Leukocyte-mediated Delivery of Nanotherapeutics in Inflammatory and Tumor Sites

Leukocyte-based delivery systems for enhanced nanotheranostics of inflammation and cancer

As a part of the immune system, leukocytes (LEs) have the features of circumvention of immunogenicity as well as recruitment to sites of inflammation during infection and tumorigenesis. Utilizing LEs as vehicles to carry theranostic agents is a promising strategy for highly efficient targeted delivery and treatment for inflammation and cancer. Specifically, the LEs, similar to 'Trojan horses', can bypass the immune system and thus enhance the therapeutic effects on inflammation and cancer. In this context, the latest progress of LEs-based delivery systems for improving theranostics of inflammations and cancers is summarized, includingin vitroincubation andin vivointernalization strategy. Although the therapeutic efficacy of LEs-based delivery systems has been achieved, the system construction is complex and the effect is not fulfilling demand completely. Encouragingly, a most recent work reported that the supramolecular arrangement of proteins on the nanocarriers would drive them to be selectively uptaken by neutrophils, opening a new avenue for diagnosis and treatment of inflammation. Moreover, enucleated cells are considered as the biomimetic drug delivery vehicle to retain the organelles for a range of diseases in a safe, controllable and effective manner. These novel findings provide more opportunities for researchers to rethink and redesign the LEs-based delivery systems to overcome existing limitations and broaden their usage, especially in clinical medicine.

Development of Dual Diagnostic-Therapeutic Nanoformulation Effective Against Pancreatic Cancer in Animal Model

Purpose

Erythrocytes and fibroblasts in the pancreatic cancer tumor microenvironment promote tumor cell growth and invasion by providing nutrients and promoting immunosuppression. Additionally, they form a barrier against the penetration of chemotherapeutic drugs. Therefore, the search for diversified tumor-targeting materials plays an essential role in solving the above problems.

Methods

Physicochemical characterization of Graphene fluorescent nanoparticles (GFNPs) and nanomedicines were analyzed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), elemental analyzers and ultraviolet fluorescence (UV/FL) spectrophotometer. Localization of GFNPs in cell and tissue sections imaged with laser confocal microscope, fluorescence scanner and small animal in vivo imager. Qualitative detection and quantitative detection of GFNPs and GFNPs-GEM were performed using High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).

Results

Based on the 3 nm average dimensions, GFNPs penetrate vascular endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells, achieve up to label 30% tumor cells and 60% cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) cells, and accurately label mature red blood cells in the tumor microenvironment. In orthotopic transplanted pancreatic cancer models, the fluorescence intensity of GFNPs in tumors showed a positive correlation with the cycle size of tumor development. The differential spatial distribution of GFNPs in three typical clinical pancreatic cancer samples demonstrated their diagnostic potential. To mediate the excellent targeting properties of GFNPs, we synthesized a series of nanomedicines using popular chemotherapeutic drugs, in which complex of GFNPs and gemcitabine (GFNPs-GEM) possessed stability in vivo and exhibited effective reduction of tumor volume and fewer side effects.

Conclusion

GFNPs with multiple targeting tumor microenvironments in pancreatic cancer possess diagnostic efficiency and therapeutic potential.

The Evolution of Microfluidic-Based Drug-Loading Techniques for Cells and Their Derivatives

Conventional drug delivery techniques face challenges related to targeting and adverse reactions. Recent years have witnessed significant advancements in nanoparticle-based drug carriers. Nevertheless, concerns persist regarding their safety and insufficient metabolism. Employing cells and their derivatives, such as cell membranes and extracellular vesicles (EVs), as drug carriers effectively addresses the challenges associated with nanoparticle carriers. However, an essential hurdle remains in efficiently loading drugs into these carriers. With the advancement of microfluidic technology and its advantages in precise manipulation at the micro- and nanoscales, as well as minimal sample loss, it has found extensive application in the loading of drugs using cells and their derivatives, thereby fostering the development of drug-loading techniques. This paper outlines the characteristics and benefits of utilizing cells and their derivatives as drug carriers and provides an overview of current drug-loading techniques, particularly those rooted in microfluidic technology. The significant potential for microfluidic technology in targeted disease therapy through drug delivery systems employing cells and their derivatives, is foreseen.

Targeted Delivery of Nanoparticle-Conveyed Neutrophils to the Glioblastoma Site for Efficient Therapy

Glioblastoma is a common brain tumor that poses considerable challenges in drug delivery. In this study, we investigated the potential of cell-based nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery to the glioblastoma sites. The anticancer drug of temozolomide (TMZ)-loaded T7-cholesterol nanoparticle micelles efficiently delivered nanoparticles to neutrophils and, subsequently, to the tumors. T7 is a cell-penetrating peptide that enhances the delivery of T7/TMZ to the target cells. T7 also serves as a transferrin target peptide, enabling targeted delivery to tumors. T7-conjugated cholesterol can self-assemble into micelles in aqueous solution and attach to the membrane of neutrophils. We confirmed that T7/TMZ nanoparticle micelles were efficiently located inside the neutrophils. Thereafter, T7/TMZ-conveyed neutrophils were administered to a glioblastoma mouse model, enabling neutrophils to penetrate the blood-brain barrier and deliver drugs directly to the tumor site. We evaluated the drug delivery efficiency and therapeutic effects of intravenous injection of T7/TMZ-conveyed neutrophils to a glioblastoma mouse model. These results demonstrate the promising role of neutrophil-based nanoparticle delivery systems in the targeted therapy of glioblastoma.

