The reliability of the Australasian Triage Scale: a meta-analysis

The Pathophysiology of Injuries and Deaths Managed in Emergency Departments After Earthquake Disasters: A Narrative Review

Earthquakes cause devastating effects, resulting in the deaths of thousands of people each year. Understanding the full range of impacts, including fatalities, and the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying these effects is crucial for mitigating the aftermath of earthquakes. Therefore, this review aims to: delineate the critical golden time periods following earthquakes and identify the most effective responses and resilience factors during these periods; accurately define the terminology for injuries sustained post-earthquake; elucidate the basic pathophysiology of CRUSH injury-induced myopathy, one of the most significant pathologies in post-earthquake patient management; explore the role of nitric oxide (NO) mechanisms in crush injuries, which are believed to be fundamental to the "smiling death phenomenon" and represent the unseen part of the iceberg; and highlight the importance of the 3 main phenomena responsible for mortality-acidosis, coagulopathy, and hypothermia-during disasters. This comprehensive review, based on the latest literature, encompasses search and rescue, pre-hospital processes, emergency department procedures, and subsequent internal and surgical management algorithms.

Triage Discordance in an Academic Pediatric Emergency Department and Disparities by Race, Ethnicity, and Language for Care

BACKGROUND

Minoritized patients are disproportionately represented in low-acuity emergency department (ED) visits in the United States in part caused by lack of timely access to primary and urgent care. However, there is also the possibility that implicit bias during triage could contribute to disproportionate representation of minority groups in low-acuity ED visits. Triage discordance, defined as when ED resources used are different from initial triage score predictions, can be used as a proxy for triage accuracy. Recent data suggest that discordant triage may be common, although little is known about the interaction with race, ethnicity, and language for care.

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to determine the prevalence of discordant triage among moderate- and low-acuity pediatric ED encounters and the interaction with patient race, ethnicity, and language for care.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective analysis of pediatric ED encounters from 2019 with Emergency Severity Index (ESI) scores of 3, 4, or 5 at an academic referral hospital. The primary outcome was triage discordance, encompassing overtriage (ESI 3 and 4) and undertriage (ESI 4 and 5). Logistic and multinomial regressions were used to assess discordant triage by race, ethnicity, and language group.

RESULTS

Triage discordance occurred in 47% (n = 18,040) of encounters. Black and Hispanic patients had higher likelihood of undertriage for ESI 5 (adjusted odds ratio 1.21, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.01-1.46 and 1.27, 95% CI 1.07-1.52, respectively), and Black patients were more likely to be overtriaged in ESI 3 (1.18, 95% CI 1.09-1.27). Those with a language other than English for care had higher proportions of overtriage for ESI 3 (1.08, 95% CI 1.04-1.12) and undertriage for ESI 5 (1.23, 95% CI 1.11-1.37).

CONCLUSIONS

We found high rates of triage discordance in our pediatric ED, with significant associations with race, ethnicity, and language for care. Future research should evaluate the source of triage discordance and develop quality improvement efforts to improve equitable care.

Emergency department length of stay and re-presentation rates in patients with low back pain: A medical record review study

BACKGROUND

Low back pain (LBP) is ranked in the top 10 conditions presenting to emergency departments (ED) in Australia. We aimed to investigate ED re-presentation rates and length of stay (LOS) of patients with LBP, including associated factors.

METHODS

We reviewed medical records of three EDs in Sydney, Australia from January 2016 to October 2021. The primary outcome was the proportion of episodes of non-serious LBP with at least one re-presentation within 12 months. Secondary outcomes were re-presentation rates within 3-days, 1-week, 1-month, 3-months, 6-months, and mean LOS. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed to investigate the associated factors with re-presentation and prolonged stay (>4 h) and reported as adjusted odds ratios (aORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI).

RESULTS

Of 8289 episodes of non-serious LBP, 7.7% included at least one re-presentation within 12 months. There were only 14 re-presentations (0.2%) where the diagnosis changed from non-serious LBP at the index visit to serious spinal pathology at the repeat visit. The overall mean LOS was 4.1 h, and 26.9% of patients stayed in the ED for >4 h. Those who received opioids (aOR: 1.31; 95% CI: 1.08-1.59) were more likely to re-present. In contrast, patients receiving imaging were less likely to re-present (aOR: 0.78, 95% CI: 0.65-0.94). Receiving imaging (aOR: 2.83; 95% CI: 2.56-3.13) and opioids (aOR: 1.64; 95% CI: 1.47-1.82) increased the odds of prolonged stay.

CONCLUSION

A re-presentation within 12 months occurs in 7.7% of episodes of LBP in ED. Over one-quarter of   patients stayed longer than 4 h.

Feasibility and acceptability of a serious game to study the effects of environmental distractors on emergency room nurse triage accuracy: A pilot study

BACKGROUND

Emergency triage, which involves complex decision-making under stress and time constraints, may suffer from inaccuracies due to workplace distractions. A serious game was developed to simulate the triage process and environment. A pilot study was undertaken to collect preliminary data on the effects of distractors on emergency nurse triage accuracy.

METHOD

A 2 × 2 factorial randomized controlled trial (RCT) was designed for the study. A sample of 70 emergency room nurses was randomly assigned to three experimental groups exposed to different distractors (noise, task interruptions, and both) and one control group. Nurses had two hours to complete a series of 20 clinical vignettes, in which they had to establish a chief complaint and assign an emergency level.

RESULTS

Fifty-five nurses completed approximately 15 vignettes each during the allotted time. No intergroup differences emerged in terms of triage performance. Nurses had a very favorable appreciation of the serious game focusing on triage.

CONCLUSION

The results show that both the structure of our study and the serious game can be used to carry out a future RCT on a larger scale. The lack of a distractor effect raises questions about the frequency and intensity required to find a significant impact on triage performance.

Refining ambulance clinical response models: The impact on ambulance response and emergency department presentations

OBJECTIVE

The ambulance service in Victoria, Australia implemented a revised clinical response model (CRM) in 2016 which was designed to increase the diversion of low-acuity Triple Zero (000) calls to secondary telephone triage and reduce emergency ambulance dispatches. The present study evaluates the influence of the revised CRM on emergency ambulance response times and ED presentations.

METHODS

A retrospective study of emergency calls for ambulance between 1 January 2015 and 31 December 2018. Ambulance data were linked with ED presentations occurring up to 48 h after contact. Interrupted time series analyses were used to evaluate the impact of the revised CRM.

RESULTS

A total of 2 365 529 calls were included. The proportion allocated a Code 1 (time-critical, lights/sirens) dispatch decreased from 56.6 to 41.0% after implementation of the revised CRM. The proportion of calls not receiving an emergency ambulance increased from 10.4 to 19.6%. Interrupted time series analyses demonstrated an improvement in Code 1 cases attended within 15 min (Key Performance Indicator). However, for patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest or requiring lights and sirens transport to hospital, there was no improvement in response time performance. By the end of the study period, there was also no difference in the proportion of callers presenting to ED when compared with the estimated proportion assuming the revised CRM had not been implemented.

CONCLUSION

The revised CRM was associated with improved Code 1 response time performance. However, there was no improvement in response times for high acuity patients, and no change in the proportion of callers presenting to ED.

Characteristics of undertriaged older patients in the emergency department: Retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Older patients are more likely to be undertriaged as they often suffer from multiple diseases and complain of non-specific symptoms. Therefore, it is necessary to identify the characteristics of undertriaged older patients in emergency departments.

METHODS

This descriptive study retrospectively reviewed and analyzed the electronic medical records of older patients who visited the emergency department of a general hospital in Seoul between January and December 2019.

RESULTS

Approximately 29 % (n = 4,823) of older patients who visited the emergency department during the study period were classified as Korean Triage and Acuity Scale (KTAS) level 4 or 5, and approximately 8 % (n = 397) were undertriaged. Approximately 73 % (n = 288) of patients were hospitalized after visiting the emergency department. The undertriaged older patients exhibited nervous system symptoms such as dizziness and headache (28.8 %), cardiopulmonary symptoms such as chest discomfort, palpitations, and abdominal pain (28.4 %), head trauma (12.8 %), and respiratory symptoms such as cough and dyspnea (12.5 %).

