Sprint, agility, strength and endurance capacity in wheelchair basketball players

Contribution of Physical Characteristics to Game Performance in Male Wheelchair Basketball Athletes at the Tokyo Paralympic Games

ABSTRACT

Snyder, L, Goods, PSR, Peeling, P, Balloch, A, Peiffer, JJ, Binnie, MJ, and Scott, BR. Contribution of physical characteristics to game performance in male wheelchair basketball athletes at the Tokyo Paralympic Games. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2024-This investigation explored the physical characteristics of elite male wheelchair basketball (WCB) athletes and their association with game performance during the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games. Sixteen male athletes from the Australian national WCB squad were assessed for anthropometrics, speed, change of direction, aerobic power, and upper-body power during a training camp before the 2020 Paralympic Games. Athletes were grouped according to the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation disability classification system (1.0-4.5) as low- (≤2.5, more severe impairments) or high-point (≥3.0, less severe impairments) athletes. Physical and performance characteristics between groups were compared using independent-samples t-tests, and their relationship to game statistics (points, rebounds, assists, and steals) per minute played was explored through stepwise regression. High-point athletes were 13% taller (p = 0.001), 4-9% faster (p < 0.001-0.017), and demonstrated superior change of direction ability (15%, p < 0.001) compared with low-point athletes. Approximately 74% of the variance in points scored per minute was accounted for by athlete classification, whereas the most important modifiable physical characteristic was speed, which contributed significantly to steals (54% of variance) and assists (96% of variance when arm span and sitting reach height were also considered). Low-point athletes with spinal cord injuries generally have impaired trunk control, which is a likely explanation for performance differences between groups. A range of nonmodifiable (classification, sitting reach height, and arm span) and modifiable (speed) physical characteristics contribute to game performance outcomes and should therefore be considered when identifying, developing, and selecting WCB athletes for elite competition.

A three-arm randomized controlled trial of aerobic and resistance training in women with spinal cord injuries: Effects on physical fitness and pulmonary function

Background

This study aimed to investigate the effects of different volumes of aerobic training (AT) and resistance training (RT) during a concurrent exercise training program on selected indicators of physical fitness and pulmonary function in women with spinal cord injury (SCI).

Methods

Twenty-three inactive females with complete or incomplete SCI from T6 to L5 were divided into three groups: concurrent training with a focus on AT (CTAT; two weekly sessions of AT and one of RT), concurrent training with a focus on RT (CTRT; two weekly sessions of RT and one of AT), and control (CON). Tests were performed before and after an 8-week experimental period for indicators of pulmonary function, aerobic power, endurance performance, muscular strength and endurance, speed, and change of direction.

Results

Markers of both aerobic and muscular fitness increased in the CTAT and CTRT groups, but not in CON. There were significant differences in aerobic power and endurance performance between the CTAT and CTRT groups, with greater changes in CTAT. Both CTAT and CTRT improved respiratory functions, with no differences between them (p > 0.05).

Conclusions

CTAT and CTRT improved most of the indicators of physical fitness. However, CTAT should be used to achieve higher aerobic power and endurance without compromising muscle strength.

Case study: Evaluating deep-water start techniques and training demands in seated slalom waterskiing for an athlete with paraplegia

Purpose

Recreational and competitive slalom waterskiing is increasingly popular among individuals with spinal cord injuries (SCI), particularly for those with paraplegia using sit-skis. A key component of slalom skiing is the deep-water start (DWS), yet little is known about the physiological and physical demands of this activity when the athlete is seated. This study aims to fill this gap by focusing on the training requirements for a seated slalom athlete.

Materials and methods

Focusing on a young male athlete with paraplegia, this case study evaluates the effectiveness and efficiency of traditional (TDWS) and alternative (ADWS) DWS techniques during seated slalom waterskiing sessions. It assesses internal training load (TL) through heart rate (HR) zones and session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE), alongside pre- and post-session handgrip strength measurements to gauge peripheral muscle fatigue.

Results and conclusions

Performing the ADWS, achieving a full success rate, proved more effective but slightly more time-consuming than TDWS, which had limited success. HR during DWS maneuvers ranged from 63.2 to 81.3% of maximal HR, with most sessions occurring below the ventilatory threshold, thus perceived as hard effort. A moderate yet non-significant correlation was found between HR and sRPE-based TL. A significant reduction in handgrip strength post-session underscores the activity's demands. These insights illuminate the technical, physiological, and physical challenges in mastering DWS for seated slalom athletes with SCI, providing valuable guidance for the development of tailored training programs and techniques in this sport.

Neuromuscular Fatigue after Small-Sided Games in Wheelchair Basketball Players with and without Spinal Cord Injury

Purpose: The aim was to analyze the differences between wheelchair basketball players with Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) and without Spinal Cord injury (Non-SCI) in psycho-physiological response and neuromuscular fatigue in a series of small-sided games (SSG). Methods: Thirteen high-level wheelchair basketball male players (age 28.8 ± 9.2 years, body mass 75.9 ± 11.3 kg) participated in four versus four SSG once a week for five consecutive weeks. Absolute and relative heart rate (HR) during SSG and muscular and respiratory perceived exertion (RPEmus and RPEres), tympanic temperature, and acceleration capacity were recorded at the end of each SSG. Results: No significant differences were observed between SCI and non-SCI players in relative HR variables in SSG series. However, the SCI group had a lower absolute HR (mean HR and peak HR) (p < .05 or p < .01, ES = 0.73-1.39) and higher perceived muscular load (RPEmusTL) (p < .01, ES = 0.75-0.82) during SSG. Regarding the evolution of the physiological response, no differences were observed between the four bouts in the SCI group. However, the Non-SCI group showed an increase in the absolute and relative variables of HR and RPEres and RPEmus (p < .05 or p < .01, ES = 0.45-1.06). On the contrary, only the SCI group showed a loss of acceleration capacity between the four series (p < .05, ES = 0.28-0.35). Conclusion: The results of this study show that there are differences between SCI and non-SCI wheelchair basketball players in their physiological response and acceleration capacity during SSG tasks.

How does classification score affect falls in wheelchair basketball? A video-based cross-sectional study on the Italian national team during the European Para Championships 2023

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to investigate the mechanism of falls in male elite wheelchair basketball (WB) players and to analyse the falls characteristics considering their classification score which ranges from 1.0 to 4.5 and it is related to their functional capacity and particularly to their volume of action.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional video analysis was conducted using European para championships 2023official match videos.

SETTING

Players of the sample team were divided into 2 groups according to their classification point: low-point players (LPP) and high-point players (HPP). Every occurred fall was systematically analysed focusing on falling related characteristics and game circumstances.

PARTICIPANTS

Twelve WB players of the Italian national team.

MAIN OUTCOME

Number of falls and mechanism of falls.

RESULTS

The results showed a higher number of falls for HPP and highlighted a statistically significant differences between LPP and HPP for the fall direction, the playing time and the first anatomical site in contact with the floor.

CONCLUSION

Results reported significant differences between LPP and HPP in terms of mechanism of fall. Further studies should focus on the development of new preventive training strategies tailored to WB players with different levels of impairments to reduce fall related injuries.

