Barcelona, 08291 Santa Coloma de Gramenet, Spain.
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Probabilistic risk model of norovirus transmission during handling and preparation of fresh produce in school foodservice operations. Int J Food Microbiol 2019; 290:159-169. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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7
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Bosch A, Gkogka E, Le Guyader FS, Loisy-Hamon F, Lee A, van Lieshout L, Marthi B, Myrmel M, Sansom A, Schultz AC, Winkler A, Zuber S, Phister T. Foodborne viruses: Detection, risk assessment, and control options in food processing. Int J Food Microbiol 2018; 285:110-128. [PMID: 30075465 PMCID: PMC7132524 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 05/31/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
In a recent report by risk assessment experts on the identification of food safety priorities using the Delphi technique, foodborne viruses were recognized among the top rated food safety priorities and have become a greater concern to the food industry over the past few years. Food safety experts agreed that control measures for viruses throughout the food chain are required. However, much still needs to be understood with regard to the effectiveness of these controls and how to properly validate their performance, whether it is personal hygiene of food handlers or the effects of processing of at risk foods or the interpretation and action required on positive virus test result. This manuscript provides a description of foodborne viruses and their characteristics, their responses to stress and technologies developed for viral detection and control. In addition, the gaps in knowledge and understanding, and future perspectives on the application of viral detection and control strategies for the food industry, along with suggestions on how the food industry could implement effective control strategies for viruses in foods. The current state of the science on epidemiology, public health burden, risk assessment and management options for viruses in food processing environments will be highlighted in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Bosch
- University of Barcelona, Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, and Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety, Diagonal 643, 8028 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Elissavet Gkogka
- Arla Innovation Centre, Arla R&D, Agro Food Park 19, 8200 Aarhus N, Denmark,.
| | - Françoise S Le Guyader
- IFREMER, Environment and Microbiology Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, BP 21103, 44311 Nantes, France.
| | - Fabienne Loisy-Hamon
- bioMérieux, Centre Christophe Mérieux, 5 rue des berges, 38025 Grenoble, France.
| | - Alvin Lee
- Illinois Institute of Technology, Moffett Campus, 6502 South Archer Road, 60501-1957 Bedford Park, IL, United States.
| | - Lilou van Lieshout
- The International Life Sciences Institute, Av. E. Mounier 83/B.6, 1200 Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Balkumar Marthi
- Unilever R&D Vlaardingen, Olivier van Noortlaan 120, 3133 AT Vlaardingen, The Netherlands; DaQsh Consultancy Services, 203, Laxmi Residency, Kothasalipeta, Visakhapatnam 530 002, India
| | - Mette Myrmel
- Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, P.O. Box 8146, 0033 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Annette Sansom
- Campden BRI Group, Station Road, Chipping Campden, GL55 6LD Gloucestershire, United Kingdom.
| | - Anna Charlotte Schultz
- National Food Institute Technical University of Denmark, Mørkhøj Bygade 19, Building H, Room 204, 2860 Søborg, Denmark.
| | - Anett Winkler
- Cargill Deutschland GmbH, Cerestarstr. 2, 47809 Krefeld, Germany.
| | - Sophie Zuber
- Nestlé Research Centre, Institute of Food Safety and Analytical Science, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, Box 44, 1000 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Trevor Phister
- PepsiCo Europe, Beaumont Park 4, Leycroft Road, LE4 1ET Leicester, United Kingdom.
