Saikosaponin A Protects From Pressure Overload-Induced Cardiac Fibrosis via Inhibiting Fibroblast Activation or Endothelial Cell EndMT

Molecular mechanism of triptolide in myocardial fibrosis through the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

Objective. Myocardial fibrosis (MF) is a common manifestation of end-stage cardiovascular diseases. Triptolide (TP) provides protection against cardiovascular diseases. This study was to explore the functional mechanism of TP in MF rats via the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Methods. The MF rat model was established via subcutaneous injection of isoproterenol (ISO) and treated with low/medium/high doses of TP (L-TP/M-TP/H-TP) or Wnt agonist BML-284. Cardiac function was examined by echocardiography. Pathological changes of myocardial tissues were observed by HE and Masson staining. Col-I/Col-III/Vimentin/α-SMA levels were detected by immunohistochemistry, RT-qPCR, and Western blot. Collagen volume fraction content was measured. Expression levels of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway-related proteins (β-catenin/c-myc/Cyclin D1) were detected by Western blot. Rat cardiac fibroblasts were utilized for in vitro validation experiments. Results. MF rats had enlarged left ventricle, decreased systolic and diastolic function and cardiac dysfunction, elevated collagen fiber distribution, collagen volume fraction and hydroxyproline content. Levels of Col-I/Col-III/Vimentin/α-SMA, and protein levels of β-catenin/c-myc/Cyclin D1 were increased in MF rats. The Wnt/β-catenin pathway was activated in the myocardial tissues of MF rats. TP treatment alleviated impairments of cardiac function and myocardial tissuepathological injury, decreased collagen fibers, collagen volume fraction, Col-I, Col-III, α-SMA and Vimentin levels, HYP content, inhibited Wnt/β-catenin pathway, with H-TP showing the most significant effects. Wnt agonist BML-284 antagonized the inhibitive effect of TP on MF. TP inhibited the Wnt/β-catenin pathway to repress the proliferation and differentiation of mouse cardiac fibroblasts in vitro. Conclusions. TP was found to ameliorate ISO-induced MF in rats by inhibiting the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.

Pentacyclic triterpenes, potential novel therapeutic approaches for cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) involve dysfunction of the heart and blood vessels and have become major health concerns worldwide. Multiple mechanisms may be involved in the occurrence and development of CVDs. Although therapies for CVDs are constantly being developed and applied, the incidence and mortality of CVDs remain high. The roles of natural compounds in CVD treatment are being explored, providing new approaches for the treatment of CVD. Pentacyclic triterpenes are natural compounds with a basic nucleus of 30 carbon atoms, and they have been widely studied for their potential applications in the treatment of CVDs, to which various pharmacological activities contribute, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antitumor effects. This review introduces the roles of triterpenoids in the prevention and treatment of CVDs, summarizes their potential underlying mechanisms, and provides a comprehensive overview of the therapeutic potential of triterpenoids in the management of CVDs.

Paris polyphylla ethanol extract and polyphyllin I ameliorate adenomyosis by inhibiting epithelial-mesenchymal transition

BACKGROUND

The active ingredients of the Chinese medical herb Paris polyphylla, P. polyphylla ethanol extract (PPE) and polyphyllin I (PPI), potentially inhibit epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in tumors. However, the roles of these ingredients in inhibiting EMT in adenomyosis (AM) remain to be explored.

PURPOSE

The primary goal of the study was to uncover the underlying molecular processes through which PPE and PPI suppress EMT in AM, alongside assessing the safety profiles of these substances.

METHODS

To assess the suppressive impact of PPE on adenomyosis-derived cells (AMDCs), we employed Transwell and wound healing assays. The polyphyllins (PPI, PPII, PPVII) contained in PPE were characterized using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Then, bioinformatics techniques were performed to pinpoint potential PPI targets that could be effective in treating AM. Immunoblotting was used to verify the key proteins and pathways identified via bioinformatics. Furthermore, we examined the efficacy of PPE and PPI in treating Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) mice with AM by observing the morphological and pathological features of the uterus and performing immunohistochemistry. In addition, we assessed safety by evaluating liver, kidney and spleen pathologic features and serum test results.

RESULTS

Three major polyphyllins of PPE were revealed by HPLC, and PPI had the highest concentration. In vitro experiments indicated that PPE and PPI effectively prevent AMDCs invasion and migration. Bioinformatics revealed that the primary targets E-cadherin, N-cadherin and TGFβ1, as well as the EMT biological process, were enriched in PPI-treated AM. Immunoblotting assays corroborated the hypothesis that PPE and PPI suppress the TGFβ1/Smad2/3 pathway in AMDCs to prevent EMT from progressing. Additionally, in vivo studies showed that PPE (3 mg/kg and 6 mg/kg) and PPI (3 mg/kg and 6 mg/kg), successfully suppressed the EMT process through targeting the TGFβ1/Smad2/3 signaling pathway. Besides, it was observed that lower doses of PPE (3 mg/kg) and PPI (3 mg/kg) exerted minimal effects on the liver, kidneys, and spleen.

CONCLUSIONS

PPE and PPI efficiently impede the development of EMT by inhibiting the TGFβ1/Smad2/3 pathway, revealing an alternative pathway for the pharmacological treatment of AM.

Tectorigenin protects against cardiac fibrosis in diabetic mice heart via activating the adiponectin receptor 1-mediated AMPK pathway

Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a common severe complication of diabetes that occurs independently of hypertension, coronary artery disease, and valvular cardiomyopathy, eventually leading to heart failure. Previous studies have reported that Tectorigenin (TEC) possesses extensive anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative stress properties. In this present study, the impact of TEC on diabetic cardiomyopathy was examined. The model of DCM in mice was established with the combination of a high-fat diet and STZ treatment. Remarkably, TEC treatment significantly attenuated cardiac fibrosis and improved cardiac dysfunction. Concurrently, TEC was also found to mitigate hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia in the DCM mouse. At the molecular level, TEC is involved in the activation of AMPK, both in vitro and in vivo, by enhancing its phosphorylation. This is achieved through the regulation of endothelial-mesenchymal transition via the AMPK/TGFβ/Smad3 pathway. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the level of ubiquitination of the adiponectin receptor 1 (AdipoR1) protein is associated with TEC-mediated improvement of cardiac dysfunction in DCM mice. Notably the substantial reduction of myocardial fibrosis. In conclusion, TEC improves cardiac fibrosis in DCM mice by modulating the AdipoR1/AMPK signaling pathway. These findings suggest that TEC could be an effective therapeutic agent for the treatment of diabetic cardiomyopathy.