Development of Field Tests for Cardiovascular Fitness Assessment in Wheelchair

It is essential to consider both physique and physical fitness factors to minimize the risk of injuries and optimize athletic performance among elite athletes. Athletes with disabilities face limitations in fitness assessments compared to their healthy counterparts. The aim of this study was to revalidate established cardiovascular fitness assessment methods and develop field tests for wheelchair athletes. As representatives registered at the Korea Paralympic Committee's Athletes Training Center in Icheon, athletes with physical disabilities participating in para ice hockey (n = 14), who were capable of wheelchair control, were volunteered. Prior to cardiovascular fitness assessments using an ergometer and a shuttle run, demographic characteristics were surveyed, and physical measurements and muscle strength (grip strength) were recorded. All the participants performed one ergometer test based on cardiovascular fitness criteria, and for shuttle run validation, two trials were conducted using existing audio cues (National Physical Fitness 100, 20 m shuttle run). For the development of the shuttle run, considering wheelchair turning, signal-to-sound intervals were increased by 1 s and 1.5 s, respectively, in two trials. An analysis of the correlation with the maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) in comparison to the reference criterion, an ergometer, demonstrated high correlations in the first trial (r = 0.738) and the second trial (r = 0.780). Similarly, significant correlations were observed with the maximum heart rate (HRmax) in the first trial (r = 0.689) and the second trial (r = 0.896). Thus, the 15 m shuttle run is validated as a field test for assessing cardiovascular fitness in athletes with disabilities. Correlation analysis with maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) compared to the reference criterion, an ergometer, revealed a correlation of 0.815 with a 1 s interval audio cue and 0.355 with a 1.5 s interval audio cue. A high correlation was observed with the 1 s interval audio cue. Regarding the maximum heart rate (HRmax), the correlations were 0.665 with a 1 s interval audio cue. Once again, a high correlation was noted with the 1 s interval audio cue. The field test selected for measuring cardiovascular fitness in wheelchair athletes involved performing a 15 m shuttle run while in the wheelchair. The test utilized an audio cue with a 1 s increased interval between the signal sounds.

Initial Maximum Push-Rim Propulsion and Sprint Performance in Elite Men's Wheelchair Basketball

OBJECTIVES

This study sought to report the reliability (intrasession) values of initial maximum push-rim propulsion (IMPRP) and sprint performance in elite wheelchair basketball (WB) players and to assess the involvement of strength in sprint capacity.

METHODS

Fifteen Spanish international WB male players participated in this study. The maximum single wheelchair push from a stationary position (IMPRP) and the sprint performance (ie, 3, 5, and 12 m) of WB players were measured in this study.

RESULTS

IMPRP mechanical outputs V, Vmax, P, Rel. P, F, and Rel. F variables presented high reliability values (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] ≥ .92; coefficient of variation [CV] ≤ 8.04 ± 7.37; standard error of measurement [SEM] ≤ 29.92), but the maximum strength variables Pmax, Rel. Pmax, Fmax, and Rel. Fmax (ICC ≥ .63; CV ≤ 13.19 ± 16.63; SEM ≤ 203.76) showed lower ICC values and by contrast higher CV and SEM values. The most substantial correlations were identified between maximum IMPRP values (ie, V, Vmax, P, Rel. P, F, and Rel. F) and sprint performance in 3 m (r ± confidence limits ≥ -0.74 ± 0.22, very large; R2 ≥ .55), 5 m (r ± confidence limits ≥ -0.72 ± 0.24, very large; R2 ≥ .51), and 12 m (r ± confidence limits ≥ -0.67 ± 0.27, large; R2 ≥ .44).

CONCLUSIONS

The IMPRP test and sprint tests (3, 5, and 12 m) are practical and reliable for measuring strength and speed in WB players. In addition, there were large to very large associations among strength variables (ie, P, Rel. P, F, and Rel. F) and all sprint variables. This could indicate a need to implement specific strength exercises in WB players to improve sprint capacity.

Women's wheelchair basketball lineup analysis at the Tokyo 2020 paralympic games: game related statistics explaining team sport performance

Introduction

Performance analysis through game-related statistics in wheelchair basketball (WB) has focused mainly on the study of the individual efficiency of players according to their functional classification. However, there is little evidence focusing on lineup performances (five players on court) and their composition. Thus, the objective of present study was to analyze the efficiency of the women's WB lineups used during the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games (PG) and to determine the variables that best discriminated the lineup performances according to the final point differential.

Methods

The sample comprised 507 lineups used in the 31 games by the 10 national teams during the competition. Fifty-one different lineup types (LTs) were categorized. A discriminant analysis was carried out to compare the lineups with a positive and negative point difference according to the game type (balanced and unbalanced games).

Results

It was found that LTs 16 (1-1.5-2.5-4-4.5), 47 (1-2-2.5-4-4.5) and 14 (1-1.5-2.5-4.5-4.5) had the best means of efficiency in field goals (LT 16 = 52%; LT 47 = 44% and LT = 40%), while LT 50 (1-2-3-4-4) obtained the highest mean difference in points (3.67 ± 10.67). The variables that best discriminated winner teams in balanced games were field goal efficiency (SC = 0.55), assists (SC = 0.50) and turnovers (SC = -0.41).

Discussion

Field goal efficiency, assists, turnovers and steals are the game-related statistics most associated with the success of a lineup used in balanced games in WB in PG competition; this could be taken into account by coaches when deciding how to compose a given lineup in a moment of the game, to adequately select players from different functional classifications for the final squad and to choose training content related to the indicated game-related statistics, as they explain success at this competition level.

A standard operating procedure for the physical performance analysis of wheelchair fencer: a scoping review

INTRODUCTION

Wheelchair fencing (WF) is a very practiced sport within the Paralympic world. A careful analysis of the characteristics and data of a WF athlete can be useful for coaches and movement experts to better plan a training program. The objective of the study was to evaluate physical fitness assessment methods adopted in WF and to propose a standard operating procedures (SOP).

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

Original articles written in English were included in this review, and the population studied was composed of athletes who practiced WF. Studies were searched from PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases using keywords and Boolean operators. Eight studies were included in this review.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

Most of the studies converge and agree on the physical, physiological, and technical characteristics of a WF athlete.

CONCLUSIONS

The scientific literature referring to this sport is very scarce, hence the need for new original studies to optimize the SOP proposed.

With or without straps? A pilot study to investigate whether restraint devices affect the wheelchair basketball players' performance

BACKGROUND

Wheelchair basketball (WB) represents a great physical activity, rehabilitation, and integration opportunity for people with disability. Straps are wheelchair accessories used to ensure safeness and stability. Nevertheless, some athletes report feeling limited in movements because of these restraint devices. The aim of this study was thus to deepen whether straps could affect performance and cardiorespiratory effort in WB players' athletic gesture and furthermore whether sport performance could be influenced by experience, anthropometric features, or classification score.

METHODS

Ten WB elite athletes were enrolled in this observational cross-sectional study. Speediness, wheelchair maneuverability, and sport-specific skills were evaluated with 3 tests: 20-m straight line test (test 1), figure 8 test (test 2), and figure 8 with ball test (test 3); all tests were performed with and without straps. Cardiorespiratory parameters (blood pressure [BP], heart rate, and oxygen saturation) were registered before and after tests. Anthropometric data, classification score, and practice's years were collected and compared with test results.