CONCLUSION

Triage nurses in emergency departments should carefully triage older patients as their chief complaints can be non-specific. In particular, when older patients visit the emergency department and exhibit symptoms such as dizziness, abnormal pain, chest discomfort, palpitations, and head trauma, they are more likely to be admitted to the intensive care unit. Therefore, meticulous care for older patients showing these symptoms is essential.

Use of Reverse Shock Index Multiplied by Simplified Motor Score in a Five-Level Triage System: Identifying Trauma in Adult Patients at a High Risk of Mortality

Background and Objectives: The Taiwan Triage and Acuity Scale (TTAS) is reliable for triaging patients in emergency departments in Taiwan; however, most triage decisions are still based on chief complaints. The reverse-shock index (SI) multiplied by the simplified motor score (rSI-sMS) is a more comprehensive approach to triage that combines the SI and a modified consciousness assessment. We investigated the combination of the TTAS and rSI-sMS for triage compared with either parameter alone as well as the SI and modified SI. Materials and Methods: We analyzed 13,144 patients with trauma from the Taipei Tzu Chi Trauma Database. We investigated the prioritization performance of the TTAS, rSI-sMS, and their combination. A subgroup analysis was performed to evaluate the trends in all clinical outcomes for different rSI-sMS values. The sensitivity and specificity of rSI-sMS were investigated at a cutoff value of 4 (based on previous study and the highest score of the Youden Index) in predicting injury severity clinical outcomes under the TTAS system were also investigated. Results: Compared with patients in triage level III, those in triage levels I and II had higher odds ratios for major injury (as indicated by revised trauma score < 7 and injury severity score [ISS] ≥ 16), intensive care unit (ICU) admission, prolonged ICU stay (≥14 days), prolonged hospital stay (≥30 days), and mortality. In all three triage levels, the rSI-sMS < 4 group had severe injury and worse outcomes than the rSI-sMS ≥ 4 group. The TTAS and rSI-sMS had higher area under the receiver operating characteristic curves (AUROCs) for mortality, ICU admission, prolonged ICU stay, and prolonged hospital stay than the SI and modified SI. The combination of the TTAS and rSI-sMS had the highest AUROC for all clinical outcomes. The prediction performance of rSI-sMS < 4 for major injury (ISS ≥ 16) exhibited 81.49% specificity in triage levels I and II and 87.6% specificity in triage level III. The specificity for mortality was 79.2% in triage levels I and II and 87.4% in triage level III. Conclusions: The combination of rSI-sMS and the TTAS yielded superior prioritization performance to TTAS alone. The integration of rSI-sMS and TTAS effectively enhances the efficiency and accuracy of identifying trauma patients at a high risk of mortality.

Characteristics and Outcomes of Patients Referred to a General Practitioner by Victorian Paramedics

OBJECTIVE

Many patients who are attended by paramedics do not require conveyance to an emergency department (ED). Our study focuses on comparing the characteristics and outcomes of patients who were advised to follow up with a general practitioner (GP) by an attending paramedic with those of patients who were discharged at scene or transported to hospital.

METHODS

This was a retrospective data linkage cohort study of ambulance, ED, hospital admission, and death records for all adults attended by paramedics in Victoria, Australia between the 1st of January 2015 and 30th of June 2019. Patients were excluded if they presented in cardiac arrest, resided in a residential aged care facility, or were receiving palliative care services. Outcomes of interest included reattendance by ambulance, ED presentation; and, a high acuity outcome which we defined as a patient who (1) presented to ED and received an Australasian Triage Scale of category 1 (Resuscitation) or 2 (Emergency) AND was admitted to a ward OR (2) was admitted to an Intensive Care Unit, Coronary Care Unit or Catheter laboratory (regardless of triage category) OR (3) died. Outcomes of interest were considered within 48-h of initial EMS attendance.

RESULTS

A total of 1,777,950 cases were included in the study of which 3.1% were referred to a GP, 9.0% were discharged at scene without a follow-up recommendation, and 87.9% were transported to hospital. Patients referred to a GP were more likely than those discharged at scene to subsequently present to an ED within 48 h of their attendance (5.3% vs 3.8%). However, GP referral was not associated with any change to high acuity outcome (0.3% vs 0.2%) or ambulance reattendance (6.0% vs 6.0%) compared to discharge at scene. The only factors that were associated with ambulance reattendance, ED presentation, and a high acuity outcome were male gender and elevated temperature.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite increasing low and medium-acuity casework in this EMS system, paramedic referral to a GP is not common practice. Referring a patient to a GP did not reduce the likelihood of patients experiencing a high acuity outcome or recalling an ambulance within 48 h, suggesting opportunity exists to refine paramedic to GP referral practices.

Medical Admission Prediction Score (MAPS); a simple tool to predict medical admissions in the emergency department

INTRODUCTION

Overcrowding in the emergency departments (ED) is linked to adverse clinical outcomes, a negative impact on patient safety, patient satisfaction, and physician efficiency. We aimed to design a medical admission prediction scoring system based on readily available clinical data during ED presentation.

METHODS

In this retrospective cross-sectional study, data on ED presentations and medical admissions were extracted from the Emergency and Internal Medicine departments of a tertiary care facility in Qatar. Primary outcome was medical admission.

RESULTS

Of 320299 ED presentations, 218772 were males (68.3%). A total of 11847 (3.7%) medical admissions occurred. Most patients were Asians (53.7%), followed by Arabs (38.7%). Patients who got admitted were older than those who did not (p <0.001). Admitted patients were predominantly males (56.8%), had a higher number of comorbid conditions and a higher frequency of recent discharge (within the last 30 days) (p <0.001). Age > 60 years, female gender, discharge within the last 30 days, and worse vital signs at presentations were independently associated with higher odds of admission (p<0.001). These factors generated the scoring system with a cut-off of >17, area under the curve (AUC) 0.831 (95% CI 0.827-0.836), and a predictive accuracy of 83.3% (95% CI 83.2-83.4). The model had a sensitivity of 69.1% (95% CI 68.2-69.9), specificity was 83.9% (95% CI 83.7-84.0), positive predictive value (PPV) 14.2% (95% CI 13.8-14.4), negative predictive value (NPV) 98.6% (95% CI 98.5-98.7) and positive likelihood ratio (LR+) 4.28% (95% CI 4.27-4.28).

CONCLUSION

Medical admission prediction scoring system can be reliably applied to the regional population to predict medical admissions and may have better generalizability to other parts of the world owing to the diverse patient population in Qatar.

Profile and triage validity of trauma patients triaged green: a prospective cohort study from a secondary care hospital in India

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the profile of non-urgent patients triaged 'green', as part of a triage trial in the emergency department (ED) of a secondary care hospital in India. The secondary aim was to validate the triage trial with the South African Triage Score (SATS).

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

SETTING

A secondary care hospital in Mumbai, India.

PARTICIPANTS

Patients aged 18 years and above with a history of trauma defined as having any of the external causes of morbidity and mortality listed in block V01-Y36, chapter XX of the International Classification of Disease version 10 codebook, triaged green between July 2016 and November 2019.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Outcome measures were mortality within 24 hours, 30 days and mistriage.

RESULTS

We included 4135 trauma patients triaged green. The mean age of patients was 32.8 (±13.1) years, and 77% were males. The median (IQR) length of stay of admitted patients was 3 (13) days. Half the patients had a mild Injury Severity Score (3-8), with the majority of injuries being blunt (98%). Of the patients triaged green by clinicians, three-quarters (74%) were undertriaged on validating with SATS. On telephonic follow-up, two patients were reported dead whereas one died while admitted in hospital.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study highlights the need for implementation and evaluation of training in trauma triage systems that use physiological parameters, including pulse, systolic blood pressure and Glasgow Coma Scale, for the in-hospital first responders in the EDs.

Management of low back pain in Australian emergency departments for culturally and linguistically diverse populations from 2016 to 2021

BACKGROUND

Disparate care in the ED for minority populations with low back pain is a long-standing issue reported in the USA. Our objective was to compare care delivery for low back pain in Australian EDs between culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) and non-CALD patients.

