PCSK9 inhibitors: A new era of lipid lowering therapy

Major adverse events associated with lipid reduction in inclisiran:a pharmacovigilance research of the FAERS database

OBJECTIVE

The effectiveness and safety of the short-interfering RNA drug inclisiran in lowering patients' lipoprotein cholesterol levels to lower their risk of cardiovascular disease are presently being investigated. Based on the real-world adverse event report record in the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System, this article explores the occurrence and risk of adverse events during inclisiran treatment.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

We retrieved and screened all available data from the Food and Drug Administration website for the period from 2009 to the third quarter of 2023. In addition, we conducted a descriptive analysis of adverse event reports and calculated relevant pharmacovigilance measures, including reporting odds ratio, proportional reporting ratio, Bayesian confidence propagation neural network, and empirical Bayesian geometric mean.

RESULTS

4054 adverse reaction reports were filtered from 1151 patient reports of inclisiran. The top three incidence rates of adverse reaction signals for System Organ Class in adverse event reports are GENERAL DISORDERS AND ADMINITRATION SITE CONDITIONS (24.9% reported), MUSCOSKELETAL AND CONNECTIVE TISSUE DISORDERS (18.5% reported), and GASTROINTESTINAL DISORDERS (8.7% reported). The top five preferred terms screened for frequency of occurrence with the strongest risk signals for each of the top three system organ categories are INJECTION SITE PAIN，MYALGIA and DIARRHOEA.

CONCLUSIONS

Inclisiran has good long-term treatment outcomes and safety and can be used for a long time. However, attention should be paid to adverse events with high-risk signals, especially Injection Site Reactions.

A whole-animal phenotypic drug screen identifies suppressors of atherogenic lipoproteins

Lipoproteins are essential for lipid transport in all bilaterians. A single Apolipoprotein B (ApoB) molecule is the inseparable structural scaffold of each ApoB-containing lipoprotein (B-lps), which are responsible for transporting lipids to peripheral tissues. The cellular mechanisms that regulate ApoB and B-lp production, secretion, transport, and degradation remain to be fully defined. In humans, elevated levels of vascular B-lps play a causative role in cardiovascular disease. Previously, we have detailed that human B-lp biology is remarkably conserved in the zebrafish using an in vivo chemiluminescent reporter of ApoB (LipoGlo) that does not disrupt ApoB function. Thus, the LipoGlo model is an ideal system for identifying novel mechanisms of ApoB modulation and, due to the ability of zebrafish to generate many progeny, is particularly amenable to large-scale phenotypic drug screening. Here, we report a screen of roughly 3000 compounds that identified 49 unique ApoB-lowering hits. Nineteen hits passed orthogonal screening criteria. A licorice root component, enoxolone, significantly lowered B-lps only in animals that express a functional allele of the nuclear hormone receptor Hepatocyte Nuclear Factor 4α (HNF4α). Consistent with this result, inhibitors of HNF4α also reduce B-lp levels. These data demonstrate that mechanism(s) of action can be rapidly determined from a whole animal zebrafish phenotypic screen. Given the well documented role of HNF4α in human B-lp biology, these data validate the LipoGlo screening platform for identifying small molecule modulators of B-lps that play a critical role in a leading cause of worldwide mortality.

PCSK9 Inhibitors: The Evolving Future

Introduction

PCSK9 inhibitors are a novel class of medications that lower LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) by increasing LDL receptor activity, promoting clearance of LDL-C from the bloodstream. Over the years, PCSK9 inhibitors have been explored as adjunct therapies to statins or as monotherapy in high-risk cardiovascular patients.

Aim

This review aims to provide an updated perspective on PCSK9 inhibitors, assessing their clinical efficacy, safety, and significance, especially in light of recent clinical trials.

Methods

The review examines the role of PCSK9 in cholesterol regulation and summarizes the results of major cardiovascular trials, including FOURIER, SPIRE-1, SPIRE-2, and ODYSSEY Outcomes. It also discusses emerging treatments like small interfering RNA (siRNA) therapies and evaluates PCSK9 inhibitor effects on LDL-C and lipoprotein(a) levels.

Results

Clinical trials have shown PCSK9 inhibitors reduce LDL-C by up to 60%. In the FOURIER trial, evolocumab reduced LDL-C by 59% and major cardiovascular events by 15%-20%. The SPIRE-2 trial, despite early termination, showed a 21% risk reduction in the primary composite endpoint with bococizumab. The ODYSSEY Outcomes trial reported a 57% LDL-C reduction with alirocumab, alongside a 15% reduction in adverse events. Emerging treatments like Inclisiran offer long-term LDL-C control with fewer doses. PCSK9 inhibitors are generally well-tolerated, with the most common side effect being injection site reactions.