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8
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Duret S, Pouillot R, Fanaselle W, Papafragkou E, Liggans G, Williams L, Van Doren JM. Quantitative Risk Assessment of Norovirus Transmission in Food Establishments: Evaluating the Impact of Intervention Strategies and Food Employee Behavior on the Risk Associated with Norovirus in Foods. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2017; 37:2080-2106. [PMID: 28247943 PMCID: PMC6032842 DOI: 10.1111/risa.12758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2016] [Revised: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/27/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We developed a quantitative risk assessment model using a discrete event framework to quantify and study the risk associated with norovirus transmission to consumers through food contaminated by infected food employees in a retail food setting. This study focused on the impact of ill food workers experiencing symptoms of diarrhea and vomiting and potential control measures for the transmission of norovirus to foods. The model examined the behavior of food employees regarding exclusion from work while ill and after symptom resolution and preventive measures limiting food contamination during preparation. The mean numbers of infected customers estimated for 21 scenarios were compared to the estimate for a baseline scenario representing current practices. Results show that prevention strategies examined could not prevent norovirus transmission to food when a symptomatic employee was present in the food establishment. Compliance with exclusion from work of symptomatic food employees is thus critical, with an estimated range of 75-226% of the baseline mean for full to no compliance, respectively. Results also suggest that efficient handwashing, handwashing frequency associated with gloving compliance, and elimination of contact between hands, faucets, and door handles in restrooms reduced the mean number of infected customers to 58%, 62%, and 75% of the baseline, respectively. This study provides quantitative data to evaluate the relative efficacy of policy and practices at retail to reduce norovirus illnesses and provides new insights into the interactions and interplay of prevention strategies and compliance in reducing transmission of foodborne norovirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Duret
- U.S. Food and Drug AdministrationCenter for Food Safety and Applied NutritionCollege ParkMDUSA
| | - Régis Pouillot
- U.S. Food and Drug AdministrationCenter for Food Safety and Applied NutritionCollege ParkMDUSA
| | - Wendy Fanaselle
- U.S. Food and Drug AdministrationCenter for Food Safety and Applied NutritionCollege ParkMDUSA
| | - Efstathia Papafragkou
- U.S. Food and Drug AdministrationCenter for Food Safety and Applied NutritionCollege ParkMDUSA
| | - Girvin Liggans
- U.S. Food and Drug AdministrationCenter for Food Safety and Applied NutritionCollege ParkMDUSA
| | - Laurie Williams
- U.S. Food and Drug AdministrationCenter for Food Safety and Applied NutritionCollege ParkMDUSA
| | - Jane M. Van Doren
- U.S. Food and Drug AdministrationCenter for Food Safety and Applied NutritionCollege ParkMDUSA
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Cook N, Knight A, Richards GP. Persistence and Elimination of Human Norovirus in Food and on Food Contact Surfaces: A Critical Review. J Food Prot 2016; 79:1273-94. [PMID: 27357051 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-15-570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
This critical review addresses the persistence of human norovirus (NoV) in water, shellfish, and processed meats; on berries, herbs, vegetables, fruits, and salads; and on food contact surfaces. The review focuses on studies using NoV; information from studies involving only surrogates is not included. It also addresses NoV elimination or inactivation by various chemical, physical, or processing treatments. In most studies, persistence or elimination was determined by detection and quantification of the viral genome, although improved methods for determining infectivity have been proposed. NoV persisted for 60 to 728 days in water, depending on water source. It also persisted on berries, vegetables, and fruit, often showing <1-log reduction within 1 to 2 weeks. NoV was resilient on carpets, Formica, stainless steel, polyvinyl chloride, and ceramic surfaces; during shellfish depuration; and to repeated freeze-thaw cycles. Copper alloy surfaces may inactivate NoV by damaging viral capsids. Disinfection was achieved for some foods or food contact surfaces using chlorine, calcium or sodium hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide, high hydrostatic pressure, high temperatures, pH values >8.0, freeze-drying, and UV radiation. Ineffective disinfectants included hydrogen peroxide, quaternary ammonium compounds, most ethanol-based disinfectants, and antiseptics at normally used concentrations. Thorough washing of herbs and produce was effective in reducing, but not eliminating, NoV in most products. Washing hands with soap generally reduced NoV by <2 log. Recommendations for future research needs are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nigel Cook
- Food and Environment Research Agency, Sand Hutton, York, YO41 1LZ, UK
| | - Angus Knight
- Leatherhead Food Research, Leatherhead, Surrey, KT22 7RY, UK
| | - Gary P Richards
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Dover, Delaware 19901, USA.