RESULTS

Performance significantly improved in all tests wearing straps (test 1 P = 0.007, test 2 P = 0.009, and test 3 P = 0.025). No significant variation in cardiorespiratory basic signs emerged before and after the tests, with or without straps (systolic BP P = 0.140, diastolic BP P = 0.564, heart rate P = 0.066, and oxygen saturation P = 0.564). A statistically significant relation between test 1 with straps and classification score (coefficient = -0.25; P = 0.008) and test 3 without straps and classification score (coefficient = 1.00; P = 0.032) was found. No further relations emerged between test results and anthropometric data, classification score, and practice's years ( P > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrated that straps, as well as ensuring safety and preventing injuries, also improve the WB performance, stabilizing the trunk and implementing upper limb skills, without exposing players to excessive cardiorespiratory and biomechanical stresses.

Reliability of anaerobic and aerobic mobility performance tests used in wheelchair rugby, wheelchair basketball and wheelchair tennis: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Understanding the reliability and validity of field-based mobility and performance tests used within the wheelchair sports of basketball (WCB), rugby (WCR) and tennis (WCT) can assist in understanding an athletes' physiological state, training effects, and/or assist with optimising their wheelchair-user interface.

PURPOSE

To examine, evaluate and synthesize current aerobic and anaerobic field-based mobility and performance tests used in WCB, WCR and WCT.

METHODS

A systematic search was performed according to PRISMA guidelines. Studies were included if they investigated performance tests in WCB, WCR and WCT and reported reliability.

RESULTS

Twenty-one studies covering 45 mobility/performance tests were included (anaerobic, n = 35; aerobic, n = 10), with agility and repeated sprints (n = 13) being the most common, followed by linear-sprints (n = 11). Repeated sprint ability (n = 2) and submaximal field-tests (n = 2) were the least frequent. Intra-class correlations among all tests ranged from 0.62 to 0.99, with agility and repeated sprints being 0.65-0.98, followed by values of 0.62-0.99 for linear-sprint, 0.96-0.99 for repeated sprints and 0.85-0.97 for submaximal field-tests.

CONCLUSION

The most frequently measured performance tests were anaerobic tests focusing on agility and repeated sprints. Given the low number of aerobic tests in WCB, WCR and WCT, future research should focus on reliable and valid ways to measure and track performance.

Evolution of the internal load and physical condition of wheelchair basketball players during the competitive season

The objectives of this study were to describe differentiated perceived training and match load (dRPE-L) of wheelchair basketball (WB) players during the whole season, to analyze the evolution of players’ physical condition changes during a full season and to analyze the association between dRPE-L and changes in physical condition during a full season. Nineteen Spanish Second Division WB players participated in this study. For a full season (10 months, 26 weeks), dRPE-L was assessed with the session-RPE method, separating respiratory (RPEres-L) and muscular (RPEmus-L) perceived load. The physical condition of the players was also assessed at four different times during the season (T1, T2, T3 and T4). The results showed a significantly higher total and average accumulated muscular RPE load (RPEmusTOT-L and RPEmusAVG-L) than total and average respiratory load (RPEresTOT-L and RPEresAVG-L) (p &lt; 0.01; ES = 0.52–0.55). No significant changes were observed in the physical condition of the players at the different moments of the season. Moreover, a significant association was observed only between RPEresTOT-L and Repeated Sprint Ability standard deviation of 3 m (RSAsdec3m) (r = 0.90, p &lt; 0.05). The results suggest that the competitive season represented considerable neuromuscular involvement in these players.

Influence of Successive Wheelchair Tennis Matches on Handgrip Strength in High-Level Male Players

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects on upper strength in high-level male players playing four successive wheelchair tennis (WT) matches. Eight international WT players took part in a competition, playing one match per day over four consecutive tournament days. Before and after the match, the maximal isometric handgrip strength was measured on the dominant and non-dominant hand. Additionally, each player was equipped with one radiofrequency and IMU device on their wheelchair to control his activity profile (distance). The results showed significant differences between successive matches, with decreasing dominant handgrip strength (p = 0.02, η² = 0.043), and there was a significant interaction between successive matches and the accumulated distance (p = 0.013, η² = 0.049). The pre- and post-match strength values of the dominant hand decreased throughout the matches over a number of days, and post hoc analysis showed differences between the first and fourth matches only in pre-match strength (49.06 ± 6.96 vs. 45.94 ± 7.1; p = 0.045; ES: 1.04) but not in the non-dominant hand. Successive matches caused a decrease in the strength values of the WT players, mainly in the dominant hand. These results should be taken into account in the recovery and prevention of injuries in competitions with successive matches.

Physical fitness assessment in wheelchair basketball: A mini-review

Introduction

Wheelchair basketball (WB) is a Paralympic sport ideated for people with motor disabilities, and the research on this topic still requires attention. It is fundamental to evaluate physical fitness characteristics with appropriate tests and standardized routines to plan and monitor the training. Considering that a standard operating procedure is a document that makes the test battery replicable, the objective of the present study was to review the literature on physical fitness assessment in WB players and to create a standard operating procedure.

Methods

Studies were collected from different databases, and after a screening process, data were discussed narratively.

Results

Only 18 articles met the eligibility criteria. The test batteries presented similarities in different studies.

Conclusion

The suggested standard operating procedure consists of 10-min warm-up followed by handgrip evaluation (only if the instrument is available), 20-m sprint test, maximal pass, modified push-up, back scratch test, and the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test adapted test Version 1.

Wheelchair skill tests in wheelchair Basketball: A systematic review

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to identify, describe and synthesize the skill tests used in wheelchair basketball.

METHOD

A systematic review was carried out in the databases: PubMed/Medline, ScienceDirect, Scopus, Web of science and Google Scholar from inception to January 2021 with up to date in January 2022. the eligibility criteria used were Inclusion: (i) evaluation of wheelchair basketball athletes; (ii) using skill tests (defined as agility, speed, ball maneuverability, slalom, etc.) and (iii) papers needed to be written in English and published in peer-reviewed journals. Exclusion: (i) papers with poor description of the test methodology, (ii) participants not classified as wheelchair basketball athletes (less than one year of practice) and (iii) Participants were not people without disabilities.

RESULTS

Our main findings were: a) the most explored skills were pass and speed, and the most frequent test was the pass tests and sprint tests, b) Strong associations were found between sports classes and performance in field tests, c) The most used tests for each skill were: pass = pass accuracy and maximum pass; speed = 20m sprint test with and without the ball; agility = slalom test; dribbling = obstacle dribbling tests and throw = free throw and spot shot.

CONCLUSION

The most explored skills were passing and speed, and to evaluate these skills we highlight the two-handed chest pass test, 20m sprint test with ball and the WMP test. The use of specific tests can facilitate the creation of reference standards and possible comparison of athletes and, thus, enable better training conditions, aiming to meet the specific demands of each athlete and team.