METHODS

This is a retrospective review of medical records of the ED of three public hospitals in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia from January 2016 to October 2021. We included adult patients diagnosed with non-serious low back pain at ED discharge. CALD status was defined by country of birth, preferred language and use of interpreter service. The main outcome measures were ambulance transport, lumbar imaging, opioid administration and hospital admission.

RESULTS

Of the 14 642 included presentations, 7656 patients (52.7%) were born overseas, 3695 (25.2%) preferred communicating in a non-English language and 1224 (8.4%) required an interpreter. Patients born overseas were less likely to arrive by ambulance (adjusted OR (aOR) 0.68, 95% CI 0.63 to 0.73) than Australian-born patients. Patients who preferred a non-English language were also less likely to arrive by ambulance (aOR 0.82, 95% CI 0.75 to 0.90), yet more likely to be imaged (aOR 1.12, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.23) or be admitted to hospital (aOR 1.16, 95% CI 1.04 to 1.29) than Native-English-speaking patients. Patients who required an interpreter were more likely to receive imaging (aOR 1.43, 95% CI 1.25 to 1.64) or be admitted (aOR 1.49, 95% CI 1.29 to 1.73) compared with those who communicated independently. CALD patients were generally less likely to receive weak opioids than non-CALD patients (aOR range 0.76-0.87), yet no difference was found in the use of any opioid or strong opioids.

CONCLUSION

Patients with low back pain from a CALD background, especially those lacking English proficiency, are significantly more likely to be imaged and admitted in Australian EDs. Future interventions improving the quality of ED care for low back pain should give special consideration to CALD patients.

Australian emergency department care for older adults diagnosed with low back pain of lumbar spine origin: a retrospective analysis of electronic medical record system data (2016-2019)

BACKGROUND

In Australian emergency departments, 30% of all back pain presentations are for older adults. Relatively little is known about the care that this population receives during an emergency department stay, including admission to hospital. The aim of this study is to describe emergency department management of older adults diagnosed with a lumbar spine condition and to determine predictors of healthcare use in this population.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of electronic medical record data of adults aged ≥ 65 years with a lumbar spine discharge diagnosis. Demographic, clinical care (date and time of presentation and discharge, length of stay in the emergency department, mode of arrival, triage category, re-presentations to the emergency department (within 48 h), discharge mode, the administration of pain-relieving medicines, lumbar imaging, and laboratory tests) and costs data were extracted from the electronic medical record system. Descriptive analyses and multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression models were performed.

RESULTS

Over the period January 2016 to December 2019 there were 4,093 presentations to emergency departments by older adults with a lumbar spine discharge diagnosis (82.0% were non-specific low back pain). Most were female (58.3%), 39.9% had some form of lumbar imaging, and 34.1% were admitted to hospital. The most administered pain medicines were opioid analgesics (67.1%), followed by paracetamol (63.9%) and NSAIDs (33.0%). Predictors of healthcare use and hospital inpatient admission were receiving a laboratory test and receiving any opioid. For the financial period 2019-20, the mean (SD) total cost of care per presentation was $5,629 ($11,982).

CONCLUSION

In the emergency department, more than two thirds of older adults with a lumbar spine condition received opioid analgesics. They often received imaging and laboratory tests, had high costs and were admitted to hospital. Alternative pathways of care are needed to support older adults with low back pain, to receive guideline-concordant emergency department care and have good health outcomes.

Outcomes of paediatric patients who are not transported to hospital by Emergency Medical Services: a data linkage study

BACKGROUND

Data on the safety of non-transport decisions for paediatric patients attended by Emergency Medical Services (EMS) are lacking. We describe the characteristics and outcomes of paediatric non-transported patients in Victoria, Australia.

METHODS

A retrospective data linkage study of consecutive paediatric (aged <18 years) non-transported patients between January 2015 and June 2019. Patients were linked to ED, hospital admission and death records. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to determine factors associated with EMS recontact, ED presentation, hospital admission and an adverse event (death/cardiac arrest, intensive care unit admission or highest ED triage category) within 48 hours of the initial emergency call.

RESULTS

In total, 62 975 non-transported patients were included. The mean age was 7.1 (SD 6.0) years and 48.9% were male. Overall, 2.2% recontacted the EMS within 48 hours, 13.7% self-presented to a public ED, 2.4% were admitted to hospital and 0.1% had an adverse event, including two deaths. Among patients with paramedic-initiated non-transport (excluding transport refusals and transport via other means), 5.6% presented to a public ED, 1.1% were admitted to hospital and 0.05% had an adverse event. In the overall population, an abnormal vital sign on initial assessment increased the odds of hospital admission and an adverse event. Among paramedic-initiated non-transports, cases occurring in the early hours of the morning (04:00-08:00 hours) were associated with increased odds of subsequent hospital admission, while the odds of ED presentation and hospital admission also increased with increasing prior exposure to non-transported cases.

CONCLUSION

Adverse events were rare among paramedic-initiated non-transport cases. Vital sign derangements and attendance by paramedics with higher prior exposure to non-transports were associated with poorer outcomes and may be used to improve safety.

Strategies to improve the quality of nurse triage in emergency departments: A realist review protocol

AIM

The purpose of this realist review was to assess what works, for whom and in what context, regarding strategies that influence nurses' behaviour to improve triage quality in emergency departments (ED).

DESIGN

Realist review protocol.

METHODS

This protocol follows the PRISMA-P statement and will include any type of study on strategies to improve the triage process in the ED (using recognized and validated triage scales). The included studies were examined for scientific quality using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. The framework for this realist review is based on the Behaviour Change Wheel (BCW) and the context-mechanism-outcome (CMO) models.

DISCUSSION

Nurses and ED decision makers will be informed on the evidence regarding strategies to improve the quality of triage and the factors required to maximize their effectiveness. Research gaps may also be identified to guide future research projects on the adoption of best practices in ED nursing triage.

Non-neutropenic fever in children with cancer: Management, outcomes and clinical decision rule validation

INTRODUCTION

Fever and infection are an important complication of childhood cancer therapy. Most research and guideline development has focussed on febrile neutropenia, with a paucity directed at non-neutropenic fever (NNF). We describe the clinical presentation, management and outcomes of NNF in children with cancer, and externally validate the Esbenshade Vanderbilt (EsVan) clinical decision rules (CDR) to predict bacteraemia.

METHOD

Using a prospective database, retrospective data were collected on consecutive NNF episodes (fever ≥38.0°C and absolute neutrophil count >1.0 cells/mm³ ). Sensitivity, specificity and area under the receiver operator characteristic curve (AUC-ROC) of the CDR were compared to derivation study.

RESULTS

There were 203 NNF episodes occurring in 125 patients. Severe sepsis was uncommon (n = 2, 1%) and bacteraemia occurred in 10 (4.9%, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.7%-8.8%) episodes. A confirmed or presumed bacterial infection requiring antibiotics occurred in 31 (15%) patients. Total 202 (99%) episodes received at least one dose of intravenous broad-spectrum antibiotic and 141 (70%) episodes were admitted to hospital. Six (3%) episodes required intensive care unit (ICU)-level care and there were no infection-related deaths. The EsVan 1 rule had an AUC-ROC of 0.67, 80% were identified as low risk, and sensitivity and specificity were 50% and 81.5%, respectively, for a risk threshold of 10%.

CONCLUSIONS

Serious infection and adverse outcome are uncommon in children with NNF. Many children did not have a bacterial cause of infection identified, but were still treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics and admitted to hospital. National clinical practice guidelines should be developed for this important cohort to enable risk stratification and optimise antibiotic management. Further research is required to determine appropriateness of EsVan CDR in our cohort.

Exploring the use of virtual reality to manage distress in adolescent patients in emergency departments: A feasibility study

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to explore the feasibility and potential benefits of deploying virtual reality (VR) for adolescents in the ED.

METHODS

This multi-centre study was undertaken in paediatric and adult EDs in two university teaching hospitals. Twenty-six participants who had voluntarily attended the ED received the VR intervention. Pre- and post-measures assessing changes in state anxiety, stress and affect, and physical biomarkers were obtained.