Conclusion

PCSK9 inhibitors significantly lower LDL-C and reduce cardiovascular events, offering promising therapies for high-risk patients, including those with familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) and those who cannot tolerate statins. Future research will focus on optimizing these inhibitors, integrating complementary therapies, and exploring gene-editing technologies to improve patient outcomes.

Identification of novel proteins for coronary artery disease by integrating GWAS data and human plasma proteomes

Background

Most coronary artery disease (CAD) risk loci identified by genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are located in non-coding regions, hampering the interpretation of how they confer CAD risk. It is essential to integrate GWAS with molecular traits data to further explore the genetic basis of CAD.

Methods

We used the probabilistic Mendelian randomization (PMR) method to identify potential proteins involved in CAD by integrating CAD GWAS data (∼76,014 cases and ∼264,785 controls) and human plasma proteomes (N = 35,559). Then, Bayesian co-localization analysis, confirmatory PMR analysis using independent plasma proteome data (N = 7752), and gene expression data (N1 = 213, N2 = 670) were performed to validate candidate proteins. We further investigated the associations between candidate proteins and CAD-related traits and explored the rationality and biological functions of candidate proteins through disease enrichment, cell type-specific, GO, and KEGG enrichment analysis.

Results

This study inferred that the abundance of 30 proteins in the plasma was causally associated with CAD (P < 0.05/4408, Bonferroni correction), such as PLG, IL15RA, and CSNK2A1. PLG, PSCK9, COLEC11, ZNF180, ERP29, TCP1, FN1, CDH5, IL15RA, MGAT4B, TNFRSF6B, DNM2, and TGF1R were replicated in the confirmatory PMR (P < 0.05). PCSK9 (PP.H4 = 0.99), APOB (PP.H4 = 0.89), FN1 (PP.H4 = 0.87), and APOC1 (PP.H4 = 0.78) coding proteins shared one common variant with CAD. MTAP, TCP1, APOC2, ERP29, MORF4L1, C19orf80, PCSK9, APOC1, EPOR, DNM2, TNFRSF6B, CDKN2B, and LDLR were supported by PMR at the transcriptome level in whole blood and/or coronary arteries (P < 0.05). Enrichment analysis identified multiple pathways involved in cholesterol metabolism, regulation of lipoprotein levels and telomerase, such as cholesterol metabolism (hsa04979, P = 2.25E-7), plasma lipoprotein particle clearance (GO:0034381, P = 5.47E-5), and regulation of telomerase activity (GO:0051972, P = 2.34E-3).

Conclusions

Our integration analysis has identified 30 candidate proteins for CAD, which may provide important leads to design future functional studies and potential drug targets for CAD.

Therapeutic Monoclonal Antibodies for Metabolic Disorders: Major Advancements and Future Perspectives

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Globally, the prevalence of metabolic disorders is rising. Elevated low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol is a hallmark of familial hypercholesterolemia, one of the most prevalent hereditary metabolic disorders and another one is Diabetes mellitus (DM) that is more common globally, characterised by hyperglycemia with low insulin-directed glucose by target cells. It is still known that low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) increases the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). LDL-C levels are thought to be the main therapeutic objectives.

RECENT FINDINGS

The primary therapy for individuals with elevated cholesterol levels is the use of statins and other lipid lowering drugs like ezetimibe for hypercholesterolemia. Even after taking statin medication to the maximum extent possible, some individuals still have a sizable residual cardiovascular risk. To overcome this proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors-monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are a novel class of systemic macromolecules that have enhanced LDL-C-lowering efficacy. Along with this other inhibitor are used like Angiopoeitin like 3 inhibitors. Research on both humans and animals has shown that anti-CD3 antibodies can correct autoimmune disorders like diabetes mellitus. Individuals diagnosed with familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) may need additional treatment options beyond statins, especially when facing challenges such as statin tolerance or the inability of even the highest statin doses to reach the desired target cholesterol level. Here is the summary of PCSK9, ANGPTL-3 and CD3 inhibitors and their detailed information. In this review we discuss the details of PCSK9, ANGPTL-3 and CD3 inhibitors and the current therapeutic interventions of using the monoclonal antibodies in case of the metabolic disorder. We further present the present studies and the future prospective of the same.

