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Kubina S, Costa D, Cazeaux C, Villena I, Favennec L, Razakandrainibe R, La Carbona S. Persistence and survival of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts on lamb's lettuce leaves during plant growth and in washing conditions of minimally-processed salads. Int J Food Microbiol 2023; 388:110085. [PMID: 36652747 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2023.110085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 12/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium is the causative agent of cryptosporidiosis, which results, among others, in profuse diarrhoea. Transmission to humans occurs via the faecal-oral route directly by contact with infected hosts or indirectly by waterborne or foodborne routes. For the latter, parasite transmission is closely linked to the oocyst's ability to persist and survive in food matrices. In this study, we evaluated the persistence and survival of Cryptosporidium oocysts in lamb's lettuce: i) during plant growth and ii) in conditions mimicking the industrial washing process applied in minimally-processed vegetables (MPV). Results show that oocysts persisted during the growth of lamb's lettuce, i.e. two months from the 2-leaf stage until the 8-leaf harvest time (-0.89 Log10 of oocysts). However, their survival decreased from as early as one week (-0.61 Log10), and only 6 % of oocysts remained infective at the time of harvest. The washing process had a limited effect on parasite load (<0.5 Log10) and no effect on survival; chlorination of washing water did not improve the efficiency (removal and inactivation) of the process. The ability of C. parvum to persist and survive throughout the food chain may drive its transmission to humans through MPV products. Appropriate management measures should be implemented at each operational level to limit contamination and ensure food safety of fresh produce.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Kubina
- ACTALIA Food Safety Department, 310 Rue Popielujko, Saint-Lô 50000, France; Laboratoire de Parasitologie, EA 7510, Université de Rouen Normandie, Rouen 76000, France.
| | - Damien Costa
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie, EA 7510, Université de Rouen Normandie, Rouen 76000, France; Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie, CNR Laboratoire Expert Cryptosporidioses, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Rouen, Rouen 76000, France.
| | - Catherine Cazeaux
- ACTALIA Food Safety Department, 310 Rue Popielujko, Saint-Lô 50000, France.
| | - Isabelle Villena
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie, EA 7510, SFR CAP-Santé, Université Reims-Champagne Ardenne, CHU, Reims, 51100, France.
| | - Loïc Favennec
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie, EA 7510, Université de Rouen Normandie, Rouen 76000, France; Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie, CNR Laboratoire Expert Cryptosporidioses, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Rouen, Rouen 76000, France.
| | - Romy Razakandrainibe
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie, EA 7510, Université de Rouen Normandie, Rouen 76000, France; Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie, CNR Laboratoire Expert Cryptosporidioses, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Rouen, Rouen 76000, France.
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Cryptosporidiosis: From Prevention to Treatment, a Narrative Review. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10122456. [PMID: 36557709 PMCID: PMC9782356 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10122456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidiosis is a water- and food-borne zoonotic disease caused by the protozoon parasite of the genus Cryptosporidium. C. hominis and C. parvum are the main two species causing infections in humans and animals. The disease can be transmitted by the fecal-oral route as well as the respiratory route. The infective stage (sporulated oocysts) is resistant to different disinfectants including chlorine. Currently, no effective therapeutic drugs or vaccines are available to treat and control Cryptosporidium infection. To prevent cryptosporidiosis in humans and animals, we need to understand better how the disease is spread and transmitted, and how to interrupt its transmission cycle. This review focuses on understanding cryptosporidiosis, including its infective stage, pathogenesis, life cycle, genomics, epidemiology, previous outbreaks, source of the infection, transmission dynamics, host spectrum, risk factors and high-risk groups, the disease in animals and humans, diagnosis, treatment and control, and the prospect of an effective anti-Cryptosporidium vaccine. It also focuses on the role of the One Health approach in managing cryptosporidiosis at the animal-human-environmental interface. The summarized data in this review will help to tackle future Cryptosporidium infections in humans and animals and reduce the disease occurrence.