Dachengqi decoction ameliorates sepsis-induced liver injury by inhibiting the TGF-β1/Smad3 pathways

Background

Sepsis-induced acute liver injury (ALI) is a major contributor to mortality in septic patients. Exploring the pathogenesis and developing effective treatment strategies for sepsis-induced ALI is critical for improving patient outcomes. Dachengqi decoction (DCQD), which is a classic Chinese herbal medicine, has been shown to possess potent anti-inflammatory properties. However, the protective effects and underlying mechanisms of DCQD against sepsis-induced ALI remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the protective effect of DCQD on sepsis-induced ALI and elucidate the involvement of the TGF-1β/Smad3 pathways.

Methods

A septic mouse model was established using caecal ligation and puncture (CLP) to evaluate the protective effect of DCQD on sepsis-induced ALI in vivo. An in vitro cellular inflammation model was established using LPS-stimulated LO2 cells to further investigate the underlying mechanism.

Results

DCQD (2.5, 5.0, and 10.0 g/kg body weight) was administered twice daily for 2 days and exerted a dose-dependent protective effect against sepsis-induced ALI. DCQD treatment significantly inhibited inappropriate inflammatory responses and oxidative stress in liver tissue. Moreover, DCQD maintained liver homeostasis by inhibiting hepatocyte apoptosis and improving sepsis-induced liver damage. In vivo and in vitro studies indicated that the TGF-β1/Smad3 signalling pathway played an important role in sepsis-induced ALI, and DCQD treatment significantly inhibited the activation of this pathway.

Conclusions

DCQD can effectively suppress excessive inflammatory responses and oxidative stress, leading to a substantial reduction in hepatocyte apoptosis in sepsis-induced ALI.

Triptolide attenuates cardiac remodeling by inhibiting pyroptosis and EndMT via modulating USP14/Keap1/Nrf2 pathway

Background

Cardiac remodeling is a common pathological feature in many cardiac diseases, characterized by cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis. Triptolide (TP) is a natural compound derived from Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F. However, the related mechanism of it in cardiac remodeling has not been fully understood.

Methods and results

Transverse aortic constriction (TAC)-induced cardiac hypertrophic mouse model and angiotensin II (Ang II)-induced cardiomyocytes hypertrophic model were performed. Firstly, the results indicate that TP can improve cardiac function, decreased cardiomyocyte surface area and fibrosis area, as well as lowered the protein expressions of brain natriuretic peptide (BNP), β-major histocompatibility complex (β-MHC), type I and III collagen (Col I and III). Secondly, TP suppressed cardiac pyroptosis, and decreased the levels of Interleukin-1β (IL-1β), Interleukin-18 (IL-18) by Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and pyroptosis-associated proteins. Furthermore, TP enhanced the expressions of Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and Heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1). Interestingly, when Nrf2 was silenced by siRNA, TP lost its properties of reducing pyroptosis and cardiac hypertrophy. In addition, in the Transforming Growth Factor β1 (TGF-β1)-induced primary human coronary artery endothelial cells (HCAEC) model, TP was found to inhibit the process of endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT), characterized by the loss of endothelial-specific markers and the gain of mesenchymal markers. This was accompanied by a suppression of Slug, Snail, and Twist expression. Meanwhile, the inhibitory effect of TP on EndMT was weakened when Nrf2 was silenced by siRNA. Lastly, potential targets of TP were identified through network pharmacology analysis, and found that Ubiquitin-Specific Protease 14 (USP14) was one of them. Simultaneously, the data indicated that decrease the upregulation of USP14 and Kelch-like ECH-Associated Protein 1 (Keap1) caused by cardiac remodeling. However, Keap1 was decreased and Nrf2 was increased when USP14 was silenced. Furthermore, CoIP analysis showed that USP14 directly interacts with Keap1.

Conclusion

TP can observably reduce pyroptosis and EndMT by targeting the USP14/Keap1/Nrf2 pathway, thereby significantly attenuating cardiac remodeling.

Bupleurum exerts antiarrhythmic effects by inhibiting L-type calcium channels in mouse ventricular myocytes

BACKGROUND

Bupleurum (Bup), is a traditional effective medicine to treat colds and fevers in clinics. Multiple studies have demonstrated that Bup exhibites various biological activities, including cardioprotective effects, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antipyretic, antimicrobial, and antiviral effects, etc. Currently, the effects of Bup on cardiac electrophysiology have not been reported yet.

METHODS

Electrocardiogram recordings were used to investigate the effects of Bup on aconitine-induced arrhythmias. Patch-clamp techniques were used to explore the effects of Bup on APs and ion currents.

RESULTS

Bup reduced the incidence of ventricular fibrillation (VF) and delayed the onset time of ventricular tachycardia (VT) in mice. Additionally, Bup (40 mg/mL) suppressed DADs induced by high-Ca2+ and shortened action potential duration at 50 % completion of repolarization (APD50) and action potential duration at 90 % completion of repolarization (APD90) to 60.89 % ± 8.40 % and 68.94 % ± 3.24 % of the control, respectively. Moreover, Bup inhibited L-type calcium currents (ICa.L) in a dose-dependent manner, with an IC50 value of 25.36 mg/mL. Furthermore, Bup affected the gated kinetics of L-type calcium channels by slowing down steady-state activation, accelerating the steady-state inactivation, and delaying the inactivation-recovery process. However, Bup had no effects on the Transient sodium current (INa.T), ATX II-increased late sodium current (INa.L), transient outward current (Ito), delayed rectifier potassium current (IK), or inward rectifier potassium current (IK1).

CONCLUSION

Bup is an antiarrhythmic agent that may exert its antiarrhythmic effects by inhibiting L-type calcium channels.

Antitumor mechanism of Saikosaponin A in the Xiaoying Sanjie Decoction for treatment of anaplastic thyroid cancer by network pharmacology analysis and experiments in vitro and in vivo

Effective therapies for anaplastic thyroid cancer (ATC) are still limited due to its dedifferentiated phenotype and high invasiveness. Xiaoying Sanjie Decoction (XYSJD), a clinically empirical Chinese medicine compound, has shown positive effects for ATC treatment and recovery. However, the pharmacological mechanisms of effective active compound in XYSJD remain unclear. In this study, we aimed at elucidating the antitumor mechanism of the active compound and identifying the kernel molecular mechanisms of XYSJD against ATC. Firstly, the main chemical constituents of XYSJD were identified by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS). Then we used network pharmacology and ClusterONE algorithm to analyze the possible targets and pathways of the prescription and active compound Saikosaponin A (SSA). Seven core targets, including P2RY12, PDK1, PPP1CC, PPP2CA, TBK1, ITGB1 and ITGB6, which may be involved in the anti-tumor activity of XYSJD were screened. Finally, using cell biology, molecular biology and experimental zoology techniques, we investigated the mechanism of active compound SSA in the treatment of ATC. The results of qRT-PCR indicated that these seven nuclear targets might play an important role in SSA, the active compound of XYSJD. The combined data provide preliminary study of the pharmacological mechanisms of SSA in XYSJD. SSA may be a promising potential therapeutic and chemopreventive candidate for ATC.