Chemical constituents from the roots of Cynanchum wilfordii with PCSK9 secretion inhibitory activities

From the Cynanchum wilfordii roots, 32 compounds, including 5 previously undescribed (1, 4-6, 12) and 27 known (2, 3, 7-11, 13-32) compounds, were isolated, and their structures were elucidated using NMR spectroscopic data and MS data aided by ECD calculations or the modified Mosher's reaction. All isolates were tested for their inhibitory effects on proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) secretion. Among the isolates, compound 4, a methyl cholesterol analog, exhibited the most potent effect in reducing PCSK9 secretion, along with PCSK9 downregulation at the mRNA and protein levels via FOXO1/3 upregulation. Moreover, compound 4 attenuated statin-induced PCSK9 expression and enhanced the uptake of DiI-LDL low-density lipoprotein. Thus, compound 4 is suggested to be a potential candidate for controlling cholesterol levels.

Calculated LDL-cholesterol: comparability of the extended Martin/Hopkins, Sampson/NIH, Friedewald and four other equations in South African patients

AIMS

The reference method for low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) is ultracentrifugation. However, this is unsuitable for routine use and therefore direct LDL-C assays and predictive equations are used. In this study, we compared the Friedewald, extended Martin/Hopkins, Sampson/NIH and four other equations to a direct assay.

METHODS

We analysed 44 194 lipid profiles from a mixed South African population. The LDL-C predictive equations were compared with direct LDL-C assay and analysed using non-parametric statistics and error grid analysis.

RESULTS

Both the extended Martin/Hopkins and Sampson/NIH equations displayed the best correlation with direct LDL-C in terms of desirable bias and total allowable error. The direct LDL-C assay classified 13.9% of patients in the low LDL-C (1.0-1.8 mmol/L) category, in comparison to the extended Martin/Hopkins equation (13.4%), the Sampson equation (14.6%) and the Friedewald equation (16.0%). The Sampson/NIH was least biased in the low LDL-C category (<1.8 mmol/L) and produced the least overall clinically relevant errors compared with the extended Martin/Hopkins and Friedewald equations in the low-LDL-C category.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest only a marginal difference between the extended Martin/Hopkins equation and the Sampson/NIH equation with the use of the Beckman Coulter DxC800 analyser in this population. The results favour the implementation of the Sampson/NIH equation when the Beckman Coulter DxC analyser is used, but the extended Martin/Hopkins may also be safely implemented. Both of these equations performed significantly better than the Friedewald equation. We recommend that patients be monitored using one of these methods and that each laboratory perform its own validation of either equation to ensure continuation and accuracy, and to prevent between-method variation.

Unraveling the Nexus Between Ambient Air Pollutants and Cardiovascular Morbidity: Mechanistic Insights and Therapeutic Horizons

Air pollution poses a significant threat to cardiovascular health, contributing to the development and progression of various heart diseases. This review delves into the intricate relationship between ambient air pollutants and cardiovascular morbidity, elucidating the underlying mechanisms and exploring potential therapeutic approaches. We discuss the major types of air pollutants, including particulate matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), ozone (O3), and carbon monoxide (CO), and their respective roles in exacerbating cardiovascular conditions. The review highlights the key mechanisms by which air pollutants adversely impact the cardiovascular system, including systemic inflammation, oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, autonomic nervous system imbalance, and dysregulation of blood coagulation and thrombosis. Vulnerable populations, including children, the elderly, and those with pre-existing health conditions, are disproportionately affected. Air quality regulations aim to mitigate these effects by reducing pollutant levels, with the overall goal of lowering cardiovascular morbidity and improving public health outcomes. Specifically, stringent regulations focus on curbing vehicular emissions and industrial pollutants and promoting cleaner energy sources. Recent data underscore the importance of addressing environmental and behavioral risk factors to prevent the growing global burden of cardiovascular disease. This review synthesizes the mechanistic pathways through which pollutants contribute to cardiovascular damage and highlights the urgent need for early detection strategies and targeted therapies. Improving public health through stricter air quality control measures and raising awareness of the health risks associated with pollution is crucial for mitigating the long-term cardiovascular impacts of air pollution.

PCSK9 inhibitor effectively alleviated cognitive dysfunction in a type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model

Background

The incidence of diabetes-associated cognitive dysfunction (DACD) is increasing; however, few clinical intervention measures are available for the prevention and treatment of this disease. Research has shown that proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors, particularly SBC-115076, have a protective effect against various neurodegenerative diseases. However, their role in DACD remains unknown. In this study, we aimed to explore the impact of PCSK9 inhibitors on DACD.