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da Silva Poló T, Peiró JR, Mendes LCN, Ludwig LF, de Oliveira-Filho EF, Bucardo F, Huynen P, Melin P, Thiry E, Mauroy A. Human norovirus infection in Latin America. J Clin Virol 2016; 78:111-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2016.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2015] [Revised: 03/09/2016] [Accepted: 03/14/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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11
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Birmpa A, Bellou M, Kokkinos P, Vantarakis A. Effect of Nonthermal, Conventional, and Combined Disinfection Technologies on the Stability of Human Adenoviruses as Fecal Contaminants on Surfaces of Fresh Ready-to-Eat Products. J Food Prot 2016; 79:454-62. [PMID: 26939656 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-15-013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Over one-half of foodborne diseases are believed to be of viral origin. The ability of viruses to persist in the environment and fresh produce, as well as their low infectious dose, allows even a small amount of contamination to cause serious foodborne problems. Moreover, the consumer's demands for fresh, convenient, and safe foods have prompted research into alternative food disinfection technologies. Our study focuses on viral inactivation by both conventional and alternative nonthermal disinfection technologies on different fresh ready-to-eat food products. The use of chlorine, as well as that of nonthermal technologies such as UV light and ultrasound (US), was tested for different treatment times. UV nonthermal technology was found to be more effective for the disinfection of human adenoviruses (hAdVs) compared with US, achieving a log reduction of 2.13, 1.25, and 0.92 for lettuce, strawberries, and cherry tomatoes, respectively, when UV treatment was implemented for 30 min. US treatment for the same period achieved a log reduction of 0.85, 0.53, and 0.36, respectively. The sequential use of US and UV was found to be more effective compared with when the treatments were used separately, for the same treatment time, thus indicating a synergistic effect. In addition, human adenoviruses were inactivated sooner, when chlorine treatment was used. Therefore, the effect of each disinfection method was dependent upon the treatment time and the type of food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angeliki Birmpa
- Environmental Microbiology Unit, Department of Public Health, Medical School, University of Patras, Patras 26504, Greece
| | - Maria Bellou
- Environmental Microbiology Unit, Department of Public Health, Medical School, University of Patras, Patras 26504, Greece
| | - Petros Kokkinos
- Environmental Microbiology Unit, Department of Public Health, Medical School, University of Patras, Patras 26504, Greece
| | - Apostolos Vantarakis
- Environmental Microbiology Unit, Department of Public Health, Medical School, University of Patras, Patras 26504, Greece.
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12
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Beaudequin D, Harden F, Roiko A, Mengersen K. Utility of Bayesian networks in QMRA-based evaluation of risk reduction options for recycled water. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 541:1393-1409. [PMID: 26479913 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Revised: 10/07/2015] [Accepted: 10/07/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA), the current method of choice for evaluating human health risks associated with disease-causing microorganisms, is often constrained by issues such as availability of required data, and inability to incorporate the multitude of factors influencing risk. Bayesian networks (BNs), with their ability to handle data paucity, combine quantitative and qualitative information including expert opinions, and ability to offer a systems approach to characterisation of complexity, are increasingly recognised as a powerful, flexible tool that overcomes these limitations. OBJECTIVES We present a QMRA expressed as a Bayesian network (BN) in a wastewater reuse context, with the objective of demonstrating the utility of the BN method in health risk assessments, particularly for evaluating a range of exposure and risk mitigation scenarios. As a case study, we examine the risk of norovirus infection associated with wastewater-irrigated lettuce. METHODS A Bayesian network was developed following a QMRA approach, using published data, and reviewed by domain experts using a participatory process. DISCUSSION Employment of a BN facilitated rapid scenario evaluations, risk minimisation, and predictive comparisons. The BN supported exploration of conditions required for optimal outcomes, as well as investigation of the effect on the reporting nodes of changes in 'upstream' conditions. A significant finding was the indication that if maximum post-treatment risk mitigation measures were implemented, there was a high probability (0.84) of a low risk of infection regardless of fluctuations in other variables, including norovirus concentration in treated wastewater. CONCLUSION BNs are useful in situations where insufficient empirical data exist to satisfy QMRA requirements and they are exceptionally suited to the integration of risk assessment and risk management in the QMRA context. They allow a comprehensive visual appraisal of major influences in exposure pathways, and rapid interactive risk assessment in multifaceted water reuse scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise Beaudequin
- Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Gardens Point Campus, 2 George Street, Brisbane, Queensland 4000, Australia; Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation (IHBI), Queensland University of Technology, 60 Musk Avenue, Kelvin Grove, Queensland 4059, Australia.
| | - Fiona Harden
- Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Gardens Point Campus, 2 George Street, Brisbane, Queensland 4000, Australia; Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation (IHBI), Queensland University of Technology, 60 Musk Avenue, Kelvin Grove, Queensland 4059, Australia.
| | - Anne Roiko
- School of Medicine, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Parklands Drive, Southport, Queensland 4222, Australia; Smartwater Research Centre, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Edmund Rice Dr, Southport, Queensland 4215, Australia.
| | - Kerrie Mengersen
- Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology, Gardens Point Campus, 2 George Street, Brisbane, Queensland 4000, Australia; Institute for Future Environments (IFE), Queensland University of Technology, Gardens Point Campus, 2 George Street, Brisbane, Queensland 4000, Australia.