Saikosaponin A protects against uremic toxin indole‑3 acetic acid‑induced damage to the myocardium

Chronic kidney disease (CKD)‑associated cardiac injury is a common complication in patients with CKD. Indole‑3 acetic acid (IAA) is a uremic toxin that injures the cardiovascular system. Saikosaponin A (SSA) protects against pressure overload‑induced cardiac fibrosis. However, the role and molecular mechanisms of IAA and SSA in CKD‑associated cardiac injury remain unclear. The present study investigated the effects of IAA and SSA on CKD‑associated cardiac injury in neonatal mouse cardiomyocytes and a mouse model of CKD. The expression of tripartite motif‑containing protein 16 (Trim16), receptor interacting protein kinase 2 (RIP2) and phosphorylated‑p38 were assessed using western blotting. The ubiquitination of RIP2 was measured by coimmunoprecipitation, and mouse cardiac structure and function were evaluated using hematoxylin and eosin staining and echocardiography. The results demonstrated that, SSA inhibited IAA‑induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, upregulated Trim16 expression, downregulated RIP2 expression and decreased p38 phosphorylation. Furthermore, Trim16 mediated SSA‑induced degradation of RIP2 by ubiquitination. In a mouse model of IAA‑induced CKD‑associated cardiac injury, SSA upregulated the protein expression levels of Trim16 and downregulated those of RIP2. Moreover, SSA alleviated heart hypertrophy and diastolic dysfunction in IAA‑treated mice. Taken together, these results suggest that SSA is a protective agent against IAA‑induced CKD‑associated cardiac injury and that Trim16‑mediated ubiquitination‑related degradation of RIP2 and p38 phosphorylation may contribute to the development of CKD‑associated cardiac injury.

Mechanism of action of non-coding RNAs and traditional Chinese medicine in myocardial fibrosis: Focus on the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway

Cardiac fibrosis is a serious public health problem worldwide that is closely linked to progression of many cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and adversely affects both the disease process and clinical prognosis. Numerous studies have shown that the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway plays a key role in the progression of cardiac fibrosis. Therefore, targeted inhibition of the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway may be a therapeutic measure for cardiac fibrosis. Currently, as the investigation on non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) move forward, a variety of ncRNAs targeting TGF-β and its downstream Smad proteins have attracted high attention. Besides, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has been widely used in treating the cardiac fibrosis. As more and more molecular mechanisms of natural products, herbal formulas, and proprietary Chinese medicines are revealed, TCM has been proven to act on cardiac fibrosis by modulating multiple targets and signaling pathways, especially the TGF-β/Smad. Therefore, this work summarizes the roles of TGF-β/Smad classical and non-classical signaling pathways in the cardiac fibrosis, and discusses the recent research advances in ncRNAs targeting the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway and TCM against cardiac fibrosis. It is hoped, in this way, to give new insights into the prevention and treatment of cardiac fibrosis.

Drug delivery targets and strategies to address mast cell diseases

INTRODUCTION

Current and developing mast cell therapeutics are reliant on small molecule drugs and biologics, but few are truly selective for mast cells. Most have cellular and disease-specific limitations that require innovation to overcome longstanding challenges to selectively targeting and modulating mast cell behavior. This review is designed to serve as a frame of reference for new approaches that utilize nanotechnology or combine different drugs to increase mast cell selectivity and therapeutic efficacy.

AREAS COVERED

Mast cell diseases include allergy and related conditions as well as malignancies. Here, we discuss the targets of existing and developing therapies used to treat these disease pathologies, classifying them into cell surface, intracellular, and extracellular categories. For each target discussed, we discuss drugs that are either the current standard of care, under development, or have indications for potential use. Finally, we discuss how novel technologies and tools can be used to take existing therapeutics to a new level of selectivity and potency against mast cells.

EXPERT OPINION

There are many broadly and very few selectively targeted therapeutics for mast cells in allergy and malignant disease. Combining existing targeting strategies with technology like nanoparticles will provide novel platforms to treat mast cell disease more selectively.

Saikosaponin-A Exhibits Antipancreatic Cancer Activity by Targeting the EGFR/PI3K/Akt Pathway

BACKGROUND

A diagnosis of pancreatic cancer is pretty grim. Saikosaponin-A (SSA) is a Chinese herbal extract with anticancer activity. However, the therapeutic effect of SSA on pancreatic cancer remains elusive.

AIM

The study aims to evaluate the antitumor effects of SSA on pancreatic cancer cells in vitro and in vivo.

METHODS

After treatment with SSA, cell viability was measured using the CCK-8 assay, DAPI staining was performed to analyze the effect on nuclear morphology, propidium iodide (PI) staining was used to detect the cell cycle, and Annexin V/PI double staining was conducted to analyze apoptosis. Then, the expression of apoptosis-related proteins and EGFR/PI3K/Akt pathway-related proteins was determined using western blotting. The binding of SSA to EGFR was analyzed by performing molecular docking. The mouse pancreatic cancer model was established by subcutaneously injecting pancreatic cancer cells, and after 30 days of SSA gavage, the tumor volume was calculated. Tumor tissue sections were subjected to Ki67 immunohistochemical staining and HE staining.

RESULTS

SSA inhibited the proliferation of pancreatic cancer cells. As the concentration of SSA increased, the proportions of BxPC-3 and MIA PaCa-2 cells in the G0/G1 phase increased, the proportions of early and late apoptotic cells also increased, and the apoptosis rate gradually increased. Apoptosis inhibitor experiments indicated that SSA promoted the activation of caspase 3 to induce apoptosis in pancreatic cancer cells. In addition, SSA treatment significantly reduced the levels of phosphorylated EGFR, Akt, and PI3K in the two cell lines. Molecular docking results showed that SSA may have potential binding sites in EGFR. Results of the xenograft experiment confirmed the antitumor effects of SSA, as evidenced by the decreased tumor weight and downregulated expression of Ki67.

CONCLUSION

The results revealed that SSA exerted inhibitory effects on pancreatic cancer cells. These effects may be related to the inactivation of the EGFR/PI3K/Akt signalling pathway.