Methods

Male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were used to establish an animal model of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The rats were randomly divided into three groups: the Control group (Control, healthy rats, n = 8), the Model group (Model, rats with T2DM, n = 8), and the PCSK9 inhibitor-treated group (Treat, T2DM rats treated with PCSK9 inhibitors, n = 8). To assess the spatial learning and memory of the rats in each group, the Morris water maze (MWM) test was conducted. Hematoxylin-eosin staining and Nissl staining procedures were performed to assess the structural characteristics and functional status of the neurons of rats from each group. Transmission electron microscopy was used to examine the morphology and structure of the hippocampal neurons. Determine serum PCSK9 and lipid metabolism indicators in each group of rats. Use qRT-PCR to detect the expression levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in the hippocampal tissues of each group of rats. Western blot was used to detect the expression of PCSK9 and low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) in the hippocampal tissues of rats. In addition, a 4D label-free quantitative proteomics approach was used to analyse protein expression in rat hippocampal tissues. The expression of selected proteins in hippocampal tissues was verified by parallel reaction monitoring (PRM) and immunohistochemistry (IHC).

Results

The results showed that the PCSK9 inhibitor alleviated cognitive dysfunction in T2DM rats. PCSK9 inhibitors can reduce PCSK9, total cholesterol (TC), and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels in the serum of T2DM rats. Meanwhile, it was found that PCSK9 inhibitors can reduce the expression of PCSK9, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in the hippocampal tissues of T2DM rats, while increasing the expression of LDLR. Thirteen potential target proteins for the action of PCSK9 inhibitors on DACD rats were identified. PRM and IHC revealed that PCSK9 inhibitors effectively counteracted the downregulation of transthyretin in DACD rats.

Conclusion

This study uncovered the target proteins and specific mechanisms of PCSK9 inhibitors in DACD, providing an experimental basis for the clinical application of PCSK9 inhibitors for the potential treatment of DACD.

Strategies for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Type 1 Diabetes: A Comprehensive Review

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality among individuals with type 1 diabetes (T1D), necessitating effective prevention strategies. This comprehensive review consolidates current knowledge and evidence on preventing CVD in T1D patients. It begins by exploring the pathophysiological mechanisms that link T1D to an increased risk of CVD, highlighting factors such as chronic hyperglycemia, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and inflammation. The review also examines the epidemiology and specific risk factors for CVD in this population, emphasizing the need for rigorous risk assessment and screening. Lifestyle modifications, including dietary interventions, regular physical activity, and smoking cessation, are evaluated for their effectiveness in reducing CVD risk. Additionally, the review discusses pharmacological interventions, such as insulin therapy for glycemic control, antihypertensive medications, lipid-lowering agents, and antiplatelet therapy, underscoring their critical role in CVD prevention. Emerging therapies and future research directions are explored, focusing on novel pharmacological agents, advances in insulin delivery systems, and personalized medicine approaches. The importance of integrated care models involving multidisciplinary teams and the use of technology is highlighted as essential for comprehensive management. Challenges and barriers to implementing these strategies, including healthcare system limitations, patient adherence, and socioeconomic factors, are also addressed. This review provides a detailed synthesis of current strategies and future directions for preventing CVD in individuals with T1D, serving as a valuable resource for clinicians, researchers, and policymakers dedicated to improving cardiovascular outcomes in this high-risk population.

The role of natural products as PCSK9 modulators: A review

A variety of mechanisms and drugs have been shown to attenuate cardiovascular disease (CVD) onset and/or progression. Recent researchers have identified a potential role of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) in modulating lipid metabolism and reducing plasma low density lipoprotein (LDL) levels. PCSK9 is the central protein in the metabolism of LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) owing to its major function in LDL receptor (LDLR) degradation. Due to the close correlation of cardiovascular disease with lipid levels, many in vivo and in vitro investigations are currently underway studying the physiological role of PCSK9. Furthermore, many studies are actively investigating the mechanisms of various compounds that influence lipid associated-disorders and their associated cardiovascular diseases. PCSK9 inhibitors have been shown to have significant impact in the prevention of emerging cardiovascular diseases. Natural products can effectively be used as PCSK9 inhibitors to control lipid levels through various mechanisms. In this review, we evaluate the role of phytochemicals and natural products in the regulation of PCSK9, and their ability to prevent cardiovascular diseases. Moreover, we describe their mechanisms of action, which have not to date been delineated.