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13
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Barker SF, Amoah P, Drechsel P. A probabilistic model of gastroenteritis risks associated with consumption of street food salads in Kumasi, Ghana: evaluation of methods to estimate pathogen dose from water, produce or food quality. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2014; 487:130-142. [PMID: 24784738 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.03.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2013] [Revised: 03/22/2014] [Accepted: 03/22/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
With a rapidly growing urban population in Kumasi, Ghana, the consumption of street food is increasing. Raw salads, which often accompany street food dishes, are typically composed of perishable vegetables that are grown in close proximity to the city using poor quality water for irrigation. This study assessed the risk of gastroenteritis illness (caused by rotavirus, norovirus and Ascaris lumbricoides) associated with the consumption of street food salads using Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA). Three different risk assessment models were constructed, based on availability of microbial concentrations: 1) Water - starting from irrigation water quality, 2) Produce - starting from the quality of produce at market, and 3) Street - using microbial quality of street food salad. In the absence of viral concentrations, published ratios between faecal coliforms and viruses were used to estimate the quality of water, produce and salad, and annual disease burdens were determined. Rotavirus dominated the estimates of annual disease burden (~10(-3)Disability Adjusted Life Years per person per year (DALYs pppy)), although norovirus also exceeded the 10(-4)DALY threshold for both Produce and Street models. The Water model ignored other on-farm and post-harvest sources of contamination and consistently produced lower estimates of risk; it likely underestimates disease burden and therefore is not recommended. Required log reductions of up to 5.3 (95th percentile) for rotavirus were estimated for the Street model, demonstrating that significant interventions are required to protect the health and safety of street food consumers in Kumasi. Estimates of virus concentrations were a significant source of model uncertainty and more data on pathogen concentrations is needed to refine QMRA estimates of disease burden.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Fiona Barker
- Department of Resource Management and Geography, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia.
| | - Philip Amoah
- International Water Management Institute (IWMI) West Africa Office, PMB CT 112 Accra, Ghana
| | - Pay Drechsel
- International Water Management Institute (IWMI), P.O.B. 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka
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Barker SF. Risk of norovirus gastroenteritis from consumption of vegetables irrigated with highly treated municipal wastewater--evaluation of methods to estimate sewage quality. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2014; 34:803-817. [PMID: 24286258 DOI: 10.1111/risa.12138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Quantitative microbial risk assessment was used to assess the risk of norovirus gastroenteritis associated with consumption of raw vegetables irrigated with highly treated municipal wastewater, using Melbourne, Australia as an example. In the absence of local norovirus concentrations, three methods were developed: (1) published concentrations of norovirus in raw sewage, (2) an epidemiological method using Melbourne prevalence of norovirus, and (3) an adjustment of method 1 to account for prevalence of norovirus. The methods produced highly variable results with estimates of norovirus concentrations in raw sewage ranging from 10(4) per milliliter to 10(7) per milliliter and treated effluent from 1 × 10(-3) per milliliter to 3 per milliliter (95th percentiles). Annual disease burden was very low using method 1, from 4 to 5 log10 disability adjusted life years (DALYs) below the 10(-6) threshold (0.005-0.1 illnesses per year). Results of method 2 were higher, with some scenarios exceeding the threshold by up to 2 log10 DALYs (up to 95,000 illnesses per year). Method 3, thought to be most representative of Melbourne conditions, predicted annual disease burdens >2 log10 DALYs lower than the threshold (∼ 4 additional cases per year). Sensitivity analyses demonstrated that input parameters used to estimate norovirus concentration accounted for much of the model output variability. This model, while constrained by a lack of knowledge of sewage concentrations, used the best available information and sound logic. Results suggest that current wastewater reuse behaviors in Melbourne are unlikely to cause norovirus risks in excess of the annual DALY health target.