Hybrid Cell Membrane-Based Nanoplatforms for Enhanced Immunotherapy against Cancer and Infectious Diseases

Immunotherapy based on nanoplatforms is a promising approach to treat cancer and infectious diseases, and it has achieved considerable progress in clinical practices. Cell membrane-based nanoplatforms endow nanoparticles with versatile characteristics, such as half-life extension, targeting ability, and immune-system regulation. However, monotypic cell membrane usually fails to provoke strong immune response for immunotherapy while maintaining good biosafety. The integration of different cell-membrane types provides a promising approach to construct multifunctional nanoplatforms for improved immunotherapeutic efficacy by enhancing immunogenicity or targeting function, evading immune clearance, or combining with other therapeutic modalities. In this review, the design principles, preparation strategies, and applications of hybrid cell membrane-based nanoplatforms for cancer and infection immunotherapy are first discussed. Furthermore, the challenges and prospects for the potential clinical translation of hybrid cell membrane-based nanoplatforms are discussed.

Engineering and Targeting Neutrophils for Cancer Therapy

Neutrophils are the most abundant white blood cells in the circulation and act as the first line of defense against infections. Increasing evidence suggests that neutrophils possess heterogeneous phenotypes and functional plasticity in human health and diseases, including cancer. Neutrophils play multifaceted roles in cancer development and progression, and an N1/N2 paradigm of neutrophils in cancer is proposed, where N1 neutrophils exert anti-tumor properties while N2 neutrophils display tumor-supportive and immune-suppressive functions. Selective activation of beneficial neutrophil population and targeted inhibition or re-polarization of tumor-promoting neutrophils has shown an important potential in tumor therapy. In addition, due to the natural inflammation-responsive and physical barrier-crossing abilities, neutrophils and their derivatives (membranes and extracellular vesicles (EVs)) are regarded as advanced drug delivery carriers for enhanced tumor targeting and improved therapeutic efficacy. In this review, the recent advances in engineering neutrophils for drug delivery and targeting neutrophils for remodeling tumor microenvironment (TME) are comprehensively presented. This review will provide a broad understanding of the potential of neutrophils in cancer therapy.

Repurposing Disulfiram to Combat Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome with Targeted Delivery by LET-Functionalized Nanoplatforms

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a serious respiratory condition characterized by a damaged pulmonary endothelial barrier that causes protein-rich lung edema, an influx of proinflammatory cells, and treatment-resistant hypoxemia. Damage to pulmonary endothelial cells and inflammation are pivotal in ARDS development with a key role played by endothelial cell pyroptosis. Disulfiram (DSF), a drug that has long been used to treat alcohol addiction, has recently been identified as a potent inhibitor of gasdermin D (GSDMD)-induced pore formation and can thus prevent pyroptosis and inflammatory cytokine release. These findings indicate that DSF is a promising treatment for inflammatory disorders. However, addressing the challenge posed by its intrinsic physicochemical properties, which hinder intravenous administration, and effective delivery to pulmonary vascular endothelial cells are crucial. Herein, we used biocompatible liposomes incorporating a lung endothelial cell-targeted peptide (CGSPGWVRC) to produce DSF-loaded nanoparticles (DTP-LET@DSF NPs) for targeted delivery and reactive oxygen species-responsive release facilitated by the inclusion of thioketal (TK) within the liposomal structure. After intravenous administration, DTP-LET@DSF NPs exhibited excellent cytocompatibility and minor systemic toxicity, effectively inhibited pyroptosis, mitigated lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ARDS, and prevented cytokine storms resulting from excessive immune reactions in ARDS mice. This study presents a straightforward nanoplatform for ARDS treatment that potentially paves the way for the clinical use of this nanomedicine.

Neutrophil hitchhiking nanoparticles enhance bacteria-mediated cancer therapy via NETosis reprogramming

Bacteria have shown great potential in anti-tumor treatment, and an attenuated strain of Salmonella named VNP20009 has been shown to be safe in clinical trials. However, colonized bacteria recruit neutrophils into the tumor, which release NETs to capture and eliminate bacteria, compromising bacterial-based tumor treatment. In this study, we report a neutrophil hitchhiking nanoparticles (SPPS) that block the formation of NET to enhance bacteria-mediated tumor therapy. In the 4 T1 tumor-bearing mouse model, following 24 h of bacterial therapy, there was an approximately 3.0-fold increase in the number of neutrophils in the bloodstream, while the amount of SPPS homing to tumor tissue through neutrophil hitchhiking increased approximately 2.0-fold. It is worth noting that the NETs in tumors significantly decreased by approximately 2.0-fold through an intracellular ROS scavenging-mediated NETosis reprogramming, thereby increasing bacterial vitality by 1.9-fold in tumors. More importantly, the gene drug (siBcl-2) loaded in SPPS can be re-encapsulated in apoptotic bodies by reprogramming neutrophils from NETosis to apoptosis, and enable the redelivery of drugs to tumor cells, further boosting the antitumor efficacy with a synergistic effect, resulting in about 98% tumor inhibition rate and 90% survival rate.

Complement-dependent uptake of nanoparticles by blood phagocytes: brief overview and perspective

Immune recognition and uptake of nanoparticles remain the hot topic in nanomedicine research. Complement is the central player in the immune recognition of engineered nanoparticles. Here, we summarize the accumulated knowledge on the role of complement in the interactions of nanomaterials with blood phagocytes. We describe the interplay between surface properties, complement opsonization, and immune uptake, primarily of iron oxide nanoparticles. We discuss the rigor of the published research and further identify the following knowledge gaps: 1) the role of complement in the variability of uptake of nanomaterials in healthy and diseased subjects, and 2) modulation of complement interactions to improve the performance of nanomaterials. Addressing these gaps is critical to improving translational chances of nanomaterials for drug delivery and imaging applications.