Early administration of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors in patients with acute coronary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

High-intensity statin therapy is currently recommended initial guideline therapy in ACS treatment. However, only a minority of patients are achieving LDL-C attainment goal at 6 months. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors are on recommended guideline therapy post-ACS if LDL-C goal attainment is not achieved after high-intensity statin (4-6 weeks) and after the addition of ezetimibe if guideline goal attainment is not achieved after an additional 4-6 weeks. Thus, it has been recommended that PCSK9 inhibitors be considered earlier post-ACS. However, the efficacy of early PCSK9 inhibitors initiation in ACS patients remains uncertain.

METHODS

This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted following PRISMA guidelines. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and observational studies involving ACS patients who received PCSK9 inhibitors within 48 h of hospitalization were included. Common and random effects models were used to evaluate the pooled effect of early PCSK9 inhibitor administration. Nine RCTs and three cohort studies were included.

RESULTS

Early PCSK9 inhibitor administration reduced the incidence of MI, ACS hospitalization, and revascularization at 6-18 months post-ACS. Although there was a drift towards reduced stroke, all-cause mortality, and cardiovascular death, no statistically significant reduction was observed. Additionally, PCSK9 inhibitors significantly enhanced lipid control at 4-12 weeks after index hospitalization.

CONCLUSION

Early PCSK9 inhibitors initiation in ACS patients reduces MACE and improves lipid profiles. While the results propose promising benefits in terms of stroke and mortality, further research with longer follow-up is required for more decisive evidence.

Specific circulating miRNAs are associated with plasma lipids in a healthy American cohort

Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) is both a therapeutic target and a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). MicroRNA (miRNA) has been shown to regulate cholesterol homeostasis, and miRNA in blood circulation has been linked to hypercholesterolemia. However, few studies to date have associated miRNA with phenotypes like LDL-c in a healthy population. To this end, we analyzed circulating miRNA in relation to LDL-c in a healthy cohort of 353 participants using two separate bioinformatic approaches. The first approach found that miR-15b-5p and miR-16-5p were upregulated in individuals with at-risk levels of LDL-c. The second approach identified two miRNA clusters, one that positively and a second that negatively correlated with LDL-c. Included in the cluster that positively correlated with LDL-c were miR-15b-5p and miR-16-5p, as well as other miRNA from the miR-15/107, miR-30, and let-7 families. Cross-species analyses suggested that several miRNAs that associated with LDL-c are conserved between mice and humans. Finally, we examined the influence of diet on circulating miRNA. Our results robustly linked circulating miRNA with LDL-c, suggesting that miRNA could be used as biomarkers for hypercholesterolemia or targets for developing cholesterol-lowering drugs.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study explored the association between circulating microRNA (miRNA) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) in a healthy population of 353 participants. Two miRNAs, miR-15b-5p and miR-16-5p, were upregulated in individuals with at-risk LDL-c levels. Several miRNA clusters were positively and negatively correlated with LDL-c and are known to target mRNA involved in lipid metabolism. The study also investigated the influence of diet on circulating miRNA, suggesting potential biomarkers for hypercholesterolemia.

Lipid-Lowering Medications for Managing Dyslipidemia: A Narrative Review

Dyslipidemia refers to the change in the normal levels of one or more lipid components in the bloodstream, which include triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C). Dyslipidemia represents a substantial source of danger for cardiovascular disease (CVD). Effectively managing dyslipidemia involves a thorough strategy that includes changing one's lifestyle and using medications that are specifically designed to target the complex processes involved in lipid metabolism. Lipid-lowering treatments play a crucial role in this approach, providing a wide range of medications that are developed to specifically target different components of dyslipidemia. Statins are the main drug among these medications. Other drugs that are used with statin or as monotherapy include fibrates, omega-3 fatty acids (OM3FAs), ezetimibe, bile acid sequestrants, proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors, and bempedoic acid. Using the PubMed database, we reviewed the literature about dyslipidemia, drugs used for treating dyslipidemia, their efficacy parameters, and common adverse events. We also reviewed the international guidelines for treating dyslipidemia and discussed the future of lipid-lowering medications. More trials and experiments are still required to verify the effectiveness of many lipid-lowering drugs and to know their common adverse events to be able to manage them properly.

