Is type 2 diabetes mellitus a coronary heart disease equivalent or not? Do not just enjoy the debate and forget the patient!

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk stratification and management in type 2 diabetes: review of recent evidence-based guidelines

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) is the leading cause of mortality and morbidity in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Accordingly, several scientific societies have released clinical practice guidelines to assist health professionals in ASCVD risk management in patients with T2DM. However, some recommendations differ from each other, contributing to uncertainty about the optimal clinical management of patients with T2DM and established ASCVD or at high risk for ASCVD. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to discuss recent evidence-based guidelines on ASCVD risk stratification and prevention in patients with T2DM, in terms of disparities and similarities. To close the gap between different guidelines, a multidisciplinary approach involving general practitioners, endocrinologists, and cardiologists may enhance the coordination of diagnosis, therapy, and long-term follow-up of ASCVD in patients with T2DM.

Associations between Inflammation, Hemoglobin Levels, and Coronary Artery Disease in Non-Albuminuric Subjects with and without Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

In this cross-sectional study, we evaluated the associations of inflammation and hemoglobin with coronary artery disease (CAD) in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and preserved kidney function. We recruited 638 participants-254 with T2DM-subjected to coronary angiography with no known cardiovascular disease, normal glomerular filtration rates, and without albuminuria. The hemoglobin and serum levels of inflammatory markers, including high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), were measured. Multivariable analyses showed that inflammatory markers were not related to the severity of the stenosis in the group of subjects with diabetes. Conversely, inflammatory cytokines and albuminuria were directly related to the percentage of stenosis in subjects without T2DM (R2 = 0.038, p < 0.001). Patients with diabetes presented lower hemoglobin levels, particularly in those who also had significant CAD (14.4 [13.6-15.1] vs. 13.6 [12.2-14.8] g/dL, p = 0.03). Similarly, hemoglobin levels and albuminuria were inversely related to the severity of stenosis exclusively in subjects with diabetes, even after adjusting for multiple confounding factors (R2 = 0.081, p < 0.001). We conclude that reductions in hemoglobin levels in subjects with T2DM and normoalbuminuria may constitute a more relevant risk factor for CAD than inflammation.

Personalized management of dyslipidemias in patients with diabetes-it is time for a new approach (2022)

Dyslipidemia in patients with type 2 diabetes (DMT2) is one of the worst controlled worldwide, with only about 1/4 of patients being on the low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) target. There are many reasons of this, including physicians' inertia, including diabetologists and cardiologists, therapy nonadherence, but also underusage and underdosing of lipid lowering drugs due to unsuitable cardiovascular (CV) risk stratification. In the last several years there is a big debate on the risk stratification of DMT2 patients, with the strong indications that all patients with diabetes should be at least at high cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Moreover, we have finally lipid lowering drugs, that not only allow for the effective reduction of LDL-C and do not increase the risk of new onset diabetes (NOD), and/or glucose impairment; in the opposite, some of them might effectively improve glucose control. One of the most interesting is pitavastatin, which is now available in Europe, with the best metabolic profile within statins (no risk of NOD, improvement of fasting blood glucose, HOMA-IR, HbA1c), bempedoic acid (with the potential for the reduction of NOD risk), innovative therapies-PCSK9 inhibitors and inclisiran with no DMT2 risk increase, and new forthcoming therapies, including apabetalone and obicetrapib-for the latter one with the possibility of even decreasing the number of patients diagnosed with prediabetes and DMT2. Altogether, nowadays we have possibility to individualize lipid lowering therapy in DMT2 patients and increase the number of patients on LDL-C goal without any risk of new onset diabetes and/or diabetes control worsening, and in consequence to reduce the risk of CVD complications due to progression of atherosclerosis in this patients' group.