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Nag R, Russell L, Nolan S, Auer A, Markey BK, Whyte P, O'Flaherty V, Bolton D, Fenton O, Richards KG, Cummins E. Quantitative microbial risk assessment associated with ready-to-eat salads following the application of farmyard manure and slurry or anaerobic digestate to arable lands. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 806:151227. [PMID: 34715220 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Farmyard manure and slurry (FYM&S) and anaerobic digestate are potentially valuable soil conditioners providing important nutrients for plant development and growth. However, these organic fertilisers may pose a microbial health risk to humans. A quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) model was developed to investigate the potential human exposure to pathogens following the application of FYM&S and digestate to agricultural land. The farm-to-fork probabilistic model investigated the fate of microbial indicators (total coliforms and enterococci) and foodborne pathogens in the soil with potential contamination of ready-to-eat salads (RTEs) at the point of human consumption. The processes examined included pathogen inactivation during mesophilic anaerobic digestion (M-AD), post-AD pasteurisation, storage, dilution while spreading, decay in soil, post-harvest washing processes, and finally, the potential growth of the pathogen during refrigeration/storage at the retail level in the Irish context. The QMRA highlighted a very low annual probability of risk (Pannual) due to Clostridium perfringens, norovirus, and Salmonella Newport across all scenarios. Mycobacterium avium may result in a very high mean Pannual for the application of raw FYM&S, while Cryptosporidium parvum and pathogenic E. coli showed high Pannual, and Listeria monocytogenes displayed moderate Pannual for raw FYM&S application. The use of AD reduces this risk; however, pasteurisation reduces the Pannual to an even greater extent posing a very low risk. An overall sensitivity analysis revealed that mesophilic-AD's inactivation effect is the most sensitive parameter of the QMRA, followed by storage and the decay on the field (all negatively correlated to risk estimate). The information generated from this model can help to inform guidelines for policymakers on the maximum permissible indicator or pathogen contamination levels in the digestate. The QMRA can also provide the AD industry with a safety assessment of pathogenic organisms resulting from the digestion of FYM&S.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajat Nag
- University College Dublin, School of Biosystems and Food Engineering, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Lauren Russell
- Teagasc, Ashtown Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin 15, Ireland; University College Dublin, School of Veterinary Medicine, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Stephen Nolan
- National University of Ireland Galway, School of Natural Sciences and Ryan Institute, Galway, Ireland.
| | - Agathe Auer
- University College Dublin, School of Veterinary Medicine, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Bryan K Markey
- University College Dublin, School of Veterinary Medicine, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Paul Whyte
- University College Dublin, School of Veterinary Medicine, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Vincent O'Flaherty
- National University of Ireland Galway, School of Natural Sciences and Ryan Institute, Galway, Ireland.
| | - Declan Bolton
- Teagasc, Ashtown Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin 15, Ireland.
| | - Owen Fenton
- Teagasc, Environment Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, County Wexford, Ireland.
| | - Karl G Richards
- Teagasc, Environment Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, County Wexford, Ireland.