Emerging Therapeutic Strategies in Cardiovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), including ischemic heart disease and stroke, are the leading cause of mortality worldwide, causing nearly 20 million deaths annually. Traditional therapies, while effective, have not curbed the rising prevalence of CVDs driven by aging populations and lifestyle factors. This review highlights innovative therapeutic strategies that show promise in improving patient outcomes and transforming cardiovascular care. Emerging pharmacological treatments, such as proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors and sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, introduce novel mechanisms to complement existing therapies, significantly reducing cardiovascular events and mortality. These advancements emphasize the necessity of ongoing clinical trials and research to discover new therapeutic targets. Advanced biological therapies, including gene therapy, stem cell therapy, and RNA-based treatments, offer groundbreaking potential for repairing and regenerating damaged cardiovascular tissues. Despite being in various stages of clinical validation, early results are promising, suggesting these therapies could fundamentally change the CVD treatment landscape. Innovative medical devices and technologies, such as implantable devices, minimally invasive procedures, and wearable technology, are revolutionizing CVD management. These advancements facilitate early diagnosis, continuous monitoring, and effective treatment, driving care out of hospitals and into homes, improving patient outcomes and reducing healthcare costs. Personalized medicine, driven by genetic profiling and biomarker identification, allows for tailored therapies that enhance treatment efficacy and minimize adverse effects. However, the adoption of these emerging therapies faces significant challenges, including regulatory hurdles, cost and accessibility issues, and ethical considerations. Addressing these barriers and fostering interdisciplinary collaboration are crucial for accelerating the development and implementation of innovative treatments. Integrating emerging therapeutic strategies in cardiovascular care holds immense potential to transform CVD management. By prioritizing future research and overcoming existing challenges, a new era of personalized, effective, and accessible cardiovascular care can be achieved.

PCSK9 and Lipid Metabolism: Genetic Variants, Current Therapies, and Cardiovascular Outcomes

Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) plays a crucial role in the modulation of lipid metabolism as a critical negative regulator of hepatic low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) levels and circulating low-density lipoprotein (LDL) clearance. Numerous gain-of-function (GOF) mutations in PCSK9 have been identified as causing familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) by reducing LDLR levels, and loss-of-function (LOF) mutations associated with a hypercholesterolemia phenotype protective against atherosclerosis. PCSK9 represents an example of successful translational research resulting in the identification of PCSK9 as a major drug target for a lipid-lowering therapy. To explore the genetic constitution of PCSK9 and its biologic role, in this review, we summarize the current evidence of clinically significant PCSK9 genetic variants involved in lipid metabolism as well as emphasize the importance of PCSK9 inhibition for the improvement of cardiovascular outcomes by conducting a meta-analysis of the available data on the incidence of cardiovascular disease events.

Towards Optimal Cardiovascular Health: A Comprehensive Review of Preventive Strategies

Heart disease remains a prominent global health concern, with cardiovascular disease (CVD) standing as a leading cause of death worldwide. Preventing heart disease not only decreases the risk of premature death but also mitigates complications like heart attacks, strokes, and arrhythmias, thereby enhancing overall health and quality of life. The economic burden of heart disease treatment highlights the importance of implementing preventive measures, such as lifestyle changes and early interventions, which can alleviate healthcare costs. These strategies, targeting risk factors like hypertension (HTN), diabetes mellitus (DM), dyslipidemia, and obesity, not only prevent heart disease but also reduce the risk of other health issues. Herein, this review covers various preventive measures, including dietary interventions, exercise, controlling HTN, DM, cholesterol, and weight, smoking cessation, and pharmacological interventions. By critically analyzing the guidelines and leveraging robust data alongside variations in recommendations, this review aims to elucidate effective primary prevention strategies for CVD.

Targeting the vivid facets of apolipoproteins as a cardiovascular risk factor in rheumatoid arthritis

Mostly, cardiovascular diseases are blamed for casualties in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients. Customarily, dyslipidemia is probably the most prevalent underlying cause of untimely demise in people suffering from RA as it hastens the expansion of atherosclerosis. The engagement of inflammatory cytokines like tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), etc., is crucial in the progression and proliferation of both RA and abnormal lipid parameters. Thus, lipid abnormalities should be monitored frequently in patients with both primary and advanced RA stages. An advanced lipid profile examination, i.e., direct role of apolipoproteins associated with various lipid molecules is a more dependable approach for better understanding of the disease and selecting suitable therapeutic targets. Therefore, studying their apolipoproteins is more relevant than assessing RA patients' altered lipid profile levels. Among the various apolipoprotein classes, Apo A1 and Apo B are primarily being focused. In addition, it also addresses how calculating Apo B:Apo A1 ratio can aid in analyzing the disease's risk. The marketed therapies available to control lipid abnormalities are associated with many other risk factors. Hence, directly targeting Apo A1 and Apo B would provide a better and safer option.