Analysis of Risk Factors of Coronary Heart Disease and Its Correlation with Inflammatory Factors in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

In this paper, we propose a new method to analyze the risk factors of coronary heart disease (CHD) and their correlation with inflammatory factors in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). To verify and implement this idea, we have selected a total of 165 patients with T2DM treated in our hospital from March 2019 to October 2021 that were divided into CHD group (n = 72) and non-CHD group (n = 93) according to the results of coronary angiography. Patients with CHD were divided into three groups according to SYNTAX score: low-risk group, medium-risk group, and high-risk group. The clinical data of all patients were collected. Univariate and multivariate analyses were used to screen the risk factors of CHD in patients with T2DM. The related inflammatory factors such as C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and water-soluble CD40 ligand (sCD40L) were detected in all patients. Pearson's linear correlation analysis was used to analyze the correlation between the expression levels of CRP, IL-6, and sCD40L and CHD in patients with T2DM. The receiver working curve (ROC) was used to evaluate the efficacy of IL-6, CRP, and sCD40L in predicting high risk of CHD in patients with T2DM. Multivariate analysis showed that age and course of T2DM, FFA, UA, and Hcy were risk factors for CHD in patients with T2DM. The serum levels of IL-6, CRP, and sCD40L in patients with CHD were significantly higher than those in patients without CHD. According to SYNTAX score, 72 patients with CHD were divided into low-risk group (n = 36), medium-risk group (n = 26), and high-risk group (n = 10). Compared with the low-risk group, the expression levels of serum IL-6 CRP and sCD40L in the middle-risk group and high-risk group were significantly higher than those in the low-risk group. The expression levels of IL-6 CRP and sCD40L in the high-risk group were also significantly higher than those in the medium-risk group. There is a positive correlation between syntactic score and IL-6 expression in patients with T2DM complicated with coronary heart disease (r = 0.778, P < 0.001), with the expression of CRP (r = 0.756, P < 0.001) and with the expression of sCD40L (r = 0.748, P < 0.001). Advanced age, long course of T2DM, elevated levels of FFA, UA, and Hcy are all risk factors of CHD in patients with type 2 diabetes. T2DM patients with the above risk factors should be vigilant and pay attention to monitoring the related indexes of coronary heart disease to avoid the occurrence of serious cardiovascular disease. CRP, IL-6, and sCD40L are involved in the progression of CHD in patients with T2DM. The more severe CHD is, the higher the expression of IL-6, CRP, and sCD40L in serum.

Coronary Artery Calcium Score directed risk stratification of patients with Type-2 diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

This study aimed to review the available data on the role of coronary artery calcium (CAC) scoring as the preferred adjunct modality to improve risk prediction and reduce the incidence of major adverse cardiac events and mortality in T2DM patients.

METHODS

We reviewed the findings of 21 studies.

RESULTS

This study revealed that the CAC scoring system could enhance cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk stratification and positively affect the medical management of patients with T2DM.

CONCLUSION

A CAC scoring approach is necessary to reduce the incidence and prevalence of preventable CVD events in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Current Guideline Risk Stratification and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Chinese Patients Suffered From Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Heterogeneity exists among patients with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) with regard to the risk of recurrent events. Current guidelines have definitely refined the disease and we aimed to examine the practicability in Chinese population.

METHODS

A cohort of 9944 patients with ASCVD was recruited. Recurrent events occurred during an average of 38.5 months' follow-up were collected. The respective and combinative roles of major ASCVD (mASCVD) events and high-risk conditions, being defined by 2018 AHA/ACC guideline, in coronary severity and outcome were studied.

RESULTS

The number of high-risk conditions was increased with increasing number of mASCVD events (1.95 ± 1.08 vs. 2.16 ± 1.10 vs. 2.42 ± 1.22). Trends toward the higher to the highest frequency of multi-vessel coronary lesions were found in patients with 1- (71.1%) or ≥2 mASCVD events (82.8%) when compared to those without (67.9%) and in patients with 2- (70.5%) or ≥3 high-risk conditions (77.4%) when compared to those with 0-1 high-risk condition (61.9%). The survival rate was decreased by 6.2% between none- and ≥2 mASCVD events or by 3.5% between 0-1 and ≥3 high-risk conditions. Interestingly, diabetes was independently associated with outcome in patients with 1- [1.54(1.06-2.24)] and ≥2 mASCVD events [1.71(1.03-2.84)]. The positive predictive values were increased among groups with number of mASCVD event increasing (1.10 vs. 1.54 vs. 1.71).