| | - Enda Cummins
- University College Dublin, School of Biosystems and Food Engineering, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
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Oliveira JSD, Martins FDC, Ladeia WA, Cortela IDB, Valadares MF, Matos AMRND, Caldart ET, Ayres H, Navarro IT, Freire RL. Identification, molecular characterization and factors associated with occurrences of Cryptosporidium spp. in calves on dairy farms in Brazil. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE PARASITOLOGIA VETERINARIA = BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY : ORGAO OFICIAL DO COLEGIO BRASILEIRO DE PARASITOLOGIA VETERINARIA 2021; 30:e009621. [PMID: 34910017 DOI: 10.1590/s1984-29612021094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Cattle are an important source of zoonotic species of Cryptosporidium for humans. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of Cryptosporidium, identify the species and determine the risk factors relating to environment, animals and management among dairy calves in eight Brazilian states. A total of 408 fecal samples from calves aged 1-60 days were analyzed. An epidemiological questionnaire was completed. Sample screening was performed using Ziehl-Neelsen technique and the positive samples were subjected to nested PCR. Cryptosporidium species were identified by means of the PCR-RFLP technique, using SSPI, ASEI and MBOII enzymes. The Ziehl-Neelsen technique showed that 89.7% (35/39) of the farms and 52.9% (216/408) of the samples were positive. Through nested PCR, these protozoa were detected in 54.6% of the samples. The 56 samples subjected to PCR-RFLP presented Cryptosporidium parvum. There was higher prevalence of the parasite in animals aged 7 to 28 days (62.6%). Diarrhea, ages between seven and 28 days and a spring water source were factors associated with the risk of infection. The calf hutch-type management system was associated with reduced infection. These findings demonstrate the high level of Cryptosporidium spp. circulation in cattle herds and the predominance of the species C. parvum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Silva de Oliveira
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina - UEL, Londrina, PR, Brasil
| | | | - Winni Alves Ladeia
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina - UEL, Londrina, PR, Brasil
| | - Isadora de Britto Cortela
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina - UEL, Londrina, PR, Brasil
| | - Manuela Ferraz Valadares
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina - UEL, Londrina, PR, Brasil
| | | | - Eloiza Teles Caldart
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina - UEL, Londrina, PR, Brasil
| | | | - Italmar Teodorico Navarro
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina - UEL, Londrina, PR, Brasil
| | - Roberta Lemos Freire
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina - UEL, Londrina, PR, Brasil
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Craighead S, Huang R, Chen H, Kniel KE. The use of pulsed light to inactivate Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts on high-risk commodities (Cilantro, mesclun lettuce, spinach, and tomatoes). Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.107965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Latney LV, Wellehan JFX. Selected Emerging Infectious Diseases of Squamata: An Update. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 2020; 23:353-371. [PMID: 32327041 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2020.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
This article details emerging infectious diseases that have devastating impacts on captive and wild squamates. Treatment advances have been attempted for Cryptosporidium infections in squamates. Gram-positive bacteria, Devriesea agamarum and Austwickia chelonae, are contributing to severe disease in captive and now in wild reptiles, some critically endangered. Nannizziposis, Paranannizziopsis, and Ophidiomyces continue to cause fatal disease as primary pathogens in wild and captive populations of squamates and sphenodontids. Nidovirus, bornavirus, paramyxovirus, sunshine virus, and arenavirus have emerged to be significant causes of neurorespiratory disease in snakes. Controlled studies evaluating environmental stability, disinfection, transmission control, and treatment are lacking.
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Affiliation(s)
- La'Toya V Latney
- Avian and Exotic Medicine & Surgery, The Animal Medical Center, 610 East 62nd Street, New York, NY 10065, USA.
| | - James F X Wellehan
- Zoological Medicine Service, University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine, PO Box 100126, 2015 Southwest 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL 32608-0125, USA
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Ruiz VG, Czyzyk DJ, Kumar VP, Jorgensen WL, Anderson KS. Targeting the TS dimer interface in bifunctional Cryptosporidium hominis TS-DHFR from parasitic protozoa: Virtual screening identifies novel TS allosteric inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2020; 30:127292. [PMID: 32631514 PMCID: PMC7376443 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2020.127292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2020] [Revised: 05/23/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Effective therapies are lacking to treat gastrointestinal infections caused by the genus Cryptosporidium, which can be fatal in the immunocompromised. One target of interest is Cryptosporidium hominis (C. hominis) thymidylate synthase-dihydrofolate reductase (ChTS-DHFR), a bifunctional enzyme necessary for DNA biosynthesis. Targeting the TS-TS dimer interface is a novel strategy previously used to identify inhibitors against the related bifunctional enzyme in Toxoplasma gondii. In the present study, we target the ChTS dimer interface through homology modeling and high-throughput virtual screening to identifying allosteric, ChTS-specific inhibitors. Our work led to the discovery of methylenedioxyphenyl-aminophenoxypropanol analogues which inhibit ChTS activity in a manner that is both dose-dependent and influenced by the conformation of the enzyme. Preliminary results presented here include an analysis of structure activity relationships and a ChTS-apo crystal structure of ChTS-DHFR supporting the continued development of inhibitors that stabilize a novel pocket formed in the open conformation of ChTS-TS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor G Ruiz