Hypercholesterolemia: a literature review on management using tafolecimab: a novel member of PCSK9 monoclonal antibodies

Background

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) persist as the leading cause of mortality globally, with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), including hypercholesterolaemia, being a significant contributor. Hyperlipidemia management includes various lipid-lowering drugs, including statins, Bempedoic acid, inclisiran, Lomitapide, ANGPTL3 inhibitors, and PCSK9 inhibitors. Statins have traditionally dominated lipid management therapies; however, a subset of patients remains unresponsive or intolerant to this therapy, necessitating novel therapeutic approaches. Tafolecimab, a promising and novel PCSK9 monoclonal antibody, demonstrated significant LDL-C reduction and a favourable safety profile in clinical trials.

Objective

This review aimed to discuss the role and efficacy of Tafolecimab in the management of hypercholesterolaemia.

Methods

The authors searched online databases, including PubMed, Scopus, and Embase, for articles related to talofecimab.

Discussion

The efficacy of Tafolecimab in diverse patient populations, including those with comorbid conditions and various lipid disorders, has been explored. Ongoing trials, such as CREDIT-1, CREDIT-2, and CREDIT-4, have provided valuable insights into Tafolecimab's potential as a lipid-lowering agent. Moreover, the drug's extended dosing interval may enhance patient compliance and reduce treatment costs. It has also been found that Tafolecimab has more affinity for PCSK9 and a longer duration of LDL-C reduction than other monoclonal antibody drugs such as evolocumab. Thus, this review focuses on Tafolecimab, a novel PCSK9 monoclonal antibody, its mechanism of action, clinical trial outcomes, safety profile, and potential role in hypercholesterolaemia management. Despite its assuring potential, the long-term impact of Tafolecimab on cardiovascular outcomes remains to be fully elucidated, necessitating further research. Regulatory authorities like the FDA and EMA should also evaluate Tafolecimab's risks and benefits.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Tafolecimab shows potential as an innovative therapeutic option for hypercholesterolaemia, particularly in patients with specific risk factors, but warrants additional research.

Classical and Novel Lipid-Lowering Therapies for Diabetic Patients with Established Coronary Artery Disease or High Risk of Coronary Artery Disease-A Narrative Clinical Review

Diabetic atherosclerosis is a complex process that is characterized by diffuse and unstable lesions increasing 2-4-fold the risk of adverse cardiovascular (CV) events. Diabetic dyslipidemia has a predominant role in coronary artery disease (CAD) and has been the target of classical and emerging pharmaceutical agents with established or promising CV benefits. The aim of the present narrative review was to summarize the effects of classical and novel lipid-lowering pharmaceutical agents on lipid profile and CV outcomes in diabetic patients with established CAD or high risk of CAD. Statins remain the first-line treatment for all diabetic patients since they considerably ameliorate lipid parameters and non-lipid CV risk factors, leading to reduced CV morbidity and mortality. Complementary to statins, ezetimibe exerts lipid-lowering properties with modest but significant reductions in major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs) and CV mortality. PCSK9 inhibitors considerably reduce LDL-C levels and lower MACEs in diabetic patients. On the other hand, fibrates may confer a very modest decline in MACE incidence, while the CV impact of omega-3 fatty acids is promising but remains questionable. Bempedoic acid and inclisiran have a potential therapeutic role in the management of diabetic dyslipidemia, but this is still not adequately documented. Given the heightened CV risk among individuals with diabetes, more decisive results would be of great importance in the utility of all these drugs.

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease landscape in Singapore

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death worldwide, accounting for over one-third of all deaths in Singapore. An analysis of age-standardized mortality rates (ASMR) for CVD in Singapore revealed a deceleration in the initial rapid decline in ASMR. A decrease in smoking prevalence may have contributed to the initial rapid decline in ASMR. Furthermore, other major risk factors, such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension, elevated low-density lipoprotein levels, and obesity, are steadily rising. Singapore's CVD economic burden is estimated to be 8.1 billion USD (11.5 billion SGD). The burden of CVD can only be reduced using individual and population-based approaches. Prevention programs must also be developed based on an understanding of risk trends. Therefore, this article attempts to capture the burden of CVD, trends in risk factor control, preventive care, disparities, and current unmet needs, particularly in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease management in Singapore.