Quercetin-loaded PLGA nanoparticles coating with macrophage membranes for targeted delivery in acute liver injury

Quercetin (QU), a natural flavonoid with potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, holds promise in treating acute liver injury (ALI). Nonetheless, its limited solubility hampers its efficacy, and its systemic distribution lacks targeting, leading to off-target effects. To address these challenges, we developed macrophage membrane-coated quercetin-loaded PLGA nanoparticles (MVs-QU-NPs) for active ALI targeting. The resulting MVs-QU-NPs exhibited a spherical morphology with a clear core-shell structure. The average size and zeta potential were assessed as 141.70 ± 0.89 nm and -31.83 ± 0.76 mV, respectively. Further studies revealed sustained drug release characteristics from MVs-QU-NPs over a continuous period of 24 h. Moreover, these MVs-QU-NPs demonstrated excellent biocompatibility when tested on normal liver cells. The results of biodistribution analysis in ALI mice displayed the remarkable ALI-targeting ability of MVs-DiD-NPs, with the highest fluorescence intensity observed in liver tissue. This biomimetic approach combining macrophage membranes with nanoparticle delivery, holds great potential for targeted ALI treatment.

Multifunctional cell membranes-based nano-carriers for targeted therapies: a review of recent trends and future perspective

Nanotechnology has ignited a transformative revolution in disease detection, prevention, management, and treatment. Central to this paradigm shift is the innovative realm of cell membrane-based nanocarriers, a burgeoning class of biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) that redefine the boundaries of biomedical applications. These remarkable nanocarriers, designed through a top-down approach, harness the intrinsic properties of cell-derived materials as their fundamental building blocks. Through shrouding themselves in natural cell membranes, these nanocarriers extend their circulation longevity and empower themselves to intricately navigate and modulate the multifaceted microenvironments associated with various diseases. This comprehensive review provides a panoramic view of recent breakthroughs in biomimetic nanomaterials, emphasizing their diverse applications in cancer treatment, cardiovascular therapy, viral infections, COVID-19 management, and autoimmune diseases. In this exposition, we deliver a concise yet illuminating overview of the distinctive properties underpinning biomimetic nanomaterials, elucidating their pivotal role in biomedical innovation. We subsequently delve into the exceptional advantages these nanomaterials offer, shedding light on the unique attributes that position them at the forefront of cutting-edge research. Moreover, we briefly explore the intricate synthesis processes employed in creating these biomimetic nanocarriers, shedding light on the methodologies that drive their development.

Challenges and solutions for therapeutic TCR-based agents

Recent development of methods to discover and engineer therapeutic T-cell receptors (TCRs) or antibody mimics of TCRs, and to understand their immunology and pharmacology, lag two decades behind therapeutic antibodies. Yet we have every expectation that TCR-based agents will be similarly important contributors to the treatment of a variety of medical conditions, especially cancers. TCR engineered cells, soluble TCRs and their derivatives, TCR-mimic antibodies, and TCR-based CAR T cells promise the possibility of highly specific drugs that can expand the scope of immunologic agents to recognize intracellular targets, including mutated proteins and undruggable transcription factors, not accessible by traditional antibodies. Hurdles exist regarding discovery, specificity, pharmacokinetics, and best modality of use that will need to be overcome before the full potential of TCR-based agents is achieved. HLA restriction may limit each agent to patient subpopulations and off-target reactivities remain important barriers to widespread development and use of these new agents. In this review we discuss the unique opportunities for these new classes of drugs, describe their unique antigenic targets, compare them to traditional antibody therapeutics and CAR T cells, and review the various obstacles that must be overcome before full application of these drugs can be realized.

Neutrophil membrane-based nanotherapeutics: Propitious paradigm shift in the management of cancer

Cancer is the leading cause of death across the globe, with 19.3 million new cancer cases and 10 million deaths in the year 2020. Conventional treatment modalities have numerous pitfalls, such as off-site cytotoxicity and poor bioavailability. Nanocarriers (NCs) have been explored to deliver various therapeutic moieties such as chemotherapeutic agents and photothermal agents, etc. However, several limitations, such as rapid clearance by the reticuloendothelial system, poor extravasation into the tumor microenvironment, and low systemic half-life are roadblocks to successful clinical translation. To circumvent the pitfalls of currently available treatment modalities, neutrophil membrane (NM)-based nanotherapeutics have emerged as a promising platform for cancer management. Their versatile features such as natural tumor tropism, tumor-specific accumulation, and prevention from rapid clearance owing to their autologous nature make them an effective anticancer NCs. In this manuscript, we have discussed various methods for isolation, coating and characterization of NM. We have discussed the role of NM-coated nanotherapeutics as neoadjuvant and adjuvant in different treatment modalities, such as chemotherapy, photothermal and photodynamic therapies with rationales behind their inclusion. Clinical hurdles faced during the bench-to-bedside translation with possible solutions have been discussed. We believe that in the upcoming years, NM-coated nanotherapeutics will open a new horizon in cancer management.

Knowledge Gaps in Generating Cell-Based Drug Delivery Systems and a Possible Meeting with Artificial Intelligence

Cell-based drug delivery systems are new strategies in targeted delivery in which cells or cell-membrane-derived systems are used as carriers and release their cargo in a controlled manner. Recently, great attention has been directed to cells as carrier systems for treating several diseases. There are various challenges in the development of cell-based drug delivery systems. The prediction of the properties of these platforms is a prerequisite step in their development to reduce undesirable effects. Integrating nanotechnology and artificial intelligence leads to more innovative technologies. Artificial intelligence quickly mines data and makes decisions more quickly and accurately. Machine learning as a subset of the broader artificial intelligence has been used in nanomedicine to design safer nanomaterials. Here, how challenges of developing cell-based drug delivery systems can be solved with potential predictive models of artificial intelligence and machine learning is portrayed. The most famous cell-based drug delivery systems and their challenges are described. Last but not least, artificial intelligence and most of its types used in nanomedicine are highlighted. The present Review has shown the challenges of developing cells or their derivatives as carriers and how they can be used with potential predictive models of artificial intelligence and machine learning.