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Daniel J Czyzyk
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Vidya P Kumar
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; Department of Chemistry, Yale University, 225 Prospect Street, PO Box 208107, New Haven, CT 06520-8107, USA; Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - William L Jorgensen
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, 225 Prospect Street, PO Box 208107, New Haven, CT 06520-8107, USA
| | - Karen S Anderson
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
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First report of Cryptosporidium spp. infection and risk factors in black-boned goats and black-boned sheep in China. Parasitol Res 2020; 119:2813-2819. [PMID: 32583163 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-020-06781-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium is an opportunistic protozoan parasite that can inhabit in the gastrointestinal tract of various hosts. Cryptosporidium infection in black-boned goats and black-boned sheep may pose a threat to the survival and productivity, causing considerable economic losses to the livestock industry. However, it is yet to know whether black-boned goats and black-boned sheep in China are infected with Cryptosporidium. Thus, the objective of the present study was to investigate the prevalence and associated risk factors of Cryptosporidium infection in black-boned goats and black-boned sheep in Yunnan province, China. A total of 590 fecal samples were obtained from black-boned goats and black-boned sheep from five counties in Yunnan province, and the prevalence and species distribution of Cryptosporidium were determined by amplification of the 18S rDNA fragment using the nested PCR. The overall Cryptosporidium prevalence was 13.2% (78/590), with 18.0% (55/305) in black-boned goats and 8.1% (23/285) in black-boned sheep. The age and sampling site were identified as main factors that result in significant differences in Cryptosporidium prevalence. Three species, namely C. muris, C. xiaoi, and C. ubiquitum, were identified in black-boned goats and black-boned sheep in the present study, with C. muris (46/78) as the predominant species. This is the first report of Cryptosporidium infection in black-boned goats and black-boned sheep in China, and the findings will facilitate better understanding, prevention, and control of Cryptosporidium infection in black-boned goats and black-boned sheep in China.
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Inactivation of parasite transmission stages: Efficacy of treatments on foods of non-animal origin. Trends Food Sci Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Koutsoumanis K, Allende A, Alvarez-Ordóñez A, Bolton D, Bover-Cid S, Chemaly M, Davies R, De Cesare A, Herman L, Hilbert F, Lindqvist R, Nauta M, Peixe L, Ru G, Simmons M, Skandamis P, Suffredini E, Cacciò S, Chalmers R, Deplazes P, Devleesschauwer B, Innes E, Romig T, van der Giessen J, Hempen M, Van der Stede Y, Robertson L. Public health risks associated with food-borne parasites. EFSA J 2018; 16:e05495. [PMID: 32625781 PMCID: PMC7009631 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasites are important food‐borne pathogens. Their complex lifecycles, varied transmission routes, and prolonged periods between infection and symptoms mean that the public health burden and relative importance of different transmission routes are often difficult to assess. Furthermore, there are challenges in detection and diagnostics, and variations in reporting. A Europe‐focused ranking exercise, using multicriteria decision analysis, identified potentially food‐borne parasites of importance, and that are currently not routinely controlled in food. These are Cryptosporidium spp., Toxoplasma gondii and Echinococcus spp. Infection with these parasites in humans and animals, or their occurrence in food, is not notifiable in all Member States. This Opinion reviews current methods for detection, identification and tracing of these parasites in relevant foods, reviews literature on food‐borne pathways, examines information on their occurrence and persistence in foods, and investigates possible control measures along the food chain. The differences between these three parasites are substantial, but for all there is a paucity of well‐established, standardised, validated methods that can be applied across the range of relevant foods. Furthermore, the prolonged period between infection and clinical symptoms (from several days for Cryptosporidium to years for Echinococcus spp.) means that source attribution studies are very difficult. Nevertheless, our knowledge of the domestic animal lifecycle (involving dogs and livestock) for Echinoccocus granulosus means that this parasite is controllable. For Echinococcus multilocularis, for which the lifecycle involves wildlife (foxes and rodents), control would be expensive and complicated, but could be achieved in targeted areas with sufficient commitment and resources. Quantitative risk assessments have been described for Toxoplasma in meat. However, for T. gondii and Cryptosporidium as faecal contaminants, development of validated detection methods, including survival/infectivity assays and consensus molecular typing protocols, are required for the development of quantitative risk assessments and efficient control measures.