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Mok HF, Barker SF, Hamilton AJ. A probabilistic quantitative microbial risk assessment model of norovirus disease burden from wastewater irrigation of vegetables in Shepparton, Australia. WATER RESEARCH 2014; 54:347-62. [PMID: 24594660 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.01.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Revised: 01/24/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2014] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater can be an important resource for water-scarce regions of the world, but a major barrier to its use is the associated health risk. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) is a probabilistic modeling technique used to determine the health risks from wastewater reuse, but only a handful of QMRA studies have examined the norovirus health risks from consumption of vegetables irrigated with human wastewater, even though norovirus is a, if not the most, significant microbial cause of diarrheal disease world-wide. Furthermore, the majority of these studies have focused only on risks from lettuce consumption. To meet the knowledge gap in health risks for other vegetables, a QMRA model was constructed for agricultural wastewater irrigation in the regional city of Shepparton, Australia, using fecal shedding rates to estimate norovirus concentration in raw sewage. Annual norovirus disease burden was estimated for the consumption of lettuce, broccoli, cabbage, Asian vegetables, and cucumber after irrigation with treated wastewater. Results indicate that the waste stabilization pond treatment did not have sufficient virus removal to meet the World Health Organization (WHO) threshold for acceptable level of risk for wastewater reuse, but addition of disinfection treatments provided acceptable results for consumption of cucumber and broccoli. This is the first QMRA study to incorporate virus accumulation from previous wastewater irrigation events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoi-Fei Mok
- Department of Agriculture and Food Systems, Melbourne School of Land and Environment, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - S Fiona Barker
- Department of Resource Management and Geography, Melbourne School of Land and Environment, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Andrew J Hamilton
- Department of Agriculture and Food Systems, Melbourne School of Land and Environment, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia.
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Aragão GC, Mascarenhas JDP, Kaiano JHL, de Lucena MSS, Siqueira JAM, Fumian TM, Hernandez JDM, de Oliveira CS, Oliveira DDS, Araújo EDC, Soares LDS, Linhares AC, Gabbay YB. Norovirus diversity in diarrheic children from an African-descendant settlement in Belém, Northern Brazil. PLoS One 2013; 8:e56608. [PMID: 23457593 PMCID: PMC3574080 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0056608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2012] [Accepted: 01/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Norovirus (NoV), sapovirus (SaV) and human astrovirus (HAstV) are viral pathogens that are associated with outbreaks and sporadic cases of gastroenteritis. However, little is known about the occurrence of these pathogens in relatively isolated communities, such as the remnants of African-descendant villages ("Quilombola"). The objective of this study was the frequency determination of these viruses in children under 10 years, with and without gastroenteritis, from a "Quilombola" Community, Northern Brazil. A total of 159 stool samples were obtained from April/2008 to July/2010 and tested by an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) to detect NoV, SaV and HAstV, and further molecular characterization was performed. These viruses were detected only in the diarrheic group. NoV was the most frequent viral agent detected (19.7%-16/81), followed by SaV (2.5%-2/81) and HAstV (1.2%-1/81). Of the 16 NoV-positive samples, 14 were sequenced with primers targeting the B region of the polymerase (ORF1) and the D region of the capsid (ORF2). The results showed a broad genetic diversity of NoV, with 12 strains being classified as GII-4 (5-41.7%), GII-6 (3-25%), GII-7 (2-16.7%), GII-17 (1-8.3%) and GI-2 (1-8.3%), as based on the polymerase region; 12 samples were classified, based on the capsid region, as GII-4 (6-50%, being 3-2006b variant and 3-2010 variant), GII-6 (3-25%), GII-17 (2-16.7%) and GII-20 (1-8.3%). One NoV-strain showed dual genotype specificity, based on the polymerase and capsid region (GII-7/GII-20). This study provides, for the first time, epidemiological and molecular information on the circulation of NoV, SaV and HAstV in African-descendant communities in Northern Brazil and identifies NoV genotypes that were different from those detected previously in studies conducted in the urban area of Belém. It remains to be determined why a broader NoV diversity was observed in such a semi-isolated community.
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