Myriocin suppresses tumor growth by modulating macrophage polarization and function through the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway

Macrophages within the tumor microenvironment (TME), referred to as tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), are involved in various aspects of tumor progression including initiation, angiogenesis, metastasis, immunosuppression, and resistance to therapy. Myriocin, a natural compound isolated from Mycelia sterilia, is an immunosuppressant that inhibits tumor growth and angiogenesis. However, the mechanisms underlying the effects of myriocin on TAMs and TAM-mediated tumor growth have not yet been elucidated. In this study, we determined the effects of myriocin on TAMs and the underlying mechanism in vitro and in vivo. Myriocin significantly suppressed monocyte-macrophage differentiation and M2 polarization of macrophages but not M1 polarization. In addition, myriocin inhibited the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines and secretion of proangiogenic factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor, in M2 macrophages as well as M2-induced endothelial cell permeability. Myriocin also inhibited the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway in M2 macrophages. Myriocin reduced the population of M2-like TAMs within the tumor tissue of a mouse allograft tumor model but not that of M1-like TAMs. Moreover, combined treatment with myriocin and cisplatin synergistically suppressed tumor growth and enhanced survival rate in mice by reducing the population of M2-like TAMs. Overall, these results suggest that myriocin inhibits tumor growth by remodeling the TME through suppression of differentiation and polarization of M2-like TAMs via the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway.

Lung Inflammation Resolution by RvD1 and RvD2 in a Receptor-Dependent Manner

Inflammation resolution is an active process via specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) to fight invading microbes and repair tissue injury. RvD1 and RvD2 are SPMs produced from DHA during inflammation responses and show a benefit in treating inflammation disorders, but it is not completely understood how they act on vasculature and immune cells in the lung to promote inflammation resolution programs. Here, we studied how RvD1 and RvD2 regulated the interactions between endothelial cells and neutrophils in vitro and in vivo. In an acute lung inflammation (ALI) mouse model, we found that RvD1 and RvD2 resolved lung inflammation via their receptors (ALX/GPR32 or GPR18) and enhanced the macrophage phagocytosis of apoptotic neutrophils, which may be the molecular mechanism of lung inflammation resolution. Interestingly, we observed the higher potency of RvD1 over RvD2, which may be associated with unique downstream signaling pathways. Together, our studies suggest that the targeted delivery of these SPMs into inflammatory sites may be novel strategies with which to treat a wide range of inflammatory diseases.

Chemotaxis-guided Self-propelled Macrophage Motor for Targeted Treatment of Acute Pneumonia

Immune cells exhibit great potential as carriers of nanomedicine, attributed to their high tolerance to internalized nanomaterials and targeted accumulation in inflammatory tissues. However, the premature efflux of internalized nanomedicine during systemic delivery and slow infiltration into inflammatory tissues have limited their translational applications. Herein, a motorized cell platform as a nanomedicine carrier for highly efficient accumulation and infiltration in the inflammatory lungs and effective treatment of acute pneumonia are reported. β-Cyclodextrin and adamantane respectively modified manganese dioxide nanoparticles are intracellularly self-assembled into large aggregates mediated via host-guest interactions, to effectively inhibit the efflux of nanoparticles, catalytically consume/deplete H₂ O₂ to alleviate inflammation, and generate O₂ to propel macrophage movement for rapid tissue infiltration. With curcumin loaded into MnO₂ nanoparticles, macrophages carry the intracellular nano-assemblies rapidly into the inflammatory lungs via chemotaxis-guided, self-propelled movement, for effective treatment of acute pneumonia via immunoregulation induced by curcumin and the aggregates.

Remote Co-loading of amphipathic acid drugs in neutrophil nanovesicles infilled with cholesterol mitigates lung bacterial infection and inflammation

Lung bacterial infections could result in acute lung inflammation/injury (ALI) that propagates to its severe form, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ADRS) leading to the death. The molecular mechanism of ALI is associated with bacterial invasion and the host inflammation response. Here, we proposed a novel strategy to specifically target both bacteria and inflammatory pathways by co-loading of antibiotics (azlocillin, AZ) and anti-inflammatory agents (methylprednisolone sodium, MPS) in neutrophil nanovesicles. We found that cholesterol infilling in the membrane of nanovesicles can maintain a pH gradient between intra-vesicles and outer-vesicles, so we remotely loaded both AZ and MPS in single nanovesicles. The results showed that loading efficiency of both drugs can achieve more than 30% (w/w), and delivery of both drugs using nanovesicles accelerated bacterial clearance and resolved inflammation responses, thus preventing the potential lung damage due to infections. Our studies show that remote loading of multiple drugs in neutrophil nanovesicles which specifically target the infectious lung could be translational to treat ARDS.

Assembling AgAuSe Quantum Dots with Peptidoglycan and Neutrophils to Realize Enhanced Tumor Targeting, NIR (II) Imaging, and Sonodynamic Therapy

Significant progress is made in drug delivery systems, but they still face problems such as poor stability in vivo, off-target drugs, and difficulty in crossing biological barriers. It is urgent to realize efficient targeted delivery and precisely controlled sustained release of drugs by using the integrated nanoplatform. Theranostic nanoplatform is a new biomedical technology that combines diagnosis or monitoring of diseases with treatment. Here, an integrated strategy of diagnosis and treatment is reported for delivering NIR-II imaged and therapeutic AgAuSe quantum dots (QDs) carried by peptidoglycan multilayer networks of bacteria to hitchhike circulating neutrophils for targeting the tumor. The assembled nanomaterials have good stability, which can not only initiate endogenous cells for drug delivery and achieve efficient targeting, but also guide drug imaging with excellent fluorescence property. Meanwhile, the elimination of established solid tumor is achieved with the administration of sonodynamic therapy without recurrence. This drug system expands the application of endogenous cell to participate in drug delivery system. Thus, the assembly strategy demonstrates the potential of endogenous neutrophils in functioning as natural drug vehicles and the application of NIR-II fluorescent QDs in biomedical engineering.