CONCLUSION

Propitious refinement of ASCVD might be reasonable to improve the survival. Concomitant diabetes was differently associated with the incremental risk among different ASCVD categories, suggesting the need of an appropriate estimate rather than a 'blanket' approach in risk stratification.

The overall benefits of empagliflozin treatment in adult siblings with glycogen storage disease type Ib: one year experience

INTRODUCTION

Recently published case reports suggest the benefit of empagliflozin use in subjects with glycogen storage disease Ib (GSD Ib).

METHODS

We present the clinical and laboratory data of 2 adult brothers with GSD Ib treated with empagliflozin for 12 months.

RESULTS

There was no severe infection during administration of empagliflozin. The improvement of clinical symptoms of inflammatory bowel disease and arthritis along with reduction in serum CRP levels and urinary albumin excretion was noted. Neutrophil count increased, allowing for reduction or temporary withdrawal of G-CSF treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Empagliflozin may be a new safe treatment in GSD Ib patients with an advanced stage of the disease.

Design and rationale of a nationwide screening analysis from the LIPIDOGRAM2015 and LIPIDOGEN2015 studies

INTRODUCTION

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality throughout the world. The LIPIDOGRAM2015 study was performed to estimate the prevalence of risk factors for atherosclerotic diseases as well as cardiovascular and related disorders in the primary care setting in Poland. The LIPIDOGEN2015 sub-study was designed to include a random cohort of patients in order to analyse parameters related to lipid metabolism, oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, autoimmune disorders, and gene variants that confer susceptibility to cardiometabolic and atherosclerotic diseases.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The recruitment was carried out by 438 primary care physicians in Poland. The expected number of patients recruited for the LIPIDOGRAM2015 study was 13,000-14,000 with 13-15% (1700-2000) also participating in the LIPIDOGEN2015 sub-study. Each patient had to complete a questionnaire concerning medical and family history, concomitant diseases, and pharmacotherapy. Anthropometric measurements were performed at the doctor's office. For the LIPIDOGEN2015 sub-study, saliva samples for DNA isolation and blood samples for measurement of glycated haemoglobin, oxidative stress parameters, autoantibody levels, and inflammatory cytokine profile and apolipoprotein profile were collected. Follow-up data will be obtained from the National Health Fund in Poland.

RESULTS

The LIPIDOGRAM2015 and LIPIDOGEN2015 study cohort reflects the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors and concomitant diseases, markers of oxidative stress, the presence of autoantibodies, inflammatory cytokine profile, and apolipoprotein profile, as well as genetic variants potentially conferring susceptibility to cardiometabolic and atherosclerotic diseases.

CONCLUSIONS

This study presents the prevalence of different CV risk factors, with special emphasis on lipid disorders, and it assesses the relationship between inflammation, oxidative stress, and mutations in genes encoding proteins regulating lipid metabolism, as well as genes conferring susceptibility to cardiovascular, cardiometabolic, and related diseases.

PoLA/CFPiP/PCS/PSLD/PSD/PSH guidelines on diagnosis and therapy of lipid disorders in Poland 2021

In Poland there are still nearly 20 million individuals with hypercholesterolaemia, most of them are unaware of their condition; that is also why only ca. 5% of patients with familial hypercholesterolaemia have been diagnosed; that is why other rare cholesterol metabolism disorders are so rarely diagnosed in Poland. Let us hope that these guidelines, being an effect of work of experts representing 6 main scientific societies, as well as the network of PoLA lipid centers being a part of the EAS lipid centers, certification of lipidologists by PoLA, or the growing number of centers for rare diseases, with a network planned by the Ministry of Health, improvements in coordinated care for patients after myocardial infarction (KOS-Zawał), reimbursement of innovative agents, as well as introduction in Poland of an effective primary prevention program, will make improvement in relation to these unmet needs in diagnostics and treatment of lipid disorders possible.