LRRK2 deficiency protects the heart against myocardial infarction injury in mice via the P53/HMGB1 pathway

LRRK2 is a Ser/Thr kinase with multiple functional domains. Studies have shown that LRRK2 mutations are closely related to hereditary Parkinson's disease. However, its role in cardiovascular disease, especially in myocardial infarction, is unclear. The aim of this study was to explore the functional role of LRRK2 in myocardial infarction. Wild-type and LRRK2-knockout mice were subjected to coronary artery ligation (left anterior descending) to establish a myocardial infarction model. Neonatal rat cardiomyocytes were subjected to hypoxia to induce hypoxic injury in vitro. We found increased LRRK2 expression levels in the infarct periphery in mouse hearts and hypoxic cardiomyocytes. LRRK2-deficient mice exhibited decreased death rates and reduced infarction areas compared to wild-type controls 14 days after infarction. LRRK2-deficient mice showed reduced left ventricular fibrosis and inflammatory responses, as well as improved cardiac function. In the in vitro study, LRRK2 silencing decreased cleaved caspase-3 activity, reduced cardiomyocyte apoptosis, and diminished hypoxia-induced inflammation. However, LRRK2 overexpression enhanced cleaved caspase-3 activity, increased the number of apoptotic cardiomyocytes, and caused remarkable hypoxia-induced inflammation. When examining the underlying mechanisms, we found that hypoxia increased HIFα expression, which enhanced LRRK2 expression. LRRK2 induced high expression of HMGB1 via P53. When HMGB1 was blocked using an anti-HMGB1 antibody, the deleterious effects caused by LRRK2 overexpression following hypoxia were inhibited in cardiomyocytes. In summary, LRRK2 deficiency protects the heart against myocardial infarction injury. The mechanism underlying this effect involves the P53-HMGB1 pathway.

Cardioprotection of Klotho against myocardial infarction-induced heart failure through inducing autophagy

Myocardial infarction (MI) is the most common cause of heart failure (HF) worldwide. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of Klotho in cardiac function and remodeling as well as its underlying mechanism in mice with MI-induced HF. For in vivo analyses, MI or sham MI were established in C57BL/6 mice. For in vitro analyses, the H9C2 cells were used to establish a model of oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD). The In vivo and in vitro models were treated with or without Klotho. 3-methyladenine (3-MA) was used to inhibit autophagy in MI mice and H9C2 cells. Cardiac function, cardiac fibrosis, cardiomyocyte autophagy, inflammatory cytokines and myocardial apoptosis were measured. Our results revealed that Klotho significantly improved cardiac function and remodeling, reduced cardiac fibrosis, and suppressed the levels of myocardial inflammatory factors and apoptosis in MI-induced HF model. Klotho enhanced autophagy in cardiomyocytes and inhibited PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in the mouse model of MI. Similar observations were made in the OGD model after treatment with Klotho. However, the cardioprotective effects of Klotho was significantly suppressed by 3-MA. Our data indicate that Klotho exerts its cardioprotective effects against MI-induced HF by inducing autophagy through the inhibition of PI3k/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway.

Extravascular rapamycin film inhibits the endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition through the autophagy pathway to prevent vein graft restenosis

Following vein grafting, the vein must adapt to arterial hemodynamics, which can lead to intimal hyperplasia (IH) and restenosis. Moreover, endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) components are highly associated with IH. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to design an extravascular film loaded with rapamycin (extravascular rapamycin film [ERF]) to limit vein graft stenosis. The film exhibited stable physicochemical properties as well as in vivo and in vitro biocompatibility. In vivo, the film inhibited the EndMT by activating the autophagy pathway. Moreover, rapamycin enhanced this biological effect. Collectively, these findings highlighted the applicability of ERF as a new therapeutic target for preventing vein graft restenosis.

Capsaicin ameliorates renal fibrosis by inhibiting TGF-β1-Smad2/3 signaling

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Chronic kidney disease (CKD), characterized by renal fibrosis, is a global refractory disease with few effective therapeutic strategies. It has been reported that capsaicin exerts many pharmacological effects including liver and cardiac fibrosis. However, whether capsaicin plays a therapeutic role in renal fibrosis remains unclear.

METHODS

We investigated antifibrotic effects of capsaicin in two mouse renal fibrosis models as follows: C57BL/6J mice were subjected to unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) and fed with an adenine-rich diet. We uncovered and verified the mechanisms of capsaicin in human proximal tubular epithelial cells (HK2). We mainly used histochemistry, immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence staining, western blot assay, biochemical examination and other tools to examine the effects of capsaicin on renal fibrosis and the underlying mechanisms.

RESULTS

Capsaicin treatment significantly alleviated fibronectin and collagen depositions in the tubulointerstitium of the injured kidneys from UUO and adenine-fed mice. Meanwhile, capsaicin treatment obviously reduced α-SMA expression. Moreover, capsaicin treatment dramatically protected against the phenotypic alteration of tubular epithelial cells by increasing E-cadherin expression and decreasing vimentin expression during renal fibrosis. Mechanistically, capsaicin treatment effectively suppressed α-SMA and vimentin expressions but promoted E-cadherin expression in HK2 cells mainly through the inhibition of TGF-β1-Smad2/3 signaling.

CONCLUSION

Capsaicin significantly ameliorated renal fibrosis possibly by retarding the activation of myofibroblasts and protecting against the phenotypic alteration of tubular epithelial cells mainly through the inhibition of TGF-β1-Smad2/3 signaling. Thus, our findings may provide a new insight into the clinical application of capsaicin in renal fibrosis.

Silencing of histone deacetylase 3 suppresses the development of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma through regulation of miR-494-mediated TGIF1

BACKGROUND

Deacetylation of histones by histone deacetylase 3 (HDAC3) acts importantly in modulating apoptosis, DNA damage and cellular progression. Herein, we aimed to unravel the functional role of HDAC3 in a lethal disease, esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC).

METHODS

The expression of HDAC3 in clinically collected ESCC tissues was determined by RT-qPCR and immunohistochemistry. As revealed from bioinformatics analysis, the putative relations between HDAC3 and microRNA-494 (miR-494) and between miR-494 and transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ)-inducing factor 1 (TGIF1) were further verified by chromatin immunoprecipitation and dual-luciferase reporter gene assay. Functional roles of shRNA-mediated depletion of HDAC3, miR-494 mimic and overexpressed TGIF1 were explored by gain- and loss-of-function assays with regard to ESCC cell biological behaviors. A nude mouse model of ESCC was developed for in vivo validation.