Living Leukocyte-Based Drug Delivery Systems

Leukocytes play a vital role in immune responses, including defending against invasive pathogens, reconstructing impaired tissue, and maintaining immune homeostasis. When the immune system is activated in vivo, leukocytes accomplish a series of orderly and complex regulatory processes. While cancer and inflammation-related diseases like sepsis are critical medical difficulties plaguing humankind around the world, leukocytes have been shown to largely gather at the focal site, and significantly contribute to inflammation and cancer progression. Therefore, the living leukocyte-based drug delivery systems have attracted considerable attention in recent years due to the innate and specific targeting effect, low immunogenicity, improved therapeutic efficacy, and low reverse effect. In this review, the recent advances in the development of living leukocyte-based drug delivery systems including macrophages, neutrophils, and lymphocytes as promising treatment strategies for cancer and inflammation-related diseases are introduced. The advantages, current challenges, and limitations of these delivery systems are also discussed, as well as perspectives on the future development of precision and targeted therapy in the clinics are provided. Collectively, it is expected that such kind of living cell-based drug delivery system is promising to improve or even revolutionize the treatments of cancers and inflammation-related diseases in the clinics.

Current progress of mesenchymal stem cell membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles for targeted therapy

Nanodrug delivery systems have been widely used in disease treatment. However, weak drug targeting, easy to be cleared by the immune system, and low biocompatibility are great obstacles for drug delivery. As an important part of cell information transmission and behavior regulation, cell membrane can be used as drug coating material which represents a promising strategy and can overcome these limitations. Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) membrane, as a new carrier, has the characteristics of active targeting and immune escape of MSC, and has broad application potential in tumor treatment, inflammatory disease, tissue regeneration and other fields. Here, we review recent progress on the use of MSC membrane-coated nanoparticles for therapy and drug delivery, aiming to provide guidance for the design and clinical application of membrane carrier in the future.

Emerging advances in engineered macrophages for tumor immunotherapy

Macrophages are versatile antigen-presenting cells. Recent studies suggest that engineered modifications of macrophages may confer better tumor therapy. Genetic engineering of macrophages with specific chimeric antigen receptors offers new possibilities for treatment of solid tumors and has received significant attention. In vitro gene editing of macrophages and infusion into the body can inhibit the immunosuppressive effect of the tumor microenvironment in solid tumors. This strategy is flexible and can be applied to all stages of cancer treatment. In contrast, nongenetic engineering tools are used to block relevant signaling pathways in immunosuppressive responses. In addition, macrophages can be loaded with drugs and engineered into cellular drug delivery systems. Here, we analyze the effect of the chimeric antigen receptor platform on macrophages and other existing engineering modifications of macrophages, highlighting their status, challenges and future perspectives. Indeed, our analyses show that new approaches in the treatment of solid tumors will likely exploit macrophages, an innate immune cell.

A multiscale hybrid model for exploring the effect of Resolvin D1 on macrophage polarization during acute inflammation

Dysregulated inflammation underlies various diseases. Specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) like Resolvin D1 (RvD1) have been shown to resolve inflammation and halt disease progression. Macrophages, key immune cells that drive inflammation, respond to the presence of RvD1 by polarizing to an anti-inflammatory type (M₂). However, RvD1's mechanisms, roles, and utility are not fully understood. This paper introduces a gene-regulatory network (GRN) model that contains pathways for RvD1 and other SPMs and proinflammatory molecules like lipopolysaccharides. We couple this GRN model to a partial differential equation - agent-based hybrid model using a multiscale framework to simulate an acute inflammatory response with and without the presence of RvD1. We calibrate and validate the model using experimental data from two animal models. The model reproduces the dynamics of key immune components and the effects of RvD1 during acute inflammation. Our results suggest RvD1 can drive macrophage polarization through the G protein-coupled receptor 32 (GRP32) pathway. The presence of RvD1 leads to an earlier and increased M₂ polarization, reduced neutrophil recruitment, and faster apoptotic neutrophil clearance. These results support a body of literature that suggests that RvD1 is a promising candidate for promoting the resolution of acute inflammation. We conclude that once calibrated and validated on human data, the model can identify critical sources of uncertainty, which could be further elucidated in biological experiments and assessed for clinical use.

Immune-regulating camouflaged nanoplatforms: A promising strategy to improve cancer nano-immunotherapy

Although nano-immunotherapy has advanced dramatically in recent times, there remain two significant hurdles related to immune systems in cancer treatment, such as (namely) inevitable immune elimination of nanoplatforms and severely immunosuppressive microenvironment with low immunogenicity, hampering the performance of nanomedicines. To address these issues, several immune-regulating camouflaged nanocomposites have emerged as prevailing strategies due to their unique characteristics and specific functionalities. In this review, we emphasize the composition, performances, and mechanisms of various immune-regulating camouflaged nanoplatforms, including polymer-coated, cell membrane-camouflaged, and exosome-based nanoplatforms to evade the immune clearance of nanoplatforms or upregulate the immune function against the tumor. Further, we discuss the applications of these immune-regulating camouflaged nanoplatforms in directly boosting cancer immunotherapy and some immunogenic cell death-inducing immunotherapeutic modalities, such as chemotherapy, photothermal therapy, and reactive oxygen species-mediated immunotherapies, highlighting the current progress and recent advancements. Finally, we conclude the article with interesting perspectives, suggesting future tendencies of these innovative camouflaged constructs towards their translation pipeline.