Assessment of muscle strength in para-athletes: A systematic review of observational studies

Accurate and reliable evaluation of muscle strength in para-athletes is essential for monitoring the effectiveness of strength training and/or rehabilitation programmes, and sport classification. Our aim is to synthesise evidence related to assessing muscle strength in para-athletes. Four databases were searched from January 1990 to July 2021 for observational studies focusing on strength assessment. Independent screening, data extraction, and quality assessment were performed in duplicate. A total of 1764 potential studies were identified. Thirty met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review. The mean age of participants was 30.7 years (standard deviation [SD]: 2.4). The majority were men (88%) participating in wheelchair sports, including basketball, rugby, and tennis (23/30: 76%). Overall quality varied, with more than half of the studies failing to identify strategies for dealing with confounding variables. Despite manual muscle testing being a standard component of para-sport classification systems, evidence examining strength characteristics in para-athletes is derived primarily from isometric and isokinetic testing. In studies that included comparative strength data, findings were mixed. Some studies found strength values were similar to or lower than able-bodied athletic controls. However, an important observation was that others reported higher shoulder strength in para-athletes taking part in wheelchair sports than both able-bodied and disabled non-athletes. Studies need to develop accessible, standardised strength testing methods that account for training influence and establish normative strength values in para-athletes. There is also a need for additional studies that include female para-athletes and para-athletes with greater functional impairments.

EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY LEVELS, SLEEP QUALITY AND NUTRITIONAL HABITS OF PARAATHLETES DURING THE PANDEMIC PROCESS

Background: Cancellation or postponement of sports organizations due to the Covid 19 pandemic has caused great stress for athletes. There are limited studies on how physical activity levels, nutritional habits and sleep quality are affected, especially in physically disabled athletes(paraathletes) during the pandemic process. Purpose: the aim of the research is to examine the physical activity, nutritional habits and sleep quality levels of paraathletes during the pandemic process. Method: Eighty- seven male paraathletes were included in the study. The personal data form required to determine the characteristics within the study subject International Physical Activity Questionnaire Short Form (IPAQ Short Form), the Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index Questionnaire were used in a way consistent with the study. In addition to these sections, changes in participants' nutritional habits were questioned. Results: Total MET values of paraathletes were determined as 3233 ± 1421. The sleep quality index total score averages of the participants were 5.83 ± 0.80 points, indicating the level of 'poor sleep quality'. Food consumption of the participants It was found that 56% of them increased their food consumption, 28% did not change, and 18% decreased. Conclusion: The results of the study showed that physical activity, nutrition and sleep processes, which have an important place in the life cycle of paraathletes, were adversely affected during the pandemic process.

Initial Maximum Push-Rim Propulsion and Sprint Performance in Elite Women's Wheelchair Basketball: Differences Between Players' Functional Classification

The aim of the present study was to determine, for the first time in elite women's wheelchair basketball, the differences in the initial maximum push-rim propulsion (IMPRP), mechanical outputs, and sprint performance between A category (≤2.5 class) and B category (≥3 class) players. A secondary aim was to assess the association between IMPRP mechanical outputs and sprint performance to determine the influence of specific strength in the latter. Sixteen Spanish women's wheelchair basketball players participated in this study: A category (n = 9, International Wheelchair Basketball Federation [IWBF] classification range: 1-2.5 points) and B category (n = 7, IWBF classification range: 3-4.5 points). All the players undertook 2 tests: the IMPRP test to measure the strength variables and the 3-, 5-, and 12-m sprint test. B category players reported significantly better performance values in almost all the IMPRP variables and all the sprint distances than A category players. Large to very large significant correlations were observed among IMPRP absolute mechanical outputs (excepting mean power) and sprint performance (3, 5, and 12 m) for all the participants. When the group was divided according to categories A and B, the significant differences observed in the whole group decreased in both groups, although some relationships were large or very large. The IMPRP test and sprint test (3, 5, and 12 m) seemed to be sensitive to differentiate the level between the 2 functional categories. In addition, there was a high association between strength and sprint variables, which shows that greater strength could improve sprint capacity.

Objective Measurement of Ball-Handling Proficiency in Wheelchair Sports: A Systematic Review

Background

In Paralympic sports, classification of athletes based on the impact of impairments on the ability to perform is needed, to prevent a one-sided and predictable outcome of the competition in which the least impaired athlete has the best chance to win. Classification is developing from expert opinion based to evidence based. In wheelchair court sports, there is evidence to support the impact of impairment on wheeled mobility, but not on ball handling. To assess the impact of impairment on the ability to perform ball-handling activities, standardised tests for ball handling are needed.

Purpose

To assess if reliable and valid standardised tests for the measurement of ball-handling proficiency in a wheelchair or able-bodied court sports exist; to assist in the development of Evidence-Based Classification (EBC) in wheelchair court sports according to the guidelines of the International Paralympic Committee (IPC).

Methods

The review was conducted according to the Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (MOOSE) statement. Search terms used were “wheelchair,” “ball,” “ball sports,” “test,” and “performance.” Databases searched were Medline, Embase, PubMed, and Sport Discus. Study quality was assessed using the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology checklist.

Results

Twenty-two articles were included. Foundational Movement Skills in ball-handling proficiency were assessed. Tests for throwing maximal distance showed sufficient reliability and validity. Precision in throwing showed low-to-moderate reliability and conflicting results in validity. Throwing techniques differed between studies. Dribbling the ball showed high reliability, but conflicting results in validity.

Conclusions

Tests for throwing maximal distance, throwing precision, and dribbling the ball can be used in standardised tests for activity limitation in wheelchair court sports. However, tests need to be adapted and standardised and then reassessed for reliability and validity in athletes with and without arm impairment.

The Relationship Between Athletic Performance and Physiological Characteristics in Wheelchair Basketball Athletes

Purpose: This study was aimed to investigate the relationship between athletic performance and physiological characteristics in wheelchair basketball (WB) athletes with different classification scores. Methods: Twenty-six (24 male and 2 female) WB athletes were involved into the study. The participants were divided into two functional categories (Category A:1.0-2.5 points, category B: 3.0-4.5 points) according to the IWBF rules. Shoulder internal (IR) and external rotation (ER) muscle strengths were evaluated with the ISOMED 2000® isokinetic dynamometer. Handgrip strength was evaluated with hydraulic hand dynamometer. Custom ramp protocol on treadmill was employed to measure aerobic capacity. Anaerobic capacity was evaluated with Wingate anaerobic power test in standard laboratory conditions. The athletic performance was assessed by 20 m Sprint test, Slalom Test, and Zone Shot tests. Results: Category B athletes achieved significantly better results in the measurements of shoulder IR and ER muscle strength, aerobic and anaerobic capacity, and athletic performance while the grip strength was found similar in the categories. There was a significant correlation between the athletic performance and shoulder IR and ER muscle strength, and aerobic and anaerobic capacities in two categories. There was no significant relationship between grip strength and athletic performance parameters in two categories. Conclusion: It was concluded that athletic performance in WB athletes with different classification scores is related to upper extremity muscle strength, aerobic, and anaerobic capacity. Additionally, upper limb muscle strength, athletic performance, aerobic and anaerobic capacity assessments to be made will contribute positively to the planning of individual training and exercise programs.

Load-Velocity Relationship in Bench Press and Effects of a Strength-Training Program in Wheelchair Basketball Players: A Team Study

Performance in wheelchair basketball is determined by capabilities, such as strength and power. The study has two aims: first, to analyze the association between speed and acceleration variables (collected in the bench press (BP) exercise) and the distinct percentages of one-repetition maximum (1RM); second, to analyze the effect of a strength training protocol on wheelchair basketball (WB) players according to their functional impairments. Ten Spanish male WB players volunteered to participate in the study. The players did a pretest and posttest (1RM in bench press) with 6-week muscle strength intervention program. The results showed a high association between the %1RM and the mean propulsive velocity (MPV) and the maximum velocity (V_max), both in the total of the participants, and in each separate group of athletes. After implementing the strength training program, both the players of the IWBF (International Wheelchair Basketball Federation) < 2.5 group and those of IWBF > 2.5 group improved their 1RM (p < 0.01, ES = 0.20 to 0.23). However, the program produced positive effects at submaximal intensities in the MPV reached with 30, 40, 70, and 80 kg and in time to maximum velocity (TV_max) with 30, 40, and 70 kg (ES = -3.24 to 1.32) only in players with greater functional impairments. The high association between %1RM and MPV and V_max can allow for determination the %1RM of the WB players in the BP using the MPV and the V_max. The training program was effective in improving 1RM in both groups, while improvements in submaximal values only occurred in the IWBF < 2.5 group.