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Squire SA, Yang R, Robertson I, Ayi I, Ryan U. Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in farmers and their ruminant livestock from the Coastal Savannah zone of Ghana. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2017; 55:236-243. [PMID: 28941990 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2017.09.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2016] [Revised: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium and Giardia are major causes of diarrhoea in developing countries including Ghana, however, nothing is known about the species and subtypes of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in farmers and their ruminant livestock in this country. A total of 925 faecal samples from humans (n=95), cattle (n=328), sheep (n=217) and goats (n=285), were screened for Cryptosporidium and Giardia by quantitative PCR (qPCR) at the 18S rRNA and glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh) loci respectively. Cryptosporidium positives were typed by sequence analysis of 18S and 60kDa glycoprotein (gp60) loci amplicons. Giardia positives were typed at the triose phosphate isomerase (tpi), beta-giardin (bg) and gdh loci. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia by qPCR was 8.4% and 10.5% in humans, 26.5% and 8.5% in cattle, 34.1% and 12.9% in sheep, and 33.3% and 12.3% in goat faecal samples, respectively. G. duodenalis assemblages A and B were detected in humans and assemblage E was detected in livestock. Cryptosporidium parvum was the only species identified in humans; C. andersoni, C. bovis, C. ryanae and C. ubiquitum were identified in cattle; C. xiaoi, C. ubiquitum and C. bovis in sheep; and C. xiaoi, C. baileyi and C. parvum in goats. This is the first molecular study of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in livestock in Ghana. The identification of zoonotic species and the identification of C. parvum subtype IIcA5G3q in livestock, which has previously been identified in children in Ghana, suggests potential zoonotic transmission. Further studies on larger numbers of human and animal samples, and on younger livestock are required to better understand the epidemiology and transmission of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Ghana.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvia Afriyie Squire
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia; Council for Scientific and Industrial Research-Animal Research Institute, P. O. Box AH 20, Achimota, Accra, Ghana.
| | - Rongchang Yang
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia.
| | - Ian Robertson
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia; China-Australia Joint Research and Training Center for Veterinary Epidemiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.
| | - Irene Ayi
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana.
| | - Una Ryan
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia.