A ratiometric near-infrared fluorescence/photoacoustic dual-modal probe with strong donor dithienopyrrole for in vivo nitric oxide detection

Integrating the imaging techniques of near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) and photoacoustic (PA) can make up for each other and provide more useful medical information. Ratiometric imaging activated by disease-associated biomarkers can further augment imaging specificity. However, very few studies have employed the NIRF/PA dual-modal ratiometric imaging to improve the accuracy and specificity of disease diagnosis to date. In this paper, we present the synthesis of a nitric oxide (NO)-activated ratiometric NIRF/PA dual-modal nanoprobe RAPNP for in vivo NO imaging. The ratiometric imaging function was achieved jointly by a NO/acidity-responsive molecule DTP-BTDA and a nonresponsive fluorophore DTP-BBTD. In these fluorophores, the dithienopyrrole (DTP) moiety had strong electron-donating ability and imparted strong intramolecular charge transfer and relatively long emission wavelengths. The BTDA moiety in DTP-BTDA could be rapidly oxidized by NO under weak acidic environments, achieving the NIRF and PA signal activation. By using RAPNP as a contrast agent, we achieved the ratiometric detection of the endogenous NO in inflammatory bowel disease by NIRF/PA dual-modal imaging. This work provides the first case of the NIRF/PA dual-signal ratiometric probe for the real-time detection of NO in vivo.

Cell-Based Drug Delivery Systems with Innate Homing Capability as a Novel Nanocarrier Platform

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have been designed to treat various diseases. However, many problems remain, such as inadequate tumor targeting and poor therapeutic outcomes. To overcome these obstacles, cell-based drug delivery systems have been developed. Candidates for cell-mediated drug delivery include blood cells, immune cells, and stem cells with innate tumor tropism and low immunogenicity; they act as a disguise to deliver the therapeutic payload. In drug delivery systems, therapeutic agents are encapsulated intracellularly or attached to the surface of the plasma membrane and transported to the desired site. Here, we review the pros and cons of cell-based therapies and discuss their homing mechanisms in the tumor microenvironment. In addition, different strategies to load therapeutic agents inside or on the surface of circulating cells and the current applications for a wide range of disease treatments are summarized.

Bioengineered Bacterial Membrane Vesicles with Multifunctional Nanoparticles as a Versatile Platform for Cancer Immunotherapy

Inducing immunogenic cell death (ICD) is a critical strategy for enhancing cancer immunotherapy. However, inefficient and risky ICD inducers along with a tumor hypoxia microenvironment seriously limit the immunotherapy efficacy. Non-specific delivery is also responsible for this inefficiency. In this work, we report a drug-free bacteria-derived outer membrane vesicle (OMV)-functionalized Fe₃O₄-MnO₂ (FMO) nanoplatform that realized neutrophil-mediated targeted delivery and photothermally enhanced cancer immunotherapy. In this system, modification of OMVs derived from Escherichia coli enhanced the accumulation of FMO NPs at the tumor tissue through neutrophil-mediated targeted delivery. The FMO NPs underwent reactive decomposition in the tumor site, generating manganese and iron ions that induced ICD and O₂ that regulated the tumor hypoxia environment. Moreover, OMVs are rich in pathogen-associated pattern molecules that can overcome the tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment and effectively activate immune cells, thereby enhancing specific immune responses. Photothermal therapy (PTT) caused by MnO₂ and Fe₃O₄ can not only indirectly stimulate systemic immunity by directly destroying tumor cells but also promote the enrichment of neutrophil-equipped nanoparticles by enhancing the inflammatory response at the tumor site. Finally, the proposed multi-modal treatment system with targeted delivery capability realized effective tumor immunotherapy to prevent tumor growth and recurrence.

Nanotechnology-based cell-mediated delivery systems for cancer therapy and diagnosis

The global prevalence of cancer is increasing, necessitating new additions to traditional treatments and diagnoses to address shortcomings such as ineffectiveness, complications, and high cost. In this context, nano and microparticulate carriers stand out due to their unique properties such as controlled release, higher bioavailability, and lower toxicity. Despite their popularity, they face several challenges including rapid liver uptake, low chemical stability in blood circulation, immunogenicity concerns, and acute adverse effects. Cell-mediated delivery systems are important topics to research because of their biocompatibility, biodegradability, prolonged delivery, high loading capacity, and targeted drug delivery capabilities. To date, a variety of cells including blood, immune, cancer, and stem cells, sperm, and bacteria have been combined with nanoparticles to develop efficient targeted cancer delivery or diagnosis systems. The review paper aimed to provide an overview of the potential applications of cell-based delivery systems in cancer therapy and diagnosis.

Advances in nanomaterial-based targeted drug delivery systems

Nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems (NBDDS) are widely used to improve the safety and therapeutic efficacy of encapsulated drugs due to their unique physicochemical and biological properties. By combining therapeutic drugs with nanoparticles using rational targeting pathways, nano-targeted delivery systems were created to overcome the main drawbacks of conventional drug treatment, including insufficient stability and solubility, lack of transmembrane transport, short circulation time, and undesirable toxic effects. Herein, we reviewed the recent developments in different targeting design strategies and therapeutic approaches employing various nanomaterial-based systems. We also discussed the challenges and perspectives of smart systems in precisely targeting different intravascular and extravascular diseases.

Cell-Based Drug Delivery Systems Participate in the Cancer Immunity Cycle for Improved Cancer Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy aims to activate the cancer patient's immune system for cancer therapy. The whole process of the immune system against cancer referred to as the "cancer immunity cycle", gives insight into how drugs can be designed to affect every step of the anticancer immune response. Cancer immunotherapy such as immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy, cancer vaccines, as well as small molecule modulators has been applied to fight various cancers. However, the effect of immunotherapy in clinical applications is still unsatisfactory due to the limited response rate and immune-related adverse events. Mounting evidence suggests that cell-based drug delivery systems (DDSs) with low immunogenicity, superior targeting, and prolonged circulation have great potential to improve the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. Therefore, with the rapid development of cell-based DDSs, understanding their important roles in various stages of the cancer immunity cycle guides the better design of cell-based cancer immunotherapy. Herein, an overview of how cell-based DDSs participate in cancer immunotherapy at various stages is presented and an outlook on possible challenges of clinical translation and application in future development.