Relationship between Sprint Capacity and Acceleration of Wrists in Wheelchair Basketball Players: Design and Reliability of a New Protocol

The application of new technologies in wheelchair basketball (WB) is important for the advancement and improvement of athletic performance. The purposes of this study are twofold: (a) to develop a methodological design in order to assess WB players’ performance, using wireless inertial measurement units (WIMU^®) and a laser system (BioLaserSport^® with computer vision), in a 20 m sprint test on court and (b) to assess bilateral symmetry as a performance indicator and for injury prevention purposes, the study of which in previous research is unknown. For both aims, the relation of the acceleration of the players’ wrists to the speed achieved by the player in the wheelchair was explored. Ten elite WB players participated in an on-court 20 m sprint test during real training. BioLaserSport^® with computer vision was used to assess the average velocity (Va) and maximum velocity (Vmax) of the WB players, and two WIMU^® were used for the total acceleration (AcelT) of the players’ wrists. A very high correlation was obtained in the assessment of the Va (0.97) and AcelT of both wrists (0.90 and 0.85). There was a significant relationship between the average AcelT of the dominant wrist and the Va on-court sprint velocity (p < 0.05). Two players did not show good wrist symmetry. In conclusion, a new methodological protocol was developed, making it possible to assess the bilateral symmetries in elite WB players in on-court real training and the relation between the acceleration of players’ wrists and players’ wheelchair speed. Coaches can use this protocol to assess performance or for injury prevention, as it shows very good reliability, with high ICC values.

Physical Fitness Profiling of National Category Table Tennis Players: Implication for Health and Performance

The aims of this study were to: (1) analyze table tennis players' physical profiles considering and comparing players age categories (i.e., under U12, U14, U16, U20, Senior and Older); and (2) to quantify the correlations among the variables measured by each test. Seventy-one table tennis players (61 men and 10 women, 19.7 ± 11.23 years, 1.65 ± 0.13 m, 59.71 ± 17.72 kg and 21.60 ± 4.22 kg/m²) divided into six age groups, performed a sprint test, forearm isometric strength test, countermovement vertical test, countermovement horizontal test, change of direction ability (CODA) test and flexibility test. U14 players performed better than U12 in all tests (ES = -0.70 to 1.98, moderate to large) except in Sit and Reach (SAR) test (ES = 0.19, trivial). The U16 group also obtained better results than U14 in all tests (ES = 0.77 to -2.31, moderate to large) except for the SAR test (ES = 0.19, trivial). The U20 group performed better than U16 in all the tests (ES = 0.73 to -1.53, moderate to large) except for the 5 m sprint test (ES = -0.02, trivial), 10 m sprint test (ES = -0.51, moderate) and SAR (ES = 0.11, trivial). Differences between Senior and U20 were only found in the arm swing counter movement jump (CMJAS) (ES = -0.82, large) and modified agility test (MAT) (ES = 1.19, large), with the U20 group being better in both variables. The senior group performed better in the MAT test than the older group (ES = 0.94, large). The relation found between forearm isometric strength, vertical jump, horizontal jump, sprint and CODA ability (r = -0.53; ±0.14, 0/0/100, most likely to r = 0.83; ±0.06, 100/0/0, most likely) indicates that these capacities are related in table tennis players. Nevertheless, the lack of association between the sit and reach test with the other capacities may indicate that flexibility is an independent capacity.

Quality of Life and Associated Factors Among Male Wheelchair Handball Athletes

Although scarce, some recent studies have observed good self-reported quality of life (QOL) among wheelchair users who are involved in adapted sports. These findings have encouraged further investigations, particularly investigations of combined sociodemographic and sport factors in the study of QOL. In this study we analyzed the association between sociodemographic and sport factors with QOL in a cross-sectional study of 105 male wheelchair handball (WH) athletes with higher and lower QOL. We used the World Health Organization Quality of Life - BREF (WHOQOL-BREF) scale to evaluate the respondents QOL; and we used a sociodemographic questionnaire to evaluate associated sociodemographic and sport factors. A logistic regression analysis found these athletes' good QOL to be generally characterized by stable marital status, disability due to cerebral palsy, the use of locomotion/mobility resources, full independence, bi-weekly training, and the use of a custom-made wheelchair for around 70% of their daily living activities. These findings support the role of such sociodemographic and sport factors in determining QOL among these WH respondents. These findings reveal the important issues to be considered in the sport modality when attempting to improve the QOL and functionality of these participants and perhaps WH athletes worldwide.

Influence of upper-limb muscle strength on the repeated change of direction ability in international-level wheelchair basketball players

This study aims 1) to compare repeated change of direction ability (rCODA) and bench press (BP) between low (A category, ≤2.5) and high (B category, ≥3.0) sport classes and 2) to analyse the relationships between rCODA and BP performance in a sample of wheelchair basketball (WB) players. Seventeen world-class WB players volunteered participated in this study. All the players undertook two tests: the repeated (x12) Modified Agility T-test (rMAT) to measure the rCODA and the movement velocity in a BP test. No significant differences were observed between categories in the rMAT and BP. For the total sample, BP variables with a mean propulsive velocity of 1 m·s^-1 (V1_LOAD) largely correlated with all the full rMAT outcomes (r>-0.625; p< 0.05). Having a better BP could be favourable to perform repeated efforts and this seems particularly relevant in fatigue conditions, and especially for the B category players.

Key Physical Factors in the Serve Velocity of Male Professional Wheelchair Tennis Players

The aim of this study was to identify the physical factors related to serve speed in male professional wheelchair tennis players (WT). Nine best nationally-ranked Spanish male wheelchair tennis players (38.35 ± 11.28 years, 63.77 ± 7.01 kg) completed a neuromuscular test battery consisting of: isometric handgrip strength; serve velocity; 5, 10 and 20 m sprint (with and without racket); agility (with and without racket); medicine ball throw (serve, forehand and backhand movements); and an incremental endurance test specific to WT. Significantly higher correlations were observed in serve (r = 0.921), forehand (r = 0.810) and backhand (r = 0.791) medicine ball throws showing a positive correlation with serve velocity. A regression analysis identified a single model with the medicine ball throw serve as the main predictor of serve velocity (r² = 0.847, p < 0.001). In conclusion, it is recommended that coaches and physical trainers include medicine ball throw workouts in the training programs of WT tennis players due to the transfer benefits to the serve speed.