Narrative review on clinical considerations for patients with diabetes and COVID-19: More questions than answers

BACKGROUND-AIM

Diabetes, obesity and hypertension are common comorbidities associated with increased severity and mortality rates from Corona Virus Disease (COVID)-19.

METHODS

In this narrative review (using the PubMed database), we discuss epidemiological data and pathophysiological links between diabetes and COVID-19. The potential effects of glycaemic control and antidiabetic drugs on the prevalence and outcomes of COVID-19 are also reviewed, as well as the role of telemedicine and diabetes self-management in the post-COVID-19 era.

RESULTS

Diabetes has been linked to COVID-19 morbidity and mortality, although further research is needed to elucidate this association. In the meantime, physicians should be aware of the potential rise in the prevalence of diabetes (due to unhealthy lifestyle changes during the pandemic), its severity and complications and focus on achieving optimal diabetes prevention and management. Telemedicine and diabetes self-management may help towards this direction. Dipeptidyl-peptidase 4 (DPP4) inhibitors, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists and sodium-glucose transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors may affect viral entry and infection, and thus COVID-19 outcomes, as shown in observational studies.

CONCLUSION

Diabetes has been associated with COVID-19 development and progression. Certain antidiabetic drugs may influence COVID-19 prevention and management. The results of ongoing randomized clinical trials will shed more light on this field.

Risk-factors associated with extremely high cardiovascular risk of mid- and long-term mortality following myocardial infarction: Analysis of the Hyperlipidaemia Therapy in tERtiary Cardiological cEnTer (TERCET) registry

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Risk-factor identification and risk stratification are prerequisites to the effective primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Patients at the highest risk benefit the most from the intensive risk-factor reduction. However, the high-risk patients' group is heterogeneous, and it is increasingly recognised that there is an 'extreme-risk' category of patients who may require particularly close attention and intensive therapeutic approach. The aim of this study was to identify subgroups of patients at the highest risk of death following myocardial infarction (MI) that might be considered as those at extremely high CVD risk.

METHODS

We used data from 19,582 participants of the Hyperlipidaemia Therapy in tERtiary Cardiological cEnTer (TERCET) Registry (NCT03065543) of patients with ischaemic heart disease in Poland from 2006 to present. Characteristics of 13,052 patients with chronic coronary syndromes (CCS) were compared with those of 4295 patients with myocardial infarction (STEMI and NSTEMI). Multivariable logistic regression with stepwise backward elimination was used to identify risk factors associated with mortality in the 12-36 months following the index hospitalisation.

RESULTS

The mortality rates were significantly higher in patients after MI than in patients with CCS. In the multivariable analysis, the risk factors most strongly associated with 12-month mortality in patients after MI were left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) lower than 35% (hazard ratio [HR] 3.83, 95% confidence interval [CI] 3.14-4.67), age >75 years (HR 1.91, 95%CI 1.55-2.35), multivessel coronary artery disease (HR 1.61, 95%CI 1.30-1.99), atrial fibrillation (HR 1.53, 95%CI 1.21-1.94) diabetes mellitus (HR 1.35, 95%CI 1.11-1.64) and increased LDL-C (HR per 1 mmol/l 1.09, 95%CI 1.01-1.19) or creatinine levels (HR per 10 μmol/L 1.04, 95% CI 1.04-1.05). The risk factors that influenced mortality after 24-36 months were consistent with those after 12 months, with additional low haemoglobin (20-25% risk increase per 1 mmol reduction) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (65% risk increase after 36 months).

CONCLUSIONS

In our large, single-center real-world analysis, we identified the patients with the highest risk of death who could probably benefit the most from the most intensive therapy, and hence should be considered to be an 'extreme risk' population.