Targeting inorganic nanoparticles to tumors using biological membrane-coated technology

Inorganic nanoparticles have extensively revolutionized the effectiveness of cancer therapeutics due to their distinct physicochemical properties. However, the therapeutic efficiency of inorganic nanoparticles is greatly hampered by the complex tumor microenvironment, patient heterogeneity, and systemic nonspecific toxicity. The biomimetic technology based on biological membranes (cell- or bacteria-derived membranes) is a promising strategy to confer unique characteristics to inorganic nanoparticles, such as superior biocompatibility, prolonged circulation time, immunogenicity, homologous tumor targeting, and flexible engineering approaches on the surface, resulting in the enhanced therapeutic efficacy of inorganic nanoparticles against cancer. Therefore, a greater push toward developing biomimetic-based nanotechnology could increase the specificity and potency of inorganic nanoparticles for effective cancer treatment. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in biological membrane-coated inorganic nanoparticles in cancer precise therapy and highlight the different types of engineered approaches, applications, mechanisms, and future perspectives. The surface engineering of biological membrane can greatly enhance their targeting, intelligence, and functionality, thereby realizing stronger tumor therapy effects. Further advances in materials science, biomedicine, and oncology can facilitate the clinical translation of biological membrane-coated inorganic nanoparticles.

Emerging applications of nanotechnology in context to immunology: A comprehensive review

Numerous benefits of nanotechnology are available in many scientific domains. In this sense, nanoparticles serve as the fundamental foundation of nanotechnology. Recent developments in nanotechnology have demonstrated that nanoparticles have enormous promise for use in almost every field of life sciences. Nanoscience and nanotechnology use the distinctive characteristics of tiny nanoparticles (NPs) for various purposes in electronics, fabrics, cosmetics, biopharmaceutical industries, and medicines. The exclusive physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of nanoparticles prompt different immune responses in the body. Nanoparticles are believed to have strong potential for the development of advanced adjuvants, cytokines, vaccines, drugs, immunotherapies, and theranostic applications for the treatment of targeted bacterial, fungal, viral, and allergic diseases and removal of the tumor with minimal toxicity as compared to macro and microstructures. This review highlights the medical and non-medical applications with a detailed discussion on enhanced and targeted natural and acquired immunity against pathogens provoked by nanoparticles. The immunological aspects of the nanotechnology field are beyond the scope of this Review. However, we provide updated data that will explore novel theragnostic immunological applications of nanotechnology for better and immediate treatment.

Neutrophil-mediated delivery of the combination of colistin and azithromycin for the treatment of bacterial infection

Novel treatment strategies are in urgent need to deal with the rapid development of antibiotic-resistant superbugs. Combination therapies and targeted drug delivery have been exploited to promote treatment efficacies. In this study, we loaded neutrophils with azithromycin and colistin to combine the advantages of antibiotic combinations, targeted delivery, and immunomodulatory effect of azithromycin to treat infections caused by Gram-negative pathogens. Delivery of colistin into neutrophils was mediated by fusogenic liposome, while azithromycin was directly taken up by neutrophils. Neutrophils loaded with the drugs maintained the abilitity to generate reactive oxygen species and migrate. In vitro assays demonstrated enhanced bactericidal activity against multidrug-resistant pathogens and reduced inflammatory cytokine production by the drug-loaded neutrophils. A single intravenous administration of the drug-loaded neutrophils effectively protected mice from Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in an acute pneumonia model. This study provides a potential effective therapeutic approach for the treatment of bacterial infections.

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Neutrophils are loaded with colistin and azithromycin in vitro

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The loaded drugs enhance the bactericidal effect and reduce the inflammatory response

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Drug-loaded neutrophils conferred effective protection against bacterial infection

The Role of in silico Research in Developing Nanoparticle-Based Therapeutics

Nanoparticles (NPs) hold great potential as therapeutics, particularly in the realm of drug delivery. They are effective at functional cargo delivery and offer a great degree of amenability that can be used to offset toxic side effects or to target drugs to specific regions in the body. However, there are many challenges associated with the development of NP-based drug formulations that hamper their successful clinical translation. Arguably, the most significant barrier in the way of efficacious NP-based drug delivery systems is the tedious and time-consuming nature of NP formulation—a process that needs to account for downstream effects, such as the onset of potential toxicity or immunogenicity, in vivo biodistribution and overall pharmacokinetic profiles, all while maintaining desirable therapeutic outcomes. Computational and AI-based approaches have shown promise in alleviating some of these restrictions. Via predictive modeling and deep learning, in silico approaches have shown the ability to accurately model NP-membrane interactions and cellular uptake based on minimal data, such as the physicochemical characteristics of a given NP. More importantly, machine learning allows computational models to predict how specific changes could be made to the physicochemical characteristics of a NP to improve functional aspects, such as drug retention or endocytosis. On a larger scale, they are also able to predict the in vivo pharmacokinetics of NP-encapsulated drugs, predicting aspects such as circulatory half-life, toxicity, and biodistribution. However, the convergence of nanomedicine and computational approaches is still in its infancy and limited in its applicability. The interactions between NPs, the encapsulated drug and the body form an intricate network of interactions that cannot be modeled with absolute certainty. Despite this, rapid advancements in the area promise to deliver increasingly powerful tools capable of accelerating the development of advanced nanoscale therapeutics. Here, we describe computational approaches that have been utilized in the field of nanomedicine, focusing on approaches for NP design and engineering.