Relationship Between Power Output and Speed-Related Performance in Brazilian Wheelchair Basketball Players

This study aimed to investigate the association between the optimum power load in the bench press (BP), shoulder press (SP), and prone bench pull (PBP) exercises and acceleration (ACC) and speed performances in 11 National Team wheelchair basketball (WB) players with similar levels of disability. All athletes were previously familiarized with the testing procedures that were performed on the same day during the competitive period of the season. First, athletes performed a wheelchair 20-m sprint assessment and, subsequently, a maximum power load test to determine the mean propulsive power (MPP) in the BP, SP, and PBP. A Pearson product-moment correlation was used to examine the relationships between sprint velocity (VEL), ACC, and the MPP in the three exercises. The significance level was set as p < .05. Large to very large significant associations were observed between VEL and ACC and the MPP in the BP, SP, and PBP exercises (r varying from .60 to .77; p < .05). The results reveal that WB players who produce more power in these three exercises are also able to accelerate faster and achieve higher speeds over short distances. Given the key importance of high and successive ACCs during wheelchair game-related maneuvers, it is recommended that coaches frequently assess the optimum power load in BP, SP, and PBP in WB players, even during their regular training sessions.

Test-Retest Reliability of the Yo-Yo Test: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

The Yo-Yo test is widely used both in the practical and research contexts; however, its true test-retest reliability remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

The present systematic review aims to identify studies that have examined the test-retest reliability of the Yo-Yo test and summarize their results.

METHODS

A search of ten databases was performed to find studies that have investigated test-retest reliability of any variant of the Yo-Yo test. The COSMIN checklist was employed to assess the methodological quality of the included studies.

RESULTS

Nineteen studies of excellent or moderate methodological quality were included. When considering all variants of the Yo-Yo test, the included studies reported intra-class correlation coefficients for test-retest reliability ranging from 0.78 to 0.98 where 62% of all intra-class correlation coefficients were higher than 0.90, while 97% of intra-class correlation coefficients were higher than 0.80. The coefficients of variation ranged from 3.7 to 19.0%. Regardless of the variant of the test, the participants' familiarization with the test, and previous sport experience, the intra-class correlation coefficients generally seem high (≥ 0.90) and coefficients of variation low (< 10%).

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this review indicate that the Yo-Yo test (in all its variants) generally has good-to-excellent test-retest reliability. The evidence concerning reliability arises from 19 included studies that were of moderate or high methodological quality. Considering that most of the included studies examined the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery level 1 test while including Association Football players, more reliability studies examining Yo-Yo intermittent recovery level 2 test and Yo-Yo intermittent endurance level 1 and level 2 tests, and in the context of sports other than Association Football as well as in non-athletic populations, are required. Finally, future studies should explicitly state the type of intra-class correlation coefficient used for the reliability data analysis to allow for better between-study comparisons.

Influence of Functional Classification on Skill Tests in Elite Female Wheelchair Basketball Athletes

Background and objectives: Wheelchair basketball players are classified into four functional classes according to the player’s “volume of action”, characterized by trunk movement and stability. As this classification is based on a kinematic point of view, test items might be differentially affected by the functional classification level. We aimed to clarify field-based skill test items closely related to the functional classification level. Materials and Methods: Twenty-six female wheelchair basketball athletes (Japan National Team candidates) completed seven field-based skill tests (20 m sprint, agility T-test, figure-eight with a ball test, the Yo-Yo 10 m recovery test, and three types of maximal passes), and anthropometric measurements were applied. Results: Significant differences among the classification levels were found for one-hand maximal passes (baseball and hook passes) and the figure-eight with a ball test. Furthermore, performance in the 20 m sprint and 10 m Yo-Yo recovery tests significantly differed between classes 1 and 4. Conclusions: The test items most influenced by the classification levels were one-hand passes, which require trunk stability and balance not only in the horizontal plane, but also in the sagittal and frontal planes. Coaches should consider which test items are strongly affected by the functional classification level when assessing a player’s performance.

Analysis of Physiological and Kinematic Demands of Wheelchair Basketball Games-A Review

Seron, BB, Oliveira de Carvalho, EM, and Greguol, M. Analysis of physiological and kinematic demands of wheelchair basketball games-A review. J Strength Cond Res 33(5): 1453-1462, 2019-In wheelchair basketball (WB), knowledge of the specificities of the game is essential for efficient planning of training strategies for high performance. This study aimed to review the literature concerning studies that have investigated physiological and kinematic measures during WB games. The literature search took place in 4 electronic databases: Scopus, MEDLINE-PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and CINAHL. The inclusion criteria for this review were as follows: (a) articles that evaluated the behavior of physiological and kinematic variables during WB games; (b) athletes aged at least 18 years; and (c) participants with a minimum of 1 year in the modality practice. The selected studies (n = 16) were divided into 2 groups: physiological analysis (n = 11) and kinematic analysis (n = 5). In analyzing the studies, it was observed that the WB game is very demanding in relation to cardiovascular requirements (∼65% of the time is spent in zones of high heart rate [HR] intensity and 70% of V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak). Edwards and Stagno methods seem to be adequate for the control of internal loads imposed on WB players, and moderate correlations were found between rating of perceived exertion measures and HR-based methods. Considering the methodological limitations, kinematic analysis in WB games is rather inconsistent (distance traveled between 2.6 and 5 km; average speed between 1.8 and 2.0 m·s; maximum speed = 4 m·s). Despite the gaps observed in this context, the execution of rotational movements seems to have great relevance for WB. We can conclude that different methods have been adequate for the internal load control in WB games. However, the results of the external demands are not enough to determine a profile nor to serve as parameters for the training prescription for athletes of the modality.

Laboratory and Non-laboratory Assessment of Anaerobic Performance of Elite Male Wheelchair Basketball Athletes

Wheelchair basketball is an adaptive Paralympic sport and wheelchair basketball players are under classification in sport. Coaches are looking for useful assessment tools (field-based tests) to evaluate players' anaerobic performance (anaerobic capacity). The aim of this study was to assess the validity of field-based tests for anaerobic performance evaluation for two functional categories of wheelchair basketball players and to create a calculator to predict mean or peak power on the basis of the selected field-based test results. Sixty-one elite male wheelchair basketball players performed the Wingate Anaerobic Test and the following field-based tests: 3 m sprint, 5 m sprint, 10 m sprint, 20 m sprint, basketball chest pass test, medicine ball (3 kg) chest pass test, bilateral handgrip, 3-6-9 m drill test, 30-s sprint test, agility drill test and 10 × 5 m sprint test. The participants were divided into two functional categories: A (classes from 1.0 to 2.5; n = 29) and B (classes from 3.0 to 4.5; n = 32) according to the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation rules. The large effect size (Cohen's d > 0.5) was found in four tests (3 m sprint, 5 m sprint, basketball chest pass test, medicine ball chest pass test; ES 0.90, 0.53, -0.96, -1.05). There were differences between category A and category B players regarding mean power, peak power and relative peak power. Peak power correlated with four tests, while mean power correlated with eight out of eleven tests. The formulas for estimating peak power or mean power in category A and B players were created separately. All the analyses confirmed that 3 m sprint, 5 m sprint, 10 m sprint, 20 m sprint, agility drill test, bilateral handgrip, 3-6-9 m drill test, 30-s sprint test, basketball chest pass test and medicine ball chest pass test are valid for non-laboratory anaerobic performance evaluation. Using the four formulas as a tool to predict mean or peak power on the basis of the selected field-based test results and functional categories will be helpful and will allow coaches and players to prepare pre-season, post-season and in-season conditioning exercises in wheelchair basketball.