Inclisiran siRNA technology in the management of dyslipidemia: A narrative review of clinical trials

RNA interference therapies, particularly small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) like Inclisiran, have shown great potential in managing dyslipidemia, a significant risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Inclisiran targets pro-protein convertasesubtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) mRNA to reduce low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels. This review evaluates Inclisiran's efficacy, safety, and clinical applications in managing dyslipidemia. A review of clinical trials evaluating Inclisiran's efficacy and safety in dyslipidemia management was conducted. PubMed, Embase, Google Scholar and Scopus were searched for relevant trials. Inclusion criteria covered clinical trials in English, published within the last six years, involving human subjects. 12 clinical trials were included in this review, demonstrating Inclisiran's consistent efficacy in reducing LDL-C levels across diverse patient populations, even in statin intolerance or resistance cases. The efficacy was observed over various durations, with some trials extending up to 4 years. Inclisiran demonstrated a favourable safety profile, with mild adverse events reported in most trials, suggesting its potential as a well-tolerated treatment option. Inclisiran's consistent efficacy and safety profile make it a promising option for managing dyslipidemia. Future studies should confirm its long-term effects and explore its clinical implications in diverse patient populations and high-risk scenarios.

Treatment of dyslipidemia in acute coronary syndrome

Despite numerous improvements in the management of acute coronary syndrome(ACS), it is a major cause of mortality in India. Lipids play a critical role in pathogenesis of ACS and reduction of lipid parameters plays a pivotal role in secondary prevention. High total cholesterol and high low-density lipoprotein(LDL) are the major lipid abnormalities globally as well as in Indians. Among all the lipid parameters, LDL is the primary target of lipid-lowering therapies across the globe. High-dose statins, ezetimibe, proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 inhibitors, and bempedoic acid are recommended therapies for LDL reduction in ACS patients. Statins have pleiotropic effects on the modulation of thrombogenesis, endothelial dysfunction, and myocardial protection. Multiple randomised controlled trials and meta-analyses have shown that the use of high-dose statin has significant benefits in ACS. LDL reduction goal is < 55 mg/dl or at least 50 % reduction from the baseline regardless of age or gender. Non-fasting LDL should be measured soon after the ACS as it varies minimally with food intake. The first line of therapy after ACS is to advise lifestyle modifications, combination therapy including high-dose statin with ezetimibe, and evaluation after 4-6 weeks of the index event. If the goal is not achieved then PCSK 9 inhibitors or Bempedoic acid should be used in combination with statins and ezetimibe to reduce recurrent ischaemic events. Despite the proven effect of these lipid-lowering therapies, undertreatment is still a big hurdle across the globe. Prohibitive costs, adverse effects, medication non-adherence, variation in health practice in different countries, and clinical inertia to prescribe this medication by physicians are the main reasons for the undertreatment.

Post-translational regulation of the low-density lipoprotein receptor provides new targets for cholesterol regulation

The amount of the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) on the surface of hepatocytes is the primary determinant of plasma low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol level. Although the synthesis and cellular trafficking of the LDLR have been well-documented, there is growing evidence of additional post-translational mechanisms that regulate or fine tune the surface availability of the LDLR, thus modulating its ability to bind and internalise LDL-cholesterol. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 and the asialoglycoprotein receptor 1 both independently interact with the LDLR and direct it towards the lysosome for degradation. While ubiquitination by the E3 ligase inducible degrader of the LDLR also targets the receptor for lysosomal degradation, ubiquitination of the LDLR by a different E3 ligase, RNF130, redistributes the receptor away from the plasma membrane. The activity of the LDLR is also regulated by proteolysis. Proteolytic cleavage of the transmembrane region of the LDLR by γ-secretase destabilises the receptor, directing it to the lysosome for degradation. Shedding of the extracellular domain of the receptor by membrane-type 1 matrix metalloprotease and cleavage of the receptor in its LDL-binding domain by bone morphogenetic protein-1 reduces the ability of the LDLR to bind and internalise LDL-cholesterol at the cell surface. A better understanding of how the activity of the LDLR is regulated will not only unravel the complex biological mechanisms controlling LDL-cholesterol metabolism but also could help inform the development of alternative pharmacological intervention strategies for the treatment of hypercholesterolaemia.