RESULTS

HDAC3 was highly expressed in ESCC tissues, suggestive of poor prognosis while TGIF1 was upregulated and miR-494 was downregulated. Mechanistic investigation revealed that HDAC3 inhibited miR-494 expression and TGIF1 was a direct target of miR-494. Furthermore, silencing HDAC3 or overexpressing miR-494 was demonstrated to suppress aggressive phenotypes of ESCC cells both in vitro through the activated TGFβ signaling pathway and in vivo, while TGIF1 overexpression induced opposite results.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, our findings provided demonstration regarding the oncogenic property of HDAC3 in ESCC via the miR-494/TGIF1/TGFβ axis.

Latent TGFβ-binding proteins 1 and 3 protect the larval zebrafish outflow tract from aneurysmal dilatation

Aortic root aneurysm is a common cause of morbidity and mortality in Loeys-Dietz and Marfan syndromes, where perturbations in transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) signaling play a causal or contributory role, respectively. Despite the advantages of cross-species disease modeling, animal models of aortic root aneurysm are largely restricted to genetically engineered mice. Here, we report that zebrafish devoid of the genes encoding latent-transforming growth factor beta-binding protein 1 and 3 (ltbp1 and ltbp3, respectively) develop rapid and severe aneurysm of the outflow tract (OFT), the aortic root equivalent. Similar to syndromic aneurysm tissue, the distended OFTs display evidence for paradoxical hyperactivated TGFβ signaling. RNA-sequencing revealed significant overlap between the molecular signatures of disease tissue from mutant zebrafish and a mouse model of Marfan syndrome. Moreover, chemical inhibition of TGFβ signaling in wild-type animals phenocopied mutants but chemical activation did not, demonstrating that TGFβ signaling is protective against aneurysm. Human relevance is supported by recent studies implicating genetic lesions in LTBP3 and, potentially, LTBP1 as heritable causes of aortic root aneurysm. Ultimately, our data demonstrate that zebrafish can now be leveraged to interrogate thoracic aneurysmal disease and identify novel lead compounds through small-molecule suppressor screens. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Advancing the Adverse Outcome Pathway for PPARγ Inactivation Leading to Pulmonary Fibrosis Using Bradford-Hill Consideration and the Comparative Toxicogenomics Database

Pulmonary fibrosis is regulated by transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARγ). An adverse outcome pathway (AOP) for PPARγ inactivation leading to pulmonary fibrosis has been previously developed. To advance the development of this AOP, the confidence of the overall AOP was assessed using the Bradford-Hill considerations as per the recommendations from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Users' Handbook. Overall, the essentiality of key events (KEs) and the biological plausibility of key event relationships (KERs) were rated high. In contrast, the empirical support of KERs was found to be moderate. To experimentally evaluate the KERs from the molecular initiating event (MIE) and KE1, PPARγ (MIE) and TGF-β (KE1) inhibitors were used to examine the effects of downstream events following inhibition of their upstream events. PPARγ inhibition (MIE) led to TGF-β activation (KE1), upregulation in vimentin expression (KE3), and an increase in the fibronectin level (KE4). Similarly, activated TGF-β (KE1) led to an increase in vimentin (KE3) and fibronectin expression (KE4). In the database analysis using the Comparative Toxicogenomics Database, 31 genes related to each KE were found to be highly correlated with pulmonary fibrosis, and the top 21 potential stressors were suggested. The AOP for pulmonary fibrosis evaluated in this study will be the basis for the screening of inhaled toxic substances in the environment.

Aligned nanofiber nerve conduits inhibit alpha smooth muscle actin expression and collagen proliferation by suppressing TGF-β1/SMAD signaling in traumatic neuromas

Transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-β1) is a powerful activator of connective tissue synthesis that is strongly associated with the pathophysiology of traumatic neuroma. Previous studies have demonstrated that aligned nanofiber conduits made from silk fibroin and poly (L-lactic acid-co-ε-caprolactone; PLCL) could prevent traumatic neuromas. In the present study, the possible mechanisms of conduits in treating traumatic neuromas were investigated to provide theoretical basis for procedures. Aligned nanofiber conduits were used for nerve capping. Sciatic nerves of Sprague-Dawley rats were used to create an animal model. The present study contains two parts, each including four experimental groups. SB-431542/SRI-011381 hydrochloride was used to suppress/enhance TGF-β1/SMAD signaling. Part I discussed the connections between traumatic neuroma and the proliferation of alpha smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and collagen; it also investigated the therapeutic effect of conduits. Part II hypothesized that conduits suppressed TGF-β1/SMAD signaling. Histological characteristics, quantitative analysis of α-SMA, collagens and signaling-related parameters were assessed and compared among groups one month postoperatively. Results from Part I demonstrated that aligned nanofiber conduits suppressed the expression of α-SMA and collagens; and results from Part II revealed the downregulation of pathway-related proteins, suggesting that the suppression was mediated by TGF-β1/SMAD signaling. Aligned nanofiber conduits may be effective nerve capping biomaterials. One of the mechanisms involves suppressing TGF-β1/SMAD signaling. Novel treatments using aligned nanofiber conduits could be developed to manage traumatic neuromas.

Suppression of ADAM8 attenuates angiotensin II-induced cardiac fibrosis and endothelial-mesenchymal transition via inhibiting TGF-β1/Smad2/Smad3 pathways

Endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) is involved in cardiac fibrosis induced by angiotensin II (Ang II). A disintegrin and metalloproteinase 8 (ADAM8), a member of ADAMs family, participates in cell adhesion, proteolysis and various signaling. However, its effects on the development of cardiac fibrosis remain completely unknown. This study aimed to reveal whether ADAM8 aggravates cardiac fibrosis induced by Ang II in vivo and in vitro. The C57BL/6J mice or cardiac endothelial cells were subjected to Ang II infusion to induce fibrosis. The results showed that systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure were significantly increased under Ang II infusion, and ADAM8 was up-regulated. ADAM8 inhibition attenuated Ang II-induced cardiac dysfunction. ADAM8 knockdown suppressed Ang II-induced cardiac fibrosis as evidenced by the down-regulation of CTGF, collagen I, and collagen III. In addition, the endothelial marker (VE-cadherin) was decreased, whilst mesenchymal markers (α-SMA and FSP1) were increased following Ang II infusion. However, ADAM8 repression inhibited Ang II-induced EndMT. Moreover, ADAM8 silencing repressed the activation of TGF-β1/Smad2/Smad3 pathways. Consistent with the results in vivo, we also found the inhibitory effects of ADAM8 inhibition on EndMT in vitro. All data suggest that ADAM8 promotes Ang II-induced cardiac fibrosis and EndMT via activating TGF-β1/Smad2/Smad3 pathways.