Differences in Physiological Responses During Wheelchair Basketball Matches According to Playing Time and Competition

PURPOSE

The main purpose of the present study was to determine physiological responses in wheelchair basketball (WB) matches in relation to heart rate (HR), match load (ML), differentiated perceived exertion (dRPE), lactate concentrations (LA), and tympanic temperature (TEMP), while specifying the individual player's playing time during different types of matches.

METHOD

Nine Spanish First Division WB players participated in the study. Three groups were determined for each observation (i.e., HR, ML, dRPE, LA, and TEMP) according to the minutes played by the WB players: players who had played 30 min to 40 min (WB_30-40), those who played 20 min to 30 min, and those who played 0 min to 20 min.

RESULTS

The WB_30-40 group attained statistically significantly higher results in mean HR than the other groups in league and playoff matches (p < .05; Δ% > -25.73%; ES > -1.31, large). With regard to the difference in each variable between league and playoff matches, the differences were highlighted in the WB_30-40 group according to ML (Edwards, p < .05, Δ% = -11.14%, ES = -0.87, large; Stagno's modified TRIMP, p < .05, Δ% = -16.95%, ES = -0.77, large). Tympanic temperature also reached higher values in playoff matches compared with league matches in WB_30-40 (p < .05; Δ% = 1.1%; ES = 0.67, moderate) but not in LA values.

CONCLUSIONS

Coaches should take into account that playoff matches were more demanding than league matches, thus forcing coaches to try to peak WB players' physical performance for the former.

Neuromuscular Responses and Physiological Changes During Small-Sided Games in Wheelchair Basketball

The aim was to analyze the changes of physical performance and physiological responses during a high-intensity training task in wheelchair basketball (WB) players. Thirteen Spanish first division WB male players participated in this study. A test battery (change of direction ability, sprints, and sled towing) was performed to study neuromuscular responses before (pre) and after (post) the small-sided games (SSG). Furthermore, tympanic temperature and blood lactate concentration were measured before and immediately after players finished the SSG. The SSG tasks consisted in four players against four, 4 bouts of 4 min with 2 min of recovery periods. There was a 1.10% decline in performance in both 5- and 20-m sprints (p < .01; effect size [ES] ≤ 0.14), 1.82% decline in 5-m sled towing (p < .05; ES = 0.18), and 2.68% decline in 20-m sled towing (p < .01; ES = 0.27) between pre- and post-SSG. As in physical performance results, significant differences were observed between pre and post in physiological markers, with increasing tympanic temperature (36.21 ± 0.60 °C to 36.97 ± 0.59 °C; p < .001; ES = 1.27) and blood lactate concentrations (1.95 ± 1.30 mmol/L to 5.84 ± 2.04 mmol/L; p < .001; ES = 2.99) after SSG. The SSG produced a decrease in sprint and sled towing performance after 16 min of intense exercise. Moreover, the decrease in physical performance was accompanied with an increase in physiological responses. These neuromuscular responses could be similar in the real game; thus, coaching staff could benefit from this information when changing bench players.

Comparison of Aerobic Performance Testing Protocols in Elite Male Wheelchair Basketball Players

In wheelchair sports, aerobic performance is commonly assessed with the use of an arm crank ergometer (ACE), a wheelchair ergometer (WCE) or a wheelchair treadmill (WCT). There are different protocols to identify peak oxygen uptake in wheelchair sports; however, only a few protocols have been applied to evaluate these conditions in wheelchair basketball players. The purpose of this study was to compare physiological responses during maximal exercise testing with the use of ACE and WCT in wheelchair basketball players. Twelve elite male wheelchair basketball players participated in this study. The research was performed during a training camp of the Polish National Wheelchair Basketball Team. The study participants were divided into two functional categories: A (players with class 1.0 - 2.5) and B (players with class 3.0 - 4.5). Two main maximal exercise tests, i.e. wheelchair treadmill stress test (WCT test) and arm crank ergometer stress test (ACE test) were used to evaluate aerobic performance of the players. There were no statistically significant differences in aerobic tests between the players from both groups. The comparison of results achieved in two aerobic tests performed on WCT and ACE did not reveal any significant differences between the analyzed variables (peak heart rate (HRpeak), peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), minute ventilation (VE), anaerobic threshold (AT), lactate concentration (LApeak), and a drop in lactate concentration (%LA)). Strong correlations between results achieved in WCT and ACE tests were found for VO2peak, VE and LApeak. The main conclusion of the study is that both WCT and ACE tests may be useful when determining aerobic capacity of wheelchair basketball players. Moreover, both protocols can be used by athletes regardless of their functional capabilities and types of impairment.

Trunk Function Correlates Positively with Wheelchair Basketball Player Classification

OBJECTIVE

The aims of this study were (1) to identify differences in trunk muscle strength and balance among various classes of wheelchair basketball (WCB) players and (2) to determine if trunk muscle strength and balance correlate with the current observation-based classification of WCB players.

DESIGN

Isometric trunk strength and balance (limits of stability) were objectively quantified in 42 male WCB players. Principal component analysis was used to synthesize a battery of strength and balance measures into a single, composite score of trunk function. The K-means clustering algorithm was then used to generate an objective classification system by stratifying players into 4 classes based on their trunk function.

RESULTS

Results indicated that there were significant differences in trunk muscle strength and balance between various classes of WCB players (P < 0.05), such that the mean peak trunk extensor and flexor torque and limits of stability indices increased progressively according to the players' classes. There was also a significant correlation between observation-based WCB classification and principal component analysis cluster analysis-based WCB classification (ρ = 0.785, P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides novel evidence indicating that trunk strength and balance differ among various classes of WCB players, and objective measures of trunk function correlate positively with the current observation-based WCB classification system.

The intensity and match load comparison between high spinal cord injury and non-spinal cord injury wheelchair basketball players: a case report

INTRODUCTION

This is a comparative case study between one high spinal cord injury (SCI) and two non-SCI players during an official wheelchair basketball (WB) match. The aim of the study was to calculate the differences in the absolute and relative HR responses and in the match load among one SCI and two non-SCI players in the same WB match.

CASE PRESENTATION

The study was conducted with first-division WB players in Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain (2014). All of the participants had played the whole official WB match. Absolute heart rate (HR) in the test (10 m Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1, YYIR1 10 m) as well as absolute and relative HR and match load (ML) were recorded for these three players in an official WB match.

DISCUSSION

The HRpeak and mean during the YYIR1 10 m test and the whole WB match were lower for the SCI player than the non-SCI players. However, as opposed to absolute HR values, relative HR values and ML reported very similar responses among SCI and non-SCI values. Moreover, in the high-intensity HR zone the values were similar among the three players but not in the low (<75% of HRpeak), moderate (75-85% of HRpeak) and maximal (>95% of HRpeak) HR zones. Although the absolute HR values were lower for the SCI player, the relative values and the ML were similar for all the players. Therefore, it could be necessary to use relative HR values to quantify the intensity of efforts in the WB matches.