RESULTS

The use of VR intervention was associated with significant reductions in distress (Short State Stress Questionnaire - Distress Subscale; t = 4.55, P < 0.001) and negative affect (the International Positive and Negative Affect Scale - Short Form version; t = 4.99, P < 0.001). Most participants chose 'Netflix' as their content of choice. The technology was well received by the participants with subjective reports indicating that receiving VR intervention was 'insanely cool', 'takes you away from what's actually happening' and some participants felt 'privileged to get this experience in a hospital'.

CONCLUSIONS

VR technology can effectively be used in EDs to assist adolescents and young adults better manage their distress and take steps towards activating more self-control mechanisms that will in turn allow for more meaningful engagements to be established with health clinicians. This technology has broad implications for reducing distress in adolescents in a variety of clinical contexts.

Prevalence and clinical significance of point of care elevated lactate at emergency admission in older patients: a prospective study

OBJECTIVE

Patients who are over 65 years old represent up to 24% of emergency department (ED) admissions. They are at increased risk of under-triage due to impaired physiological responses. The primary objective of this study was to assess the prevalence of elevated lactate by point of care testing (POCT) in this population. The secondary objective was to assess the additional value of lactate level in predicting an early poor outcome, as compared to and combined with common clinical scores and triage scales.

METHODS

This monocentric prospective study recruited ED patients who were over 65 years old between July 19th 2019 and June 17th 2020. Patients consulting for seizures or needing immediate assessment were excluded. POCT lactates were considered elevated if ≥ 2.5 mmol/L. A poor outcome was defined based on certain complications or therapeutic decisions.

RESULTS

In total, 602 patients were included; 163 (27.1%) had elevated lactate and 44 (7.3%) had a poor outcome. There was no association between poor outcome and lactate level. Modified Early Warning Score (MEWS) was significantly associated with poor outcome, alongside National Early Warning Score (NEWS). Logistic regression also associated lactate level combined with MEWS and poor outcome.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of elevated lactate was 27.1%. Lactate level alone or combined with different triage scales or clinical scores such as MEWS, NEWS and qSOFA was not associated with prediction of a poor outcome. MEWS alone performed best in predicting poor outcome. The usefulness of POCT lactate measurement at triage is questionable in the population of 65 and above.

Hospital variation in admissions for low back pain following an emergency department presentation: a retrospective study

Background

One in 6 patients with low back pain (LBP) presenting to emergency departments (EDs) are subsequently admitted to hospital each year, making LBP the ninth most common reason for hospital admission in Australia. No studies have investigated and quantified the extent of clinical variation in hospital admission following an ED presentation for LBP.

Methods

We used routinely collected ED data from public hospitals within the state of New South Wales, Australia, to identify presentations of patients aged between 18 and 111 with a discharge diagnosis of LBP. We fitted a series of random effects multilevel logistic regression models adjusted by case-mix and hospital variables. The main outcome was the hospital-adjusted admission rate (HAAR). Data were presented as funnel plots with 95% and 99.8% confidence limits. Hospitals with a HAAR outside the 95% confidence limit were considered to have a HAAR significantly different to the state average.

Results

We identified 176,729 LBP presentations across 177 public hospital EDs and 44,549 hospital admissions (25.2%). The mean (SD) age was 51.8 (19.5) and 52% were female. Hospital factors explained 10% of the variation (ICC = 0.10), and the median odds ratio (MOR) was 2.03. We identified marked variation across hospitals, with HAAR ranging from 6.9 to 65.9%. After adjusting for hospital variables, there was still marked variation between hospitals with similar characteristics.

Conclusion

We found substantial variation in hospital admissions following a presentation to the ED due to LBP even after controlling by case-mix and hospital characteristics. Given the substantial costs associated with these admissions, our findings indicate the need to investigate sources of variation and to determine instances where the observed variation is warranted or unwarranted.

Supplementary information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12913-022-08134-8.

Reliability and Validity of a New Computer-Based Triage Decision Support Tool: ANKUTRIAGE

OBJECTIVE

Triage is a tool used to determine patients' severity of illness or injury within minutes of arrival. This study aims to assess the reliability and validity of a new computer-based triage decision support tool, ANKUTRIAGE, prospectively.

METHODS

ANKUTRIAGE, a 5-level triage tool was established considering 2 major factors, patient's vital signs and characteristics of the admission complaint. Adult patients admitted to the ED between July and October, 2019 were consecutively and independently double triaged by 2 assessors using ANKUTRIAGE system. To measure inter-rater reliability, quadratic-weighted kappa coefficients (Kw) were calculated. For the validity, associations among urgency levels, resource use, and clinical outcomes were evaluated.

RESULTS

The inter-rater reliability between users of ANKUTRIAGE was excellent with an agreement coefficient (Kw) greater than 0.8 in all compared groups. In the validity phase, hospitalization rate, intensive care unit admission and mortality rate decreased from level 1 to 5. Likewise, according to the urgency levels, resource use decreased significantly as the triage level decreased (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

ANKUTRIAGE proved to be a valid and reliable tool in the emergency department. The results showed that displaying the key discriminator for each complaint to assist decision leads to a high inter-rater agreement with good correlation between urgency levels and clinical outcomes, as well as between urgency levels and resource consumptions.

Implementing a new emergency medical triage tool in one health region in Norway: some lessons learned

BACKGROUND

Acutely sick or injured patients depend on ambulance and emergency department personnel performing an accurate initial assessment and prioritisation (triage) to effectively identify patients in need of immediate treatment. Triage also ensures that each patient receives fair initial assessment. To improve the patient safety, quality of care, and communication about a patient's medical condition, we implemented a new triage tool (the South African Triage Scale Norway (SATS-N) in all the ambulance services and emergency departments in one health region in Norway. This article describes the lessons we learnt during this implementation process.

METHODS

The main framework in this quality improvement (QI) work was the plan-do-study-act cycle. Additional process sources were 'The Institute for Healthcare Improvement Model for improvement' and the Norwegian Patient Safety Programme.

RESULTS

Based on the QI process as a whole, we defined subjects influencing this work to be successful, such as identifying areas for improvement, establishing multidisciplinary teams, coaching, implementing measurements and securing sustainability. After these subjects were connected to the relevant challenges and desired effects, we described the lessons we learnt during this comprehensive QI process.

CONCLUSION

We learnt the importance of following a structured framework for QI process during the implementation of the SATS-N triage tool. Furthermore, securing anchoring at all levels, from the managements to the medical professionals in direct patient-orientated work, was relevant important. Moreover, establishing multidisciplinary teams with ambulance personnel, emergency department nurses and doctors with various medical specialties provided ownership to the participants. Meanwhile, coaching provided necessary security for the staff directly involved in caring for patients. Keeping the spirit and perseverance high were important factors in completing the implementation. Establishment of the regional network group was found to be important for sustainability and further improvements.

Validation of the Computerized Pediatric Triage Tool, pediaTRI, in the Pediatric Emergency Department of Lenval Children's Hospital in Nice: A Cross-Sectional Observational Study

INTRODUCTION

A reliable pediatric triage tool is essential for nurses working in pediatric emergency departments to quickly identify children requiring priority care (high-level emergencies) and those who can wait (low-level emergencies). In the absence of a gold standard in France, the objective of our study was to validate our 5-level pediatric triage tool -pediaTRI- against the reference tool: the Pediatric Early Warning Score (PEWS) System.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We prospectively included 100,506 children who visited the Pediatric Emergency Department at Lenval Children's Hospital (Nice, France) in 2016 and 2017. The performance of pediaTRI to identify high-level emergencies (severity levels 1 and 2) was evaluated in comparison with a PEWS ≥ 4/9. Data from 2018-19 was used as an independent validation cohort.

RESULTS

pediaTRI agreed with the PEWS score for 84,896 of the patients (84.5%): 15.0% (14.8-15.2) of the patients were over-triaged and 0.5% (0.5-0.6) under-triaged compared with the PEWS score. pediaTRI had a sensitivity of 76.4% (74.6-78.2), a specificity of 84.7% (84.4-84.9), and positive and negative likelihood ratios of 5.0 (4.8-5.1) and 0.3 (0.3-0.3), respectively, for the identification of high-level emergencies. However, the positive likelihood ratios were lower for patients presenting with a medical complaint [4.1 (4.0-4.2) v 10.4 (7.9-13.7 for trauma), and for younger children [1.2 (1.1-1.2) from 0 to 28 days, and 1.9 (1.8-2.0) from 28 days to 3 months].