Forsythiaside B inhibits myocardial fibrosis via down regulating TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway

Forsythiaside B is the major ingredient of Callicarpa kwangtungensis Chun, and has been proven to protect myocardium from ischemia-reperfusion injury to achieve myocardial protection. However, the effect of forsythiaside B on adverse myocardial fibrosis remains unclear. In the present study, the myocardial fibrosis animal models were established induced by isoproterenol (ISO) to investigate whether forsythiaside B exhibited antifibrotic actions. Forsythiaside B was found to significantly improve the cardiac ejection fraction and fractional shortening rate of myocardial fibrosis mice compared with the normal saline group. In addition, forsythiaside B could lower the level of TGF-β1, the expression of α-SMA and collagen III. Forsythiaside B down-regulated the expression of Smad4 and the phosphorylation level of Smad3, which indicates that forsythiaside B could suppress myocardial fibrosis by inhibiting the TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway. These results demonstrated that forsythiaside B could prevent myocardial fibrosis in ISO-induced mice, and may be a potentially rational therapeutic approach for the treatment of myocardial fibrosis.

A phycocyanin derived eicosapeptide attenuates lung fibrosis development

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a progressive respiratory disease. Phycocyanin derived eicosapeptide (PP20) is a novel peptide derived from active protein C-phycocyanin in Cyanobacteria. The aim of our study was to explore the anti-fibrotic activity of the PP20 and its underlying mechanism. Characteristic features of pulmonary fibrosis in oleic acid (OA)-induced mice and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in TGF-β1-exposed A549 and HFL-1 cells with or without PP20 and the change of TGF-β/Smad and MAPK signaling pathways were examined. Smad and MAPK agonists were used to explore the role of TGF-β/Smad and MAPK signaling in TGF-β1- induced collagen I expression in A549 cells and α-SMA expression in HFL-1 cells when treated with PP20. Our results showed that PP20 significantly alleviated the inflammatory response and tissue destruction, inhibited EMT, restored the imbalance of TIMP-1/MMP-9 and reduced collagen fiber deposition. Moreover, PP20 inhibited TGF-β1-induced EMT and collagen I expression in A549 cells. PP20 could also inhibit the proliferation, and decrease TGF-β1-induced the expression of collagen I and transformation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts in HFL-1 cells. Additionally, animal experiments and cell experiments combined with pathway agonists have shown that PP20 can negatively regulate TGF-β/Smad and MAPK pathways and show anti-fibrotic properties. PP20 may be a promising drug candidate for protection against pulmonary fibrosis.

Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin 2 Accelerates Hypoxia-Induced Endothelial Cell Injury via eNOS/NRF2 Signalling

Objective

Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), a lipocalin, is implicated in many cardiovascular diseases (CVD). The effect of NGAL on endothelial cells (ECs), particularly on ECs injured because of hypoxia, is unclear. In this study, we aim to explore the effect of NGAL in an EC injury in response to hypoxia.

Materials and Methods

In this experimental study, we isolated and cultured mouse heart ECs (MHECs). The EC injury model was established by exposure of the ECs to hypoxia for 24 hours. The ECs were treated with NGAL (30, 60, 120, 250 and 500 ng/ml). Cell inflammation and oxidative stress were detected by corresponding assays. Apoptotic cells were stained by the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labelling (TUNEL) assay.

Results

NGAL increased the inflammatory response at the baseline level and further augmented the hypoxia-induced inflammation response. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels increased upon NGAL treatment, which caused antioxidase/oxidase imbalance. NGAL also exaggerated hypoxia-induced oxidative stress. The cell apoptosis rate also increased in both the NGAL-treated normoxic and hypoxic conditions. NGAL also reduced endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS)-nitric oxide (NO) signalling, thus decreasing the expression and nuclear translocation of nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (NRF2), which was confirmed by overexpression of NRF2.

Conclusion

NGAL exaggerates EC injury in both normoxic and hypoxic conditions by inhibiting the eNOS-NRF2 pathway.

Traditional Chinese medicine as a therapeutic option for cardiac fibrosis: Pharmacology and mechanisms

Cardiovascular diseases are one of the leading causes of death worldwide and cardiac fibrosis is a common pathological process for cardiac remodeling in cardiovascular diseases. Cardiac fibrosis not only accelerates the deterioration progress of diseases but also becomes a pivotal contributor for futile treatment in clinical cardiovascular trials. Although cardiac fibrosis is common and prevalent, effective medicines to provide sufficient clinical intervention for cardiac fibrosis are still unavailable. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is the natural essence experienced boiling, fry, and other processing methods, including active ingredients, extracts, and herbal formulas, which have been applied to treat human diseases for a long history. Recently, research has increasingly focused on the great potential of TCM for the prevention and treatment of cardiac fibrosis. Here, we aim to clarify the identified pro-fibrotic mechanisms and intensively summarize the application of TCM in improving cardiac fibrosis by working on these mechanisms. Through comprehensively analyzing, TCM mainly regulates the following pathways during ameliorating cardiac fibrosis: attenuation of inflammation and oxidative stress, inhibition of cardiac fibroblasts activation, reduction of extracellular matrix accumulation, modulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, modulation of autophagy, regulation of metabolic-dependent mechanisms, and targeting microRNAs. We also discussed the deficiencies and the development direction of anti-fibrotic therapies on cardiac fibrosis. The data reviewed here demonstrates that TCM shows a robust effect on alleviating cardiac fibrosis, which provides us a rich source of new drugs or drug candidates. Besides, we also hope this review may give some enlightenment for treating cardiac fibrosis in clinical practice.

Astrocytic YAP protects the optic nerve and retina in an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis model through TGF-β signaling