Objective and subjective methods for quantifying training load in wheelchair basketball small-sided games

The aim of the present study was to analyse the training load in wheelchair basketball small-sided games and determine the relationship between heart rate (HR)-based training load and perceived exertion (RPE)-based training load methods among small-sided games bouts. HR-based measurements of training load included Edwards' training load and Stagno's training impulses (TRIMP_MOD) while RPE-based training load measurements included cardiopulmonary (session RPEres) and muscular (session RPEmus) values. Data were collected from 12 wheelchair basketball players during five consecutive weeks. The total load for the small-sided games sessions was 67.5 ± 6.7 and 55.3 ± 12.5 AU in HR-based training load (Edwards' training load and TRIMP_MOD), while the RPE-based training loads were 99.3 ± 26.9 (session RPEres) and 100.8 ± 31.2 AU (session RPEmus). Bout-to-bout analysis identified greater session RPEmus in the third [P < 0.05; effect size (ES) = 0.66, moderate] and fourth bouts (P < 0.05; ES = 0.64, moderate) than in the first bout, but other measures did not differ. Mean correlations indicated a trivial and small relationship among HR-based and RPE-based training loads. It is suggested that HR-based and RPE-based training loads provide different information, but these two methods could be complementary because one method could help us to understand the limitations of the other.

Comparison Between 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test and Multistage Field Test on Physiological Responses in Wheelchair Basketball Players

The intermittent nature of wheelchair court sports suggests using a similar protocol to assess repeated shuttles and recovery abilities. This study aimed to compare performances, physiological responses and perceived rating exertion obtained from the continuous multistage field test (MFT) and the 30-15 intermittent field test (30-15IFT). Eighteen trained wheelchair basketball players (WBP) (WBP: 32.0 ± 5.7 y, IWBF classification: 2.9 ± 1.1 points) performed both incremental field tests in randomized order. Time to exhaustion, maximal rolling velocity (MRV), VO2peak and the peak values of minute ventilation (V Epeak), respiratory frequency (RF) and heart rate (HRpeak) were measured throughout both tests; peak and net blood lactate (Δ[Lact(-)] = peak-rest values) and perceived rating exertion (RPE) values at the end of each exercise. No significant difference in VO2peak, VEpeak, and RF was found between both tests. 30-15IFT was shorter (12.4 ± 2.4 vs. 14.9 ± 5.1 min, P < 0.05) but induced higher values of MRV and Δ[Lact(-)] compared to MFT (14.2 ± 1.8 vs. 11.1 ± 1.9 km·h(-1) and 8.3 ± 4.2 vs. 6.9 ± 3.3 mmol·L(-1), P < 0.05). However, HRpeak and RPE values were higher during MFT than 30-15IFT(172.8 ± 14.0 vs. 166.8 ± 13.8 bpm and 15.3 ± 3.8 vs.13.8 ± 3.5, respectively, P < 0.05). The intermittent shuttles intercepted with rest period occurred during the 30-15IFT could explain a greater anaerobic solicitation. The higher HR and overall RPE values measured at the end of MFT could be explained by its longer duration and a continuous load stress compared to 30-15IFT. In conclusion, 30-15IFT has some advantages over MFT for assess in addition physical fitness and technical performance in WBP.

Hand Grip Strength Vs. Sprint Effectiveness in Amputee Soccer Players

Amputee soccer is one of the types of soccer designed for the disabled, especially those who have undergone amputations, as well as those with extremity dysfunction. The objective of the study was to find the relationship between hand grip strength and sprint time in amputee soccer players. Thirteen field amputee soccer players participated in the study. A SAEHAN hydraulic hand dynamometer manufactured by Jamar was used for hand grip strength measurements. The sprint running test was conducted over a distance of 30 m. The Fusion Smart Speed System was employed for running time measurements. No statistically significant relationships were found between hand grip strength of the left or right hand, and sprint times over 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 m. Analysis of the running velocity curve of the subjects showed an interesting profile characterized by a 15 meter-long acceleration phase and a significant velocity increase over a distance of 20 – 25 m. The study suggests that there is no relationship between hand grip strength and sprint effectiveness in amputee soccer players. The specificity of locomotion with the use of elbow crutches among elite Polish amputee soccer players probably accounts for the profile of the sprint velocity curve. Extension of the acceleration phase in the sprint run and a velocity increase in the subsequent part of the run were observed.

The Functional Classification and Field Test Performance in Wheelchair Basketball Players

Wheelchair basketball players are classified in four classes based on the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation (IWBF) system of competition. Thus, the aim of the study was to ascertain if the IWBF classification, the type of injury and the wheelchair experience were related to different performance field-based tests. Thirteen basketball players undertook anthropometric measurements and performance tests (hand dynamometry, 5 m and 20 m sprints, 5 m and 20 m sprints with a ball, a T-test, a Pick-up test, a modified 10 m Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test, a maximal pass and a medicine ball throw). The IWBF class was correlated (p<0.05) to the hand dynamometry (r= 0.84), the maximal pass (r=0.67) and the medicine ball throw (r= 0.67). Whereas the years of dependence on the wheelchair were correlated to the velocity (p<0.01): 5 m (r= -0.80) and 20 m (r= -0.77) and agility tests (r= -0.77, p<0.01). Also, the 20 m sprint with a ball (r= 0.68) and the T-test (r= -0.57) correlated (p<0.05) with the experience in playing wheelchair basketball. Therefore, in this team the correlations of the performance variables differed when they were related to the disability class, the years of dependence on the wheelchair and the experience in playing wheelchair basketball. These results should be taken into account by the technical staff and coaches of the teams when assessing performance of wheelchair basketball players.

Effects of modified multistage field test on performance and physiological responses in wheelchair basketball players

A bioenergetical analysis of manoeuvrability and agility performance for wheelchair players is inexistent. It was aimed at comparing the physiological responses and performance obtained from the octagon multistage field test (MFT) and the modified condition in “8 form” (MFT-8). Sixteen trained wheelchair basketball players performed both tests in randomized condition. The levels performed (end-test score), peak values of oxygen uptake (VO_2peak), minute ventilation (V_Epeak), heart rate (HR_peak), peak and relative blood lactate (Δ[Lact⁻] = peak – rest values), and the perceived rating exertion (RPE) were measured. MFT-8 induced higher VO_2peak and V_Epeak values compared to MFT (VO_2peak: 2.5 ± 0.6 versus 2.3 ± 0.6 L·min⁻¹ and V_Epeak: 96.3 ± 29.1 versus 86.6 ± 23.4 L·min⁻¹; P < 0.05) with no difference in other parameters. Significant relations between V_Epeak and end-test score were correlated for both field tests (P < 0.05). At exhaustion, MFT attained incompletely VO_2peak and V_Epeak. Among experienced wheelchair players, MFT-8 had no effect on test performance but generates higher physiological responses than MFT. It could be explained by demands of wheelchair skills occurring in 8 form during the modified condition.

Changes in Body Composition and Physical Performance in Wheelchair Basketball Players During a Competitive Season

The present study analyzed the changes in body composition and physical performance in wheelchair basketball (WB) players during one competitive season. Players from a WB team competing in the first division of the Spanish League (n = 8, age: 26.5 ± 2.9 years, body mass: 79.8 ± 12.6 kg, sitting height: 91.4 ± 4.4 cm) participated in this research. The upper limbs showed a decrease in subcutaneous adipose tissue and there was an improvement in physical abilities such as sprinting with the ball (5 and 20 m), handgrip and aerobic capacity. However, the changes in physical fitness concerning sprinting without the ball and agility tests were low. It would be interesting to study the effects of implementing specific programs to improve physical performance in WB and to establish more test sessions to monitor the effects of the programs followed.