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Abeywardena H, Jex AR, Gasser RB. A perspective on Cryptosporidium and Giardia, with an emphasis on bovines and recent epidemiological findings. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2015; 88:243-301. [PMID: 25911369 PMCID: PMC7103119 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apar.2015.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium and Giardia are two common aetiological agents of infectious enteritis in humans and animals worldwide. These parasitic protists are usually transmitted by the faecal-oral route, following the ingestion of infective stages (oocysts or cysts). An essential component of the control of these parasitic infections, from a public health perspective, is an understanding of the sources and routes of transmission in different geographical regions. Bovines are considered potential sources of infection for humans, because species and genotypes of Cryptosporidium and Giardia infecting humans have also been isolated from cattle in molecular parasitological studies. However, species and genotypes of Cryptosporidium and Giardia of bovids, and the extent of zoonotic transmission in different geographical regions in the world, are still relatively poorly understood. The purpose of this article is to (1) provide a brief background on Cryptosporidium and Giardia, (2) review some key aspects of the molecular epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis in animals, with an emphasis on bovines, (3) summarize research of Cryptosporidium and Giardia from cattle and water buffaloes in parts of Australasia and Sri Lanka, considering public health aspects and (4) provide a perspective on future avenues of study. Recent studies reinforce that bovines harbour Cryptosporidium and Giardia that likely pose a human health risk and highlight the need for future investigations of the biology, population genetics and transmission dynamics of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in cattle, water buffaloes and other ruminants in different geographical regions, the fate and transport of infective stages following their release into the environment, as well as for improved strategies for the control and prevention of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis, guided by molecular epidemiological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harshanie Abeywardena
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Aaron R. Jex
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Robin B. Gasser
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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Van Haute S, Sampers I, Holvoet K, Uyttendaele M. Physicochemical quality and chemical safety of chlorine as a reconditioning agent and wash water disinfectant for fresh-cut lettuce washing. Appl Environ Microbiol 2013; 79:2850-61. [PMID: 23396332 PMCID: PMC3623159 DOI: 10.1128/aem.03283-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2012] [Accepted: 02/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlorine was assessed as a reconditioning agent and wash water disinfectant in the fresh-cut produce industry. Artificial fresh-cut lettuce wash water, made from butterhead lettuce, was used for the experiments. In the reconditioning experiments, chlorine was added to artificial wash water inoculated with Escherichia coli O157 (6 log CFU/ml). Regression models were constructed based on the inactivation data and validated in actual wash water from leafy vegetable processing companies. The model that incorporated chlorine dose and chemical oxygen demand (COD) of the wash water accurately predicted inactivation. Listeria monocytogenes was more resistant to chlorine reconditioning in artificial wash water than Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli O157. During the washing process with inoculated lettuce (4 log CFU/g), in the absence of chlorine, there was a rapid microbial buildup in the water that accumulated to 5.4 ± 0.4 log CFU/100 ml after 1 h. When maintaining a residual concentration of 1 mg/liter free chlorine, wash water contamination was maintained below 2.7, 2.5, and 2.5 log CFU/100 ml for tap water and artificial process water with COD values of 500 and 1,000 mg O2/liter, respectively. A model was developed to predict water contamination during the dynamic washing process. Only minor amounts of total trihalomethanes were formed in the water during reconditioning. Total trihalomethanes accumulated to larger amounts in the water during the wash water disinfection experiments and reached 124.5 ± 13.4 μg/liter after 1 h of execution of the washing process in water with a COD of 1,000 mg O2/liter. However, no total trihalomethanes were found on the fresh-cut lettuce after rinsing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Van Haute
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Research Group EnBiChem, Department of Industrial Engineering and Technology, University College West Flanders, Association Ghent University (Howest-AUGent), Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Imca Sampers
- Research Group EnBiChem, Department of Industrial Engineering and Technology, University College West Flanders, Association Ghent University (Howest-AUGent), Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Kevin Holvoet
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Research Group EnBiChem, Department of Industrial Engineering and Technology, University College West Flanders, Association Ghent University (Howest-AUGent), Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Mieke Uyttendaele
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Robertson LJ, Chalmers RM. Foodborne cryptosporidiosis: is there really more in Nordic countries? Trends Parasitol 2012; 29:3-9. [PMID: 23146217 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2012.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2012] [Revised: 10/16/2012] [Accepted: 10/16/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Most waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis are reported from the USA, and in Europe from the UK. However, since 2000 reports of foodborne cryptosporidiosis seem to be skewed towards Nordic countries, although consumers in these countries are apparently less concerned about microbiological contamination of food than consumers elsewhere. Possible reasons for this unexpected geographical distribution might include prolonged survival of oocysts in the Nordic climate, greater exposure due to elevated consumption of higher-risk products (possibly including imported foods), and better outbreak investigation and reporting. Although the risk of foodborne cryptosporidiosis is probably underestimated globally, we suggest that the next outbreak is no more likely to be in a Nordic country than anywhere else.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy J Robertson
- Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Oslo, Norway.
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