Rationale: Optic neuritis is one of main symptoms in multiple sclerosis (MS) that causes visual disability. Astrocytes are pivotal regulators of neuroinflammation in MS, and astrocytic yes-associated protein (YAP) plays a critical role in neuroinflammation. Meanwhile, YAP signaling is involved in visual impairment, including glaucoma, retinal choroidal atrophy and retinal detachment. However, the roles and underlying mechanisms of astrocytic YAP in neuroinflammation and demyelination of MS-related optic neuritis (MS-ON) remains unclear. Methods: To assess the functions of YAP in MS-ON, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE, a common model of MS) was established, and mice that conditional knockout (CKO) of YAP in astrocytes, YAP^GFAP-CKO mice, were successfully generated. Behavior tests, immunostaining, Nissl staining, Hematoxylin-Eosin (HE) staining, TUNEL staining, Luxol Fast Blue (LFB) staining, electron microscopy (EM), quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR), gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) and gene set variation analysis (GSVA) by RNA sequencing were used to examine the function and mechanism of YAP signaling based on these YAP^GFAP-CKO mice and EAE model mice. To further explore the potential treatment of YAP signaling in EAE, EAE mice were treated with various drugs, including SRI-011381 that is an agonist of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) pathway, and XMU-MP-1 which inhibits Hippo kinase MST1/2 to activate YAP. Results: We found that YAP was significantly upregulated and activated in the astrocytes of optic nerve in EAE mice. Conditional knockout of YAP in astrocytes caused more severe inflammatory infiltration and demyelination in optic nerve, and damage of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in EAE mice. Moreover, YAP deletion in astrocytes promoted the activation of astrocytes and microglia, but inhibited the proliferation of astrocytes of optic nerve in EAE mice. Mechanically, TGF-β signaling pathway was significantly down-regulated after YAP deletion in astrocytes. Additionally, both qPCR and immunofluorescence assays confirmed the reduction of TGF-β signaling pathway in YAP^GFAP-CKO EAE mice. Interestingly, SRI-011381 partially rescued the deficits in optic nerve and retina of YAP^GFAP-CKO EAE mice. Finally, activation of YAP signaling by XMU-MP-1 relieved the neuroinflammation and demyelination in optic nerve of EAE mice. Conclusions: These results suggest astrocytic YAP may prevent the neuroinflammatory infiltration and demyelination through upregulation of TGF-β signaling and provide targets for the development of therapeutic strategies tailored for MS-ON.

An Integrative Pharmacology-Based Strategy to Uncover the Mechanism of Xiong-Pi-Fang in Treating Coronary Heart Disease with Depression

Objectives: This study aimed to explore the mechanism of Xiong-Pi-Fang (XPF) in the treatment of coronary heart disease (CHD) with depression by an integrative strategy combining serum pharmacochemistry, network pharmacology analysis, and experimental validation. Methods: An ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS) method was constructed to identify compounds in rat serum after oral administration of XPF, and a component-target network was established using Cytoscape, between the targets of XPF ingredients and CHD with depression. Furthermore, Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analyses were performed to deduce the mechanism of XPF in treating CHD with depression. Finally, in a chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS)-and isoproterenol (ISO)-induced rat model, TUNEL was used to detect the apoptosis index of the myocardium and hippocampus, ELISA and western blot were used to detect the predicted hub targets, namely AngII, 5-HT, cAMP, PKA, CREB, BDNF, Bcl-2, Bax, Cyt-c, and caspase-3. Results: We identified 51 compounds in rat serum after oral administration of XPF, which mainly included phenolic acids, saponins, and flavonoids. Network pharmacology analysis revealed that XPF may regulate targets, such as ACE2, HTR1A, HTR2A, AKT1, PKIA, CREB1, BDNF, BCL2, BAX, CASP3, cAMP signaling pathway, and cell apoptosis process in the treatment of CHD with depression. ELISA analysis showed that XPF decreased Ang-II content in the circulation and central nervous system, inhibited 5-HT levels in peripheral circulation, and increased 5-HT content in the central nervous system and cAMP content in the myocardia and hippocampus. Meanwhile, western blot analysis indicated that XPF could upregulate the expression levels of PKA, CREB, and BDNF both in the myocardia and hippocampus. TUNEL staining indicated that the apoptosis index of myocardial and hippocampal cells increased in CUMS-and ISO-induced CHD in rats under depression, and XPF could increase the expression of Bcl-2, inhibit the expression of Bax, Cyt-c, and caspase-3, and rectify the injury of the hippocampus and myocardium, which exerted antidepressant and antimyocardial ischemia effects. Conclusion: Our study proposed an integrated strategy, combining serum pharmacochemistry and network pharmacology to investigate the mechanisms of XPF in treating CHD with depression. The mechanism of XPF in treating CHD with depression may be related to the activation of the cAMP signaling pathway and the inhibition of the apoptosis.

Bone mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles promote the repair of intervertebral disc degeneration by transferring microRNA-199a

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) protect intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) by regulating nucleus pulposus cell (NPC) apoptosis. But the mechanism of BMSCs-EVs-microRNA (miR)-199a in IDD remains unclear. In this study, after the acquisition and identification of BMSCs and BMSCs-EVs, IDD mouse model was established and treated with BMSCs-EVs. The pathological changes of NPCs, positive expression of MMP-2, MMP-6 and TIMP1, and the senescence and apoptosis of NPCs were evaluated. Microarray analysis was employed to analyze the differentially expressed miRs and genes after EV treatment. NPCs were treated with EVs/miR-199a/TGF-β agonist SRI-011381. The positive expression of col II and Aggrecan was assessed. The target gene and downstream pathway of miR-199a were analyzed. In vivo experiment, after BMSCs-EV treatment, MMP-2, MMP-6, TIMP1 and TUNEL-positive cells in IDD mice were decreased, and miR-199a was increased. In vitro experiments, the expression of col Ⅱ and Aggrecan, SA-β gal positive cells and apoptosis rate of NPCs were decreased after EV intervention. The protective effect of BMSCs-EVs on NPCs was impaired by reducing miR-199a carried by EVs. miR-199a could target GREM1 to inactivate the TGF-β pathway. miR-199a carried by BMSCs-EVs promotes IDD repair by targeting GREM1 and downregulating the TGF-β pathway. Our work confers a promising therapeutic strategy for IDD.

Activation of activin/Smad2 and 3 signaling pathway and the potential involvement of endothelial‑mesenchymal transition in the valvular damage due to rheumatic heart disease

Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is an autoimmune disease caused by rheumatic fever following group A hemolytic streptococcal infection and primarily affects the mitral valve. RHD is currently a major global health problem. However, the exact pathological mechanisms associated with RHD-induced cardiac valve damage remain to be elucidated. The endothelial-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) serves a key role in a number of diseases with an important role in cardiac fibrosis and the activin/Smad2 and 3 signaling pathway is involved in regulating the EndMT. Nevertheless, there are no studies to date, to the best of the authors' knowledge, investigating the association between RHD and EndMT. Thus, the aim of the current study was to investigate the potential role of EndMT in cardiac valve damage and assess whether activin/Smad2 and 3 signaling was activated during RHD-induced valvular injury in a rat model of RHD induced by inactivated Group A streptococci and complete Freund's adjuvant. Inflammation and fibrosis were assessed by hematoxylin and eosin and Sirius red staining. Serum cytokine and rheumatoid factor levels were measured using ELISA kits. Expression levels of activin/Smad2 and 3 signaling pathway-related factors [activin A, Smad2, Smad3, phosphorylated (p-)Smad2 and p-Smad3], EndMT-related factors [lymphoid enhancer factor-1 (LEF-1), Snail1, TWIST, zinc finger E-box-binding homeobox (ZEB)1, ZEB2, α smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and type I collagen α 1 (COL1A1)], apoptosis-related markers (BAX and cleaved caspase-3) and valvular inflammation markers (NF-κB and p-NF-κB) were detected using reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and western blot analyses. Compared with the control group, the degree of valvular inflammation and fibrosis, serum levels of IL-6, IL-17, TNF-α and expression of apoptosis-related markers (BAX and cleaved caspase-3) and valvular inflammation marker (p-NF-κB), activin/Smad2 and 3 signaling pathway-related factors (activin A, p-Smad2 and p-Smad3), EndMT-related factors (LEF-1, Snail1, TWIST, ZEB 1, ZEB2, α-SMA and COL1A1) were significantly increased in the RHD group. These results suggested that the activin/Smad2 and 3 signaling pathway was activated during the development of valvular damage caused by RHD and that the EndMT is involved in RHD-induced cardiac valve damage.