CONCLUSION

pediaTRI has a moderate to good validity to triage children in a Pediatric Emergency Department with a tendency to over-triage compared with the PEWS system. Its validity is lower for younger children and for children consulting for a medical complaint.

Impact of COVID-19 on emergency department attendance in an Australia hospital: a parallel convergent mixed methods study

OBJECTIVES

The COVID-19 pandemic has changed the way people are accessing healthcare. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of COVID-19 on emergency department (ED) attendance for frequent attenders and to explore potential reasons for changes in attendance.

DESIGN

This convergent parallel mixed methods study comprised two parts.

SETTING

An interrupted time-series analysis evaluated changes in ED presentation rates; interviews investigated reasons for changes for frequent ED users in a culturally and linguistically diverse setting.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 4868 patients were included in the time series. A subgroup of 200 patients were interviewed, mean age 66 years (range 23-99).

RESULTS

Interrupted time-series analysis from 4868 eligible participants showed an instantaneous decrease in weekly ED presentations by 36% (p<0.001), with reduction between 45% and 67% across emergency triage categories. 32% did not know they could leave home to seek care with differences seen in English versus non-English speakers (p<0.001). 35% reported postponing medical care. There was a high fear about the health system becoming overloaded (mean 4.2 (±2) on 6-point scale). Four key themes emerged influencing health-seeking behaviour: fear and/or avoidance of hospital care; use of telehealth for remote assessment; no fear or avoidance of hospital care; not leaving the house for any reason.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated reduced ED use by a vulnerable population of previously frequent attenders. COVID-19 has resulted in some fear and avoidance of hospitals, but has also offered new opportunity for alternative care through telehealth.

Improving the reporting quality of reliability generalization meta-analyses: The REGEMA checklist

Reliability generalization (RG) is a meta-analytic approach that aims to characterize how reliability estimates from the same test vary across different applications of the instrument. With this purpose RG meta-analyses typically focus on a particular test and intend to obtain an overall reliability of test scores and to investigate how the composition and variability of the samples affect reliability. Although several guidelines have been proposed in the meta-analytic literature to help authors improve the reporting quality of meta-analyses, none of them were devised for RG meta-analyses. The purpose of this investigation was to develop REGEMA (REliability GEneralization Meta-Analysis), a 30-item checklist (plus a flow chart) adapted to the specific issues that the reporting of an RG meta-analysis must take into account. Based on previous checklists and guidelines proposed in the meta-analytic arena, a first version was elaborated by applying the nominal group methodology. The resulting instrument was submitted to a list of independent meta-analysis experts and, after discussion, the final version of the REGEMA checklist was reached. In a pilot study, four pairs of coders applied REGEMA to a random sample of 40 RG meta-analyses in Psychology, and results showed satisfactory inter-coder reliability. REGEMA can be used by: (a) meta-analysts conducting or reporting an RG meta-analysis and aiming to improve its reporting quality; (b) consumers of RG meta-analyses who want to make informed critical appraisals of their reporting quality, and (c) reviewers and editors of journals who are considering submissions where an RG meta-analysis was reported for potential publication.

Development and psychometric assessment of the triage nurses' professional capability questionnaire in the emergency department

BACKGROUND

Evaluation of triage nurses' professional capability is integral to identifying potentials for professional development and nurses' educational needs, thus, there is a need for valid instruments to assess their professional capability. The present study was conducted to develop and measure the reliability and validity of a triage nurses' professional capability questionnaire.

METHODS

This exploratory research was conducted in two stages: in the first stage (the qualitative phase), the concept of professional capability in triage nurses was defined and the items of the questionnaire were developed through conventional content analysis. In the second stage (the quantitative phase), the psychometric properties of the questionnaire were assessed based on analyses of its face validity, content validity, construct validity, internal homogeneity, and consistency.

RESULTS

The initial item pool consisted of 90 items, while the final scale was comprised of 35 items. The S-CVI/Ave of the questionnaire was found to be 0.96.The exploratory factor analysis showed that the factor loading of the items was between 0.46-0.89, all of which were significant, and the three dimensions introduced in the main instrument were verified with acceptable values. The overall intraclass correlation coefficient of the instrument was calculated to be 0.90. The reliability of the instrument was assessed in terms of its internal homogeneity where the Cronbach's alpha of the whole instrument was found to be 0.89.

CONCLUSIONS

The results showed that the questionnaire developed for assessment of triage nurses' professional capability is sufficiently reliable and valid and can be employed by nurse administrators to evaluate triage nurses' professional capability.

Preventable admissions and emergency-department-visits in pediatric asylum-seeking and non-asylum-seeking patients

Background

Migrant health has become an essential part of public health. According to the World Health Organization, many health systems in Europe have not yet adapted adequately to the needs of asylum-seekers, which might result in untimely and inefficient health care for asylum-seeking patients. The aim of this study was to assess the number of preventable hospital admissions and emergency department visits in asylum-seeking and non-asylum-seeking pediatric patients.

Methods

This is a retrospective, hospital-based study. The study was done at the University Children’s Hospital Basel in Switzerland. Patients admitted or presenting to the emergency department were included and split into the groups of asylum-seeking and non-asylum-seeking patients.

All admissions and emergency-department visits were extracted from the administrative electronic health records from 1st Jan 2016-31st Dec 2017. The main outcome was the proportion of admissions due to ambulatory-care-sensitive conditions (which refer to conditions for which admission can be prevented by early interventions in primary care) in asylum-seeking and non-asylum-seeking patients. Ambulatory-care-sensitive conditions were defined by a validated list of ICD-10 codes.

The secondary objective was to assess the number of preventable emergency-department visits by asylum-seeking patients defined as proportion of visits with a non-urgent triage score.

Results

A total of 75′199 hospital visits were included, of which 63′405 were emergency department visits and 11′794 were admissions. Ambulatory-care-sensitive conditions accounted for 12.1% (18/149) of asylum-seeking and 10.9% (1270/11645) of non-asylum seeking patients’ admissions. Among the emergency department visits by asylum-seeking patients, non-urgent conditions accounted for 82.2% (244/297).

Conclusions

Admissions due to ambulatory-care-sensitive conditions are comparable in asylum-seeking and non-asylum-seeking children, suggesting few delayed presentations to ambulatory care facilities. Strategies to prevent non-urgent visits at pediatric emergency department facilities are needed.

The reliability and accuracy of operational system data in a nationwide helicopter emergency medical services mission database

AIM

The aim of this study was to evaluate the reliability and accuracy of documentation in FinnHEMS database, which is a nationwide helicopter emergency service (HEMS) clinical quality registry.

METHODS

This is a nationwide study based on written fictional clinical scenarios. Study subjects were HEMS physicians and paramedics, who filled in the clinical quality registry based on the clinical scenarios. The inter-rater -reliability of the collected data was analyzed with percent agreement and free-marginal multi-rater kappa.

RESULTS

Dispatch coding had a percent agreement of 91% and free-marginal multi-rater kappa value of 0.83. Coding for transportation or mission cancellation resulted in an agreement of 84% and free-marginal kappa value of 0.68. An agreement of 82% and a kappa value of 0.73 for dispatcher coding was found. Mission end, arrival at hospital and HEMS unit dispatch -times had agreements from 80 to 85% and kappa values from 0.61 to 0.73. The emergency call to dispatch centre time had an agreement of 71% and kappa value of 0.56. The documentation of pain had an agreement of 73% on both the first and second measurements. All other vital parameters had less than 70% agreement and 0.40 kappa value in the first measurement. The documentation of secondary vital parameter measurements resulted in agreements from 72 to 91% and kappa values from 0.43 to 0.64.

CONCLUSION

Data from HEMS operations can be gathered reliably in a national clinical quality registry. This study revealed some inaccuracies in data registration and data quality, which are important to detect to improve the overall reliability and validity of the HEMS clinical quality register.

Management of low back pain in Australian emergency departments

Background

To describe the diagnoses of people who present to the emergency department (ED) with low back pain (LBP), the proportion of people with a lumbar spine condition who arrived by ambulance, received imaging, opioids and were admitted to hospital; and to explore factors associated with these four outcomes.