Risk Models and Scores of Cardiovascular Disease in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is an established risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (CVD), and patients with DM are at a two to four-fold higher cardiovascular risk, including myocardial infraction, unstable angina, stroke, and heart failure. All of the above have arisen interest in CVD preventive strategies by the use of non-invasive methods, such as risk scores. The most common approach is to consider DM as a CVD equivalent and, therefore, to treat patients with DM in a similar way to those who required secondary CVD prevention. However, this approach has been disputed as all patients with DM do not have the same risk for CVD, and since other potentially important factors within the context of DM, such as DM duration, presence of albuminuria, and comorbidities, should be taken into consideration. Thus, the second and third approach is the application of risk models that were either developed initially for the general population or designed specifically for patients with DM, respectively. This review summarizes the evidence and implications for clinical practice regarding these scores. Up to date, several models that can be applied to the diabetic population have been proposed. However, only a few meet the minimum requirement of adequate external validation. In addition, moderate discrimination and poor calibration, which might lead to inaccurate risk estimations in populations with different characteristics, have been reported. Therefore, future research is needed before recommending a specific risk model for universal clinical practice in the management of diabetes.

Association of statin use in older people primary prevention group with risk of cardiovascular events and mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies

BACKGROUND

Current evidence from randomized controlled trials on statins for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in older people, especially those aged > 75 years, is still lacking. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies to extend the current evidence about the association of statin use in older people primary prevention group with risk of CVD and mortality.

METHODS

PubMed, Scopus, and Embase were searched from inception until March 18, 2021. We included observational studies (cohort or nested case-control) that compared statin use vs non-use for primary prevention of CVD in older people aged ≥ 65 years; provided that each of them reported the risk estimate on at least one of the following primary outcomes: all cause-mortality, CVD death, myocardial infarction (MI), and stroke. Risk estimates of each relevant outcome were pooled as a hazard ratio (HR) with a 95% confidence interval (CI) using the random-effects meta-analysis model. The quality of the evidence was rated using the GRADE approach.

RESULTS

Ten observational studies (9 cohorts and one case-control study; n = 815,667) fulfilled our criteria. The overall combined estimate suggested that statin therapy was associated with a significantly lower risk of all-cause mortality (HR: 0.86 [95% CI 0.79 to 0.93]), CVD death (HR: 0.80 [95% CI 0.78 to 0.81]), and stroke (HR: 0.85 [95% CI 0.76 to 0.94]) and a non-significant association with risk of MI (HR 0.74 [95% CI 0.53 to 1.02]). The beneficial association of statins with the risk of all-cause mortality remained significant even at higher ages (> 75 years old; HR 0.88 [95% CI 0.81 to 0.96]) and in both men (HR: 0.75 [95% CI: 0.74 to 0.76]) and women (HR 0.85 [95% CI 0.72 to 0.99]). However, this association with the risk of all-cause mortality remained significant only in those with diabetes mellitus (DM) (HR 0.82 [95% CI 0.68 to 0.98]) but not in those without DM. The level of evidence of all the primary outcomes was rated as "very low."

CONCLUSIONS

Statin therapy in older people (aged ≥ 65 years) without CVD was associated with a 14%, 20%, and 15% lower risk of all-cause mortality, CVD death, and stroke, respectively. The beneficial association with the risk of all-cause mortality remained significant even at higher ages (> 75 years old), in both men and women, and in individuals with DM, but not in those without DM. These observational findings support the need for trials to test the benefits of statins in those above 75 years of age.