Qiangji Jianli Decoction promotes mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle of myasthenia gravis rats via AMPK/PGC-1α signaling pathway

The Qiangji Jianli Decoction (QJJLD) is an effective Chinese medicine formula for treating Myasthenia gravis (MG) in the clinic. QJJLD has been proven to regulate mitochondrial fusion and fission of skeletal muscle in myasthenia gravis. In this study, we investigated whether QJJLD plays a therapeutic role in regulating mitochondrial biogenesis in MG and explored the underlying mechanism. Rats were experimentally induced to establish autoimmune myasthenia gravis (EAMG) by subcutaneous immunization with R97-116 peptides. The treatment groups were administered three different dosages of QJJLD respectively. After the intervention of QJJLD, the pathological changes of gastrocnemius muscle in MG rats were significantly improved; SOD, GSH-Px, Na⁺-K⁺ ATPase and Ca²⁺-Mg²⁺ ATPase activities were increased; and MDA content was decreased in the gastrocnemius muscle. Moreover, AMPK, p38MAPK, PGC-1α, NRF-1, Tfam and COX IV mRNA and protein expression levels were also reversed by QJJLD. These results implied that QJJLD may provide a potential therapeutic strategy through promoting mitochondrial biogenesis to alleviate MG via activating the AMPK/PGC-1α signaling pathway.

A Network Pharmacology Approach to Explore the Mechanisms of Shugan Jianpi Formula in Liver Fibrosis

Purpose

We explored the mechanism of Shugan Jianpi Formula (SGJPF) and its effective components for the treatment of liver fibrosis (LF).

Materials and Methods

We collected the active ingredients in SGJPF through the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database and Analysis Platform and screened the effective components by absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. Herb-associated target proteins were predicted and screened based on the Bioinformatics Analysis Tool for Molecular Mechanism of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Search Tool for Interactions of Chemicals databases. LF-associated target proteins were predicted and screened based on the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man® Database and Comparative Toxicogenomics Database. Common genes with LF and herbs were selected, and Cytoscape 3.5.1 software was used to construct an herb pathway and component-LF common target network. The Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins was used to build a protein-protein interaction, and quantitative PCR was used to verify the related target genes. Finally, clusterProfiler was applied for the analysis of Gene Ontology terms and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways.

Results

The pharmacological network contained 252 active compounds (e.g., Astragaloside A, saikosaponin, linoleic acid, and Poria acid A), 84 common target genes, and 94 significant signaling pathways. Among them, interleukin 6 (IL-6), tumor protein 53 p53 (TP53), prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTGS2), AKT1, IL-1β, and the nucleotide-binding and oligomerization domain-like receptor and Janus kinase-signal transducer and activator of transcription signaling pathways were selected as the critical target gene and critical signal pathway, respectively.

Conclusion

The mechanisms of SGJPF in protecting against LF include the regulation of multiple targets such as IL-6, TP53, PTGS2, and AKT1. These target proteins affect LF through various signal transduction pathways.

Saikosaponin A inhibits the activation of pancreatic stellate cells by suppressing autophagy and the NLRP3 inflammasome via the AMPK/mTOR pathway

Pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs) are the main effector cells in the development of pancreatic fibrosis. Finding substances that inhibit PSC activation is an important approach to inhibiting pancreatic fibrosis. Saikosaponin A (SSa) has numerous pharmacological activities, but its effect on PSCs remains unknown. This study was conducted to explore the effects of SSa on PSC activation in cultured rat PSCs. Cell viability, proliferation, migration and apoptosis were evaluated by MTT assays, the iCELLigence System, Transwell assays and flow cytometry. Markers of PSC activation, autophagy and the NLRP3 inflammasome were measured by real-time PCR, immunofluorescence and western blotting. Rapamycin and phenformin hydrochloride were used to determine the effect of SSa via the AMPK/mTOR pathway. The results showed that SSa suppressed PSC viability, proliferation, and migration and promoted apoptosis. SSa inhibited PSC activation, restrained PSC autophagy and suppressed the NLRP3 inflammasome. In addition, there was interaction between autophagy and the NLRP3 inflammasome during SSa inhibition of PSCs. Moreover, promotion of p-AMPK increased autophagy and the NLRP3 inflammasome. Inhibition of p-mTOR increased autophagy and decreased the NLRP3 inflammasome. Our results indicated that SSa inhibited PSC activation by inhibiting PSC autophagy and the NLRP3 inflammasome via the AMPK/mTOR pathway. These findings provide a theoretical basis for the use of SSa to treat pancreatic fibrosis and further suggest that targeting autophagy and the NLRP3 inflammasome may provide new strategies for the treatment of pancreatic fibrosis.

Effect of Irbesartan on AGEs-RAGE and MMPs systems in rat type 2 diabetes myocardial-fibrosis model

IMPACT STATEMENT

There are about 425 million diabetes patients (20-79 years) in the world according to the International Diabetes Federation Diabetes Atlas - 8th Edition. The cardiovascular complication is one of the major causes of death in diabetes patients. Myocardial fibrosis is one of the serious pathological changes, so investigating the pathogenesis of myocardial fibrosis has the significant value. Our study aims to investigate the effect of Irbesartan (the angiotensin II receptor antagonist) on the changes of AGE-RAGE system and MMP family components, and analyzes the potential mechanisms in type 2 diabetes-induced myocardial fibrosis. Our results provide the theoretical base for better understanding the pathogenesis in type 2 diabetes-induced myocardial complication. It is useful for clinicians to select the effective therapeutic measures for treatment of type 2 diabetes-induced organ fibrosis.