Methods

In this retrospective study, we analysed electronic medical records for all adults presenting with LBP at three Australian EDs from January 2016 to June 2018. Outcomes included discharge diagnoses and key aspects of care (ambulance transport, lumbar spine imaging, provision of opioids, admission). We explored factors associated with these care outcomes using multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression models and reported data as ORs.

Results

There were 14 024 presentations with a ‘visit reason’ for low back pain, of which 6393 (45.6%) had a diagnosis of a lumbar spine condition. Of these, 31.4% arrived by ambulance, 23.6% received lumbar imaging, 69.6% received opioids and 17.6% were admitted to hospital. Older patients (OR 1.79, 95% CI 1.56 to 2.04) were more likely to be imaged. Opioids were less used during working hours (OR 0.81, 95% CI 0.67 to 0.98) and in patients with non-serious LBP compared with patients with serious spinal pathology (OR 1.65, 95% CI 1.07 to 2.55). Hospital admission was more likely to occur during working hours (OR 1.74, 95% CI 1.48 to 2.05) and for those who arrived by ambulance (OR 2.98, 95% CI 2.53 to 3.51).

Conclusion

Many ED presentations of LBP were not due to a lumbar spine condition. Of those that were, we noted relatively high rates of lumbar imaging, opioid use and hospital admission.

Evaluation of adult stroke presentations at an Emergency Department in Queensland Australia

BACKGROUND

Stroke is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity which places high demands on emergency departments (EDs). Currently there is limited data on stroke presentations to Australian EDs and the time performance management of these presentations. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate stroke presentations at an ED in Queensland, Australia in terms of demographics and time performance measures over a five year period.

METHODS

Retrospective analysis of ED presentations by patients ≥18 years with a final diagnosis of stroke between 1 July 2010 and 30 June 2015.

RESULTS

Over the five years there was a 51.4% increase in presentations diagnosed with stroke. The majority of these patients arrived by ambulance (71.0%) and were admitted (94.9%) with death in ED for 1.4% of presentations. From 2010 to 2015 for both haemorrhagic and ischaemic stroke there was a significant decrease in median LOS in ED (435 to 215 min, p < 0.05 and 451 to 238 min, p < 0.001 respectively) and in the proportion of patients in ED greater than four hours (82.4% to 44%, p < 0.05 and 92.4% to 45.8%,p < 0.0001 respectively).

CONCLUSION

Despite increased presentations of stroke, the ED improved in multiple time performance measures. Improving time-based targets in ED is particularly important for stroke presentations given the time critical nature of stroke management.

Triage in Australian emergency departments: Results of a New South Wales survey

AIM

To describe current models of triage, the preparation and education of triage nurses, and methods of auditing triage practice in New South Wales emergency departments.

BACKGROUND

Triage is a critical component of emergency department practice; affecting patient safety and access to emergency care. Within Australia, triage is an autonomous role predominantly conducted by trained emergency nurses. Patient safety and timely access to emergency care relies upon the experience, education and training of emergency triage nurses. To date, little is known about triage models of care, the preparation and education of triage nurses, and assessment of triage practice and decision accuracy.

METHOD

Descriptive, exploratory study design employing a self-reporting cross-sectional survey of clinical nurse consultants and educators in New South Wales.

RESULTS

The survey results reveal variability in models of triage, and the eligibility, preparation and education requirements of triage nurses; that appear geographically related. Auditing of triage practice was commonly undertaken retrospectively; feedback to triage nurses was infrequent. The survey found evidence of locally developed guidelines directing triage category allocation for specific conditions or symptoms.

CONCLUSION

The purpose of triage is to ensure that the level of emergency care provided is commensurate with clinical urgency. Variability in the preparation, education and evaluation of triage nurses may in and of itself, contribute to poor patient outcomes. Further, workforce size and geography may impede auditing and the provision of feedback, which are critical to improving triage practice and triage nurse performance. It is imperative that the Emergency Triage Education Kit be revised and maintained in tandem with future revisions of the Australasian Triage Scale.

Reliability of triage systems for paediatric emergency care: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To present a systematic review on the reliability of triage systems for paediatric emergency care.

METHODS

A search of MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature, Scientific Electronic Library Online, Nursing Database Index and Spanish Health Sciences Bibliographic Index for articles in English, French, Portuguese or Spanish was conducted to identify reliability studies of five-level triage systems for patients aged 0-18 years published up to April 2018. Two reviewers performed study selection, data extraction and quality assessment as recommended by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement.

RESULTS

Twenty studies on nine triage systems were selected: the National Triage System (n=1); the Australasian Triage Scale (n=3); the paediatric Canadian Triage and Acuity Scale (PedCTAS) (n=5); the Manchester Triage System (MTS) (n=1); the Emergency Severity Index (ESI) (n=5); an adaptation of the South African Triage Scale for the Princess Marina Hospital in Botswana (n=1); the Soterion Rapid Triage System (n=1); the Rapid Emergency Triage and Treatment System-paediatric version (n=2); the Paediatric Risk Classification Protocol (n=1). Ten studies were performed with actual patients, while the others used hypothetical scenarios. The studies were rated low (n=14) or moderate (n=6) quality. Kappa was the most used statistic, although many studies did not specify the weighting. PedCTAS, MTS and ESI V.4 exhibited substantial to almost perfect agreement in moderate quality studies.

CONCLUSIONS

There is some evidence on the reliability of the PedCTAS, MTS and ESI V.4, but most studies are limited to the countries where they were developed. Efforts are needed to improve the quality of the studies, and cross-cultural adaptation of those tools is recommended in countries with different professional qualification and sociocultural contexts.

A review of triage accuracy and future direction

BACKGROUND

In the emergency department, it is important to identify and prioritize who requires an urgent intervention in a short time. Triage helps recognize the urgency among patients. An accurate triage decision helps patients receive the emergency service in the most appropriate time. Various triage systems have been developed and verified to assist healthcare providers to make accurate triage decisions. The triage accuracy can represent the quality of emergency service, but there is a lack of review studies addressing this topic.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted in four electronic databases where 'emergency nursing' and 'triage accuracy' were used as keywords. Studies published from 2008 January to 2018 August were included as potential subjects. Nine studies were included in this review after the inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied.

RESULTS

Written case scenarios and retrospective review were commonly used to examine the triage accuracy. The triage accuracy from studies was in moderate level. The single-center studies which held better results than those from multi-center studies revealed the need of triage training and consistent training between emergency departments.

CONCLUSIONS

Regular refresher triage training, collaboration between emergency departments and continuous monitoring were necessary to strengthen the use of triage systems and improve nurse's triage performance.

Reliability of the revised Swiss Emergency Triage Scale: a computer simulation study

Background

The Swiss Emergency Triage Scale (SETS) is a four-level emergency scale that previously showed moderate reliability and high rates of undertriage due to a lack of standardization. It was revised to better standardize the measurement and interpretation of vital signs during the triage process.

Objective

The aim of this study was to explore the inter-rater and test–retest reliability, and the rate of correct triage of the revised SETS.

Patients and methods

Thirty clinical scenarios were evaluated twice at a 3-month interval using an interactive computerized triage simulator by 58 triage nurses at an urban teaching emergency department admitting 60 000 patients a year. Inter-rater and test–retest reliabilities were determined using κ statistics. Triage decisions were compared with a gold standard attributed by an expert panel. Rates of correct triage, undertriage, and overtriage were computed. A logistic regression model was used to identify the predictors of correct triage.

Results

A total of 3387 triage situations were analyzed. Inter-rater reliability showed substantial agreement [mean κ: 0.68; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.60–0.78] and test–retest almost perfect agreement (mean κ: 0.86; 95% CI: 0.84–0.88). The rate of correct triage was 84.1%, and rates of undertriage and overtriage were 7.2 and 8.7%, respectively. Vital sign measurement was an independent predictor of correct triage (odds ratios for correct triage: 1.29 for each additional vital sign measured, 95% CI: 1.20–1.39).

Conclusion

The revised SETS incorporating standardized vital sign measurement and interpretation during the triage process resulted in high reliability and low rates of mistriage.