SGLT2 inhibitors: a focus on cardiac benefits and potential mechanisms

This paper highlights the cardioprotective potential of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SLGT2i), as well as several most discussed mechanisms responsible for their cardioprotection. Cardiovascular diseases are considered a primary cause of death in nearly 80% of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients, with a 2-4-fold greater incidence of heart failure (HF) among diabetics. As novel hypoglycemics, SGLT2i showed exceptional cardiovascular benefits, reflected through robust reductions of cardiovascular mortality and hospitalization for HF in T2DM patients. Recently, those effects have been reported even in patients with HF and reduced ejection fraction irrespectively of diabetic status, suggesting that cardioprotective effects of SGLT2i are driven independently of their hypoglycemic actions. SGLT2i exerted hemodynamic and metabolic effects, partially driven by natriuresis and osmotic diuresis. However, those systemic effects are modest, and therefore cannot be completely related to the cardiac benefits of these agents in T2DM patients. Hence, increased circulating ketone levels during SGLT2i administration have brought out another hypothesis of a cardiac metabolic switch. Moreover, SGLT2i influence ion homeostasis and exert anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic effects. Their enviable influence on oxidative stress markers, as well as anti- and pro-apoptotic factors, have also been reported. However, since the main mechanistical contributor of their cardioprotection has not been elucidated yet, a joint action of systemic and molecular mechanisms has been suggested. In the light of ongoing trials evaluating the effects of SGLT2i in patients with HF and preserved ejection fraction, a new chapter of beneficial SGLT2i mechanisms is expected, which might resolve their main underlying action.

Diabetes and carotid artery disease: a narrative review

Diabetes mellitus (DM) has been linked to an increased prevalence and severity of carotid artery disease, as well as polyvascular disease. Carotid disease is also associated with obesity and abnormal peri-organ and intra-organ fat (APIFat) deposition (i.e., excess fat accumulation in several organs such as the liver, heart and vessels). In turn, DM is associated with APIFat. The coexistence of these comorbidities confers a greater risk of vascular events. Clinicians should also consider that carotid bruits may predict cardiovascular risk. DM has been related to a greater risk of adverse outcomes after carotid endarterectomy or stenting. Whether modifying risk factors (e.g., glycaemia and dyslipidaemia) in DM patients can improve the outcomes of these procedures needs to be established. Furthermore, DM is a risk factor for contrast-induced acute kidney injury (CI-AKI). The latter should be recorded in DM patients undergoing carotid stenting since it can influence both short- and long-term outcomes. From a pathophysiological perspective, functional changes in the carotid artery may precede morphological ones. Furthermore, carotid plaque characteristics are increasingly being studied in terms of vascular risk stratification and monitoring short-term changes attributed to treatment. The present narrative review discusses the recent (2019) literature on the associations between DM and carotid artery disease. Physicians and vascular surgeons looking after patients with carotid disease and DM should consider these links that may influence outcomes. Further research in this field is also needed to optimise the treatment of such patients.

Cardiovascular outcomes trials with incretin-based medications: a critical review of data available on GLP-1 receptor agonists and DPP-4 inhibitors

Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors are so called "incretin-based therapies" (IBTs) that represent innovative therapeutic approaches and are commonly used in clinical practice for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The cardiovascular outcome trials (CVOTs) have provided useful information that has helped to shape changes in clinical practice guidelines for the management of T2DM. At the same time, the mechanisms that may explain the nonglycemic and cardiovascular (CV) benefits of these medications are still being explored. A summary of the main findings from CVOTs performed to-date with particular emphasis on various outcomes and inconsistencies observed in the trials is provided. Overall, available data is favourable to the early deployment of GLP-1RAs in clinical practice, fully in line with recommendations from international scientific guidelines, and based on their effects on glucose metabolism parameters, body weight reduction and CV outcomes. Evidence further suggest that the CV benefits of GLP-1RAs may not be a class effect, with GLP-1 analogues having a greater benefit rather than exendin-based agents.

Use of Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells (HUVEC) as a Model to Study Cardiovascular Disease: A Review

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death worldwide, and extensive research has been performed to understand this disease better, using various experimental models. The endothelium plays a crucial role in the development of CVD, since it is an interface between bloodstream components, such as monocytes and platelets, and other arterial wall components. Human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) isolation from umbilical cord was first described in 1973. To date, this model is still widely used because of the high HUVEC isolation success rate, and because HUVEC are an excellent model to study a broad array of diseases, including cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. We here review the history of HUVEC isolation, the HUVEC model over time, HUVEC culture characteristics and conditions, advantages and disadvantages of this model and finally, its applications in the area of cardiovascular diseases.