Initial assessment, level of care and outcome among children who were seen by emergency medical services: a prospective observational study

Background

The assessment of children in the Emergency Medical Service (EMS) is infrequent representing 5.4% of the patients in an urban area in the western part of Sweden. In Sweden, patients are assessed on scene by an EMS nurse whom independently decides on interventions and level of care. To aid the EMS nurse in the assessment a triage instrument, Rapid Emergency Triage and Treatment System-paediatrics (RETTS-p) developed for Emergency Department (ED) purpose has been in use the last 5 years. The aim of this study was to evaluate the EMS nurse assessment, management, the utilisation of RETTS-p and patient outcome.

Methods

A prospective, observational study was performed on 651 children aged < 16 years from January to December 2016. Statistical tests used in the study were Mann-Whitney U test, Fisher’s exact test and Spearman’s rank statistics.

Results

The dispatch centre indexed life-threatening priority in 69% of the missions but, of all children, only 6.1% were given a life threatening RETTS-p red colour by the EMS nurse. A total of 69.7% of the children were transported to the ED and, of these, 31.7% were discharged without any interventions. Among the non-conveyed patients, 16 of 197 (8.1%) visited the ED within 72 h but only two were hospitalised. Full triage, including five out of five vital signs measurements and an emergency severity index, was conducted in 37.6% of all children. A triage colour was not present in 146 children (22.4%), of which the majority were non-conveyed. The overall 30-day mortality rate was 0.8% (n = 5) in children 0–15 years.

Conclusions

Despite the incomplete use of all vital signs according to the RETTS-p, the EMS nurse assessment of children appears to be adapted to the clinical situation in most cases and the patients appear to be assessed to the appropriate level of care but indicating an over triage. It seems that the RETTS-p with full triage is used selectively in the pre-hospital assessment of children with a risk of death during the first 30 days of less than 1%.

CONCORDÂNCIA DE UM PROTOCOLO INSTITUCIONAL DE AVALIAÇÃO COM CLASSIFICAÇÃO DE RISCO

RESUMO Objetivo: avaliar a concordância entre os enfermeiros na aplicação de um protocolo institucional de avaliação com classificação de risco em uma unidade de emergência hospitalar. Método: estudo quantitativo de abordagem transversal e retrospectivo, realizado na unidade de emergência adulto de um hospital geral do Estado de Santa Catarina, baseado em fichas de atendimento. A coleta de dados ocorreu entre outubro e dezembro de 2013. A amostra fora constituída de 380 fichas de atendimento, selecionadas por aleatorização simples. O grau de concordância se determinou pelo coeficiente Kappa. Resultados: a concordância geral entre os enfermeiros na aplicação do protocolo institucional foi substancial (Kappa=0,786) representando 331 (87,2%) fichas. Entre os níveis de classificação houve concordância quase perfeita para todos eles (Kappa=1 para o nível vermelho, Kappa=0,836 para o nível laranja, Kappa=0,884 para o nível amarelo, Kappa=0,865 para o nível verde e Kappa=1 para o nível azul). Conclusão: a concordância geral na aplicação do protocolo institucional se mostrou substancial, sendo evidenciada uma concordância quase perfeita em todos os níveis de classificação. Houve superestimação e subestimação da classificação de risco em relação ao protocolo. Sugere-se que os enfermeiros que realizam a classificação de risco recebam treinamento por parte da instituição quanto à aplicabilidade do protocolo, a fim de minimizar a superestimação e subestimação da classificação de risco. Este trabalho contribui ao avaliar a aplicação de um protocolo novo implantado, com subsídios para uma melhor concordância na sua implementação por enfermeiros.

Prognostic performance of Emergency Severity Index (ESI) combined with qSOFA score

OBJECTIVE

We conducted this study to investigate whether ESI combined with qSOFA score (ESI+qSOFA) predicts hospital outcome better than ESI alone in the emergency department (ED).

METHODS

This was a retrospective study for patients aged over 15years who visited an ED of a tertiary referral hospital from January 1st, 2015 to December 31st, 2015. We calculated and compared predictive performances of ESI alone and ESI+qSOFA for prespecified outcomes. The primary outcome was hospital mortality, and the secondary outcome was composite outcome of in-hospital mortality and ICU admission. We calculated in-hospital mortality rates by positive qSOFA in each subgroup divided according to ESI levels (1, 2, 3, 4+5).

RESULTS

43,748 patients were enrolled. The area under receiver-operating characteristics curves were higher in ESI+qSOFA than in ESI alone for both mortality and composite outcome (0.786 vs. 0.777, P<.001 for mortality; 0.778 vs. 0.774, P<.001 for composite outcome). In each subgroup divided by ESI levels, patients with positive qSOFA had significantly higher in-hospital mortality rate compared to those with negative qSOFA (20.4% vs. 14.7%, P=.117 in ESI level 1 subgroup; 11.3% vs. 2.7%, P=.001 in ESI level 2 subgroup; 2.3% vs. 0.4%, P<.001 in ESI level 3 subgroup; 0.0% vs. 0.0% in ESI level 4 or 5 subgroup).

CONCLUSION

The prognostic performance of ESI+qSOFA for in-hospital mortality was significantly higher than that of ESI alone. Within each subgroup, patients with positive qSOFA had higher in-hospital mortality compared to those with negative qSOFA.

Reliability and performance of the Swiss Emergency Triage Scale used by paramedics

Objectives

No general emergency department triage scale has been evaluated for prehospital triage. The objective of this study was to evaluate the reliability and the performance of the Swiss Emergency Triage Scale (SETS) used by paramedics to determine the emergency level and orientation of simulated patients.

Patients and methods

In a prospective cross-sectional study, 23 paramedics evaluated 28 clinical scenarios with the SETS using interactive computerized triage software simulating real-life triage. The primary outcome was inter-rater reliability regarding the triage level among participants measured by intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). Secondary outcomes were the accuracy of triage level and the reliability and accuracy of orientation of patients of at least 75 years to a dedicated geriatric emergency centre.

Results

Twenty-three paramedics completed the evaluation of the 28 scenarios (644 triage decisions). Overall, ICC for triage level was 0.84 (95% confidence interval: 0.77–0.99). Correct emergency level was assigned in 89% of cases, overtriage rate was 4.8%, and undertriage was 6.2%. ICC regarding orientation in the subgroup of simulated patients of at least 75 years was 0.76 (95% confidence interval: 0.61–0.89), with 93% correct orientation.

Conclusion

Reliability of paramedics rating simulated emergency situations using the SETS was excellent, and the accuracy of their rating was very high. This suggests that in Switzerland, the SETS could be safely used in the prehospital setting by paramedics to determine the level of emergency and guide patients to the most appropriate hospital.

The reliability of the Manchester Triage System (MTS): a meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Although the Manchester Triage System (MTS) was first developed two decades ago, the reliability of the MTS has not been questioned through comparison with a moderating variable; therefore, the aim of this study is to determine the extent of the reliability of MTS using a meta-analytic review.

METHOD

Electronic databases were searched up to 1 March 2014. Studies were only included if they had reported sample sizes, reliability coefficients, and adequate description of the reliability assessment. The Guidelines for Reporting Reliability and Agreement Studies was used. Two reviewers independently examined abstracts and extracted data. The effect size was obtained by the z-transformation of reliability coefficients. Data were pooled with random-effects models, and meta-regression was performed based on the method-of-moments estimator.

RESULTS

Seven studies were included. The pooled coefficient for the MTS was substantial at 0.751 (CI 95%: 0.677 to 0.810); the incidence of mistriage is greater than 50%. Agreement is higher for the latest version of MTS (for adults) among nurse-experts and in countries in closer proximity to the country of MTS origin (the UK, in Manchester) than for the oldest (pediatric) version, nurse-nurse raters, and countries at a greater distance from the UK.

CONCLUSION

The MTS showed an acceptable level of overall reliability in the emergency department, but more development is required to attain almost perfect agreement.

Recognizing Sudden Cardiac Arrest May Require More Than Two Questions during Telephone Triage: Developing a Complementary Checklist

OBJECTIVE

To develop decision-support tools to identify patients experiencing sudden cardiac arrest (SCA).

METHODS

Eighty calls related to SCA were content analyzed, and the contextual patterns that emerged were organized into a checklist. Two researchers independently analyzed the recorded calls and compared their findings. Eighteen dispatchers scored 20 cases (which included SCA and non-SCA cases) both with and without the checklist. Correct responses for each case and agreement among dispatchers have been reported.

RESULTS

Eighty audio files (total time, 96 min) were analyzed, and a total of 602 codes were extracted from the text and recordings. The caller's tone of voice and presence or absence of background voices, calling for an ambulance and giving the dispatcher the address promptly, and description of the primary complaint and respirations accounted for 38%, 39%, and 23% of all codes, respectively. A 15-item complementary checklist has been developed. The mean percentages of correct responses were 66.9%+27.96% prior to the use of checklist and 80.05%+10.84% afterwards. Results of the independent t test for checklist scores showed that statistically significant differences were present between the SCA and non-SCA cases (t=5.88, df=18, p=0.000).

CONCLUSION

Decision support tools can potentially increase the recognition rate of SCA cases, and therefore produce a higher rate of dispatcher-directed CPR.

Inter-rater reliability between nurses for a new paediatric triage system based primarily on vital parameters: the Paediatric Triage Instrument (PETI)

INTRODUCTION

The major paediatric triage systems are primarily based on flow charts involving signs and symptoms for orientation and subjective estimates of the patient's condition. In contrast, the 4-level Paediatric Triage Instrument (PETI) is primarily based on vital parameters and was developed exclusively for paediatric triage in patients with medical symptoms. The aim of this study was to assess the inter-rater reliability of this triage system in children when used by nurses.

METHODS

A design was employed in which triage was performed simultaneously and independently by a research nurse and an emergency department (ED) nurse using the PETI. All patients aged ≤12 years who presented at the ED with a medical symptom were considered eligible for participation.

RESULTS

The 89 participants exhibited a median age of 2 years and were triaged by 28 different nurses. The inter-rater reliability between nurses calculated with the quadratic-weighted κ was 0.78 (95% CI 0.67 to 0.89); the linear-weighted κ was 0.67 (95% CI 0.56 to 0.80) and the unweighted κ was 0.59 (95% CI 0.44 to 0.73). For the patients aged <1, 1-3 and >3 years, the quadratic-weighted κ values were 0.67 (95% CI 0.39 to 0.94), 0.86 (95% CI 0.75 to 0.97) and 0.73 (95% CI 0.49 to 0.97), respectively. The median triage duration was 6 min.

CONCLUSIONS

The PETI exhibited substantial reliability when used in children aged ≤12 years and almost perfect reliability among children aged 1-3 years. Moreover, rapid application of the PETI was demonstrated. This study has some limitations, including sample size and generalisability, but the PETI exhibited promise regarding reliability, and the next step could be either a larger reliability study or a validation study.

Validation of different pediatric triage systems in the emergency department

BACKGROUND

Triage system in children seems to be more challenging compared to adults because of their different response to physiological and psychosocial stressors. This study aimed to determine the best triage system in the pediatric emergency department.

METHODS

This was a prospective observational study. This study was divided into two phases. The first phase determined the inter-rater reliability of five triage systems: Manchester Triage System (MTS), Emergency Severity Index (ESI) version 4, Pediatric Canadian Triage and Acuity Scale (CTAS), Australasian Triage Scale (ATS), and Ramathibodi Triage System (RTS) by triage nurses and pediatric residents. In the second phase, to analyze the validity of each triage system, patients were categorized as two groups, i.e., high acuity patients (triage level 1, 2) and low acuity patients (triage level 3, 4, and 5). Then we compared the triage acuity with actual admission.

RESULTS

In phase I, RTS illustrated almost perfect inter-rater reliability with kappa of 1.0 (P<0.01). ESI and CTAS illustrated good inter-rater reliability with kappa of 0.8-0.9 (P<0.01). Meanwhile, ATS and MTS illustrated moderate to good inter-rater reliability with kappa of 0.5-0.7 (P<0.01). In phase II, we included 1 041 participants with average age of 4.7±4.2 years, of which 55% were male and 45% were female. In addition 32% of the participants had underlying diseases, and 123 (11.8%) patients were admitted. We found that ESI illustrated the most appropriate predicting ability for admission with sensitivity of 52%, specificity of 81%, and AUC 0.78 (95%CI 0.74-0.81).

CONCLUSION

RTS illustrated almost perfect inter-rater reliability. Meanwhile, ESI and CTAS illustrated good inter-rater reliability. Finally, ESI illustrated the appropriate validity for triage system.

The Influential Factor Analysis of Classification Partition Management Mode on the Emergency Triage

BACKGROUND

The aim of the study was to discuss on the influential factors of the mode of classification of partition management in the emergency triage.

METHOD

Retrospectively analyzing the effects of emergency triage of 156 cases who adopted the classification partition management mode during Oct 2014 to Oct 2015 in Xuzhou Central Hospital (Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, China). They were divided into triage success group of 108 cases and triage failure group of 48 cases. Comparing the single factor analysis and multi-factor analysis, and selecting possible influential factors.

RESULT

According to the single factor analysis, for the patients who came to the doctor in the daytime and working days, the higher education degree and compliance they had, the faster the back-show time of emergency inspect and check came back, the more comprehensive the body examination and disease history taking were done, the simpler the disease condition was, the higher triage success rate they received. Compared to the emergency observation time between two groups, the difference was not statistically significant. According to the multi-factor analysis, the emergency check and examination back-show time, the comprehensive degree of body examination and disease history taking and the complexity degree of disease could be the independent risk factors for triage success.

CONCLUSION

Simplify the examination procedure, improve the efficiency of back-show and acquire detail disease information are important methods for the improvement of triage success.

The Role Descriptions of Triage Nurse in Emergency Department: A Delphi Study

Background. Triage nurses play a pivotal role in the emergency department. However some researchers have attempted to expand triage nurse's role; remarkable discrepancies exist among scholarly communities. The aim was to develop a role description of triage nurse relying on the experts. Methods. A modified Delphi study consisting of 3 rounds was performed from March to October 2014. In the first round, an extensive review of the literature was conducted. Expert selection was conducted through a purposeful sample of 38 emergency medicine experts. Results. Response rates for the second and third rounds were 37% and 58%. Average age of panelists was (38.42 ± 5.94) years. Thirty-nine out of 54 items reached to the final round. Prioritizing had the higher agreement rate and least agreement on triage related interventions. Conclusion. Triage nursing as a relatively new role for nurses needs significant development to be practiced. Comprehensive educational programs and developmental research are required to support diagnostic and therapeutic interventions in triage practice by nurses.

Statewide retrospective study of low acuity emergency presentations in New South Wales, Australia: who, what, where and why?

OBJECTIVE

The present study aims to use a statewide population-based registry to assess the prevalence of low acuity emergency department (ED) presentations, describe the trend in presentation rates and to determine whether they were associated with various presentation characteristics such as the type of hospital as well as clinical and demographic variables.

DESIGN AND SETTING

This was a retrospective analysis of a population-based registry of ED presentations in New South Wales (NSW). Generalised estimating equations with log links were used to determine factors associated with low acuity presentations to account for repeat presentations and the possibility of clustering of outcomes.

PARTICIPANTS

Patients were included in this analysis if they presented to an ED between January 2010 and December 2014. The outcomes of interest were low acuity presentation, defined as those who self-presented (were not transported by ambulance), were assigned a triage category of 4 or 5 (semiurgent or non-urgent) and discharged back to usual residence from ED.

RESULTS

There were 10.7 million ED presentations analysed. Of these, 45% were classified as a low acuity presentation. There was no discernible increase in the rate of low acuity presentations across NSW between 2010 and 2014. The strongest predictors of low acuity ED presentation were age <40 years of age (OR 1.77); injury or musculoskeletal administrative and non-urgent procedures (OR 2.96); ear, nose and throat, eye or oral (OR 5.53); skin or allergy-type presenting problems (OR 2.84).

CONCLUSIONS

Low acuity ED presentations comprise almost half of all ED presentations. Alternative emergency models of care may help meet the needs of these patients.