Enhanced tumor homing of pathogen-mimicking liposomes driven by R848 stimulation: A new platform for synergistic oncology therapy

Although multifarious tumor-targeting modifications of nanoparticulate systems have been attempted in joint efforts by our predecessors, it remains challenging for nanomedicine to traverse physiological barriers involving blood vessels, tissues, and cell barriers to thereafter demonstrate excellent antitumor effects. To further overcome these inherent obstacles, we designed and prepared mycoplasma membrane (MM)-fused liposomes (LPs) with the goal of employing circulating neutrophils with the advantage of inflammatory cytokine-guided autonomous tumor localization to transport nanoparticles. We also utilized in vivo neutrophil activation induced by the liposomal form of the immune activator resiquimod (LPs-R848). Fused LPs preparations retained mycoplasma pathogen characteristics and achieved rapid recognition and endocytosis by activated neutrophils stimulated by LPs-R848. The enhanced neutrophil infiltration in homing of the inflammatory tumor microenvironment allowed more nanoparticles to be delivered into solid tumors. Facilitated by the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), podophyllotoxin (POD)-loaded MM-fused LPs (MM-LPs-POD) were concomitantly released from neutrophils and subsequently engulfed by tumor cells during inflammation. MM-LPs-POD displayed superior suppression efficacy of tumor growth and lung metastasis in a 4T1 breast tumor model. Overall, such a strategy of pathogen-mimicking nanoparticles hijacking neutrophils in situ combined with enhanced neutrophil infiltration indeed elevates the potential of chemotherapeutics for tumor targeting therapy.

Bacteria and cells as alternative nano-carriers for biomedical applications

INTRODUCTION

Nano-based systems have received a lot of attention owing to their particular properties and, hence, have been proposed for a wide variety of biomedical applications. These nanosystems could be potentially employed for diagnosis and therapy of different medical issues. Although these nanomaterials are designed for specific tasks, interactions, and transformations when administered to the human body affect their performance and behavior. In this regard, bacteria and other cells have been presented as alternative nanocarriers. These microorganisms can be genetically modified and customized for a more specific therapeutic action and, in combination with nanomaterials, can lead to bio-hybrids with a unique potential for biomedical purposes.

AREAS COVERED

Literature regarding bacteria and cells employed in combination with nanomaterials for biomedical applications is revised and discussed in this review. The potential as well as the limitations of these novel bio-hybrid systems are evaluated. Several examples are presented to show the performance of these alternative nanocarriers.

EXPERT OPINION

Bio-hybrid systems have shown their potential as alternative nanocarriers as they contribute to better performance than traditional nano-based systems. Nevertheless, their limitations must be studied, and advantages and drawbacks assessed before their application to medicine.

Aggregation-Induced Emission (AIE) Nanoparticles-Assisted NIR-II Fluorescence Imaging-Guided Diagnosis and Surgery for Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)

The incidence of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), including Crohn's diseases and ulcerative colitis, is increasing by time and showing a trend of younger age. Precise diagnosis and effective treatments for IBD have attracted growing attention in recent years. However, diagnosing and locating inflammatory lesions remain a great challenge for IBD. In this study, assisted by a kind of aggregation-induced emission (AIE) nanoprobes (BPN-BBTD nanoparticles [NPs]), the second near-infrared (NIR-II) fluorescence imaging is first utilized to accurately trace inflammatory lesions, monitor inflammation severity and detect the response to the drug intervention in IBD mouse models. Through the advantages of high signal-to-background ratio (SBR) and sharp spatial resolution of bio-imaging in NIR-II region, the NIR-II fluorescence imaging-guided surgery can help to achieve a complete resection of severe inflammatory bowls and a secure surgical anastomosis. In addition, with the help of NIR-II fluorescence wide-field microscopy, the distribution of BPN-BBTD NPs can be directly detected in tissue level and found to be mainly accumulated in mucosa and submucosa layers. This study highlights that AIE NPs-assisted NIR-II fluorescence imaging hold a great potential value for future diagnosis and imaging-guided surgery in IBD.

Cell/Bacteria-Based Bioactive Materials for Cancer Immune Modulation and Precision Therapy

Numerous clinical trials for cancer precision medicine research are limited due to the drug resistance, side effects, and low efficacy. Unsatisfactory outcomes are often caused by complex physiologic barriers and abnormal immune events in tumors, such as tumor target alterations and immunosuppression. Cell/bacteria-derived materials with unique bioactive properties have emerged as attractive tools for personalized therapy in cancer. Naturally derived bioactive materials, such as cell and bacterial therapeutic agents with native tropism or good biocompatibility, can precisely target tumors and effectively modulate immune microenvironments to inhibit tumors. Here, the recent advances in the development of cell/bacteria-based bioactive materials for immune modulation and precision therapy in cancer are summarized. Cell/bacterial constituents, including cell membranes, bacterial vesicles, and other active substances have inherited their unique targeting properties and antitumor capabilities. Strategies for engineering living cell/bacteria to overcome complex biological barriers and immunosuppression to promote antitumor efficacy are also summarized. Moreover, past and ongoing trials involving personalized bioactive materials and promising agents such as cell/bacteria-based micro/nano-biorobotics are further discussed, which may become another powerful tool for treatment in the near future.

Protein-Based Nanoparticles for the Imaging and Treatment of Solid Tumors: The Case of Ferritin Nanocages, a Narrative Review

Protein nanocages have been studied extensively, due to their unique architecture, exceptional biocompatibility and highly customization capabilities. In particular, ferritin nanocages (FNs) have been employed for the delivery of a vast array of molecules, ranging from chemotherapeutics to imaging agents, among others. One of the main favorable characteristics of FNs is their intrinsic targeting efficiency toward the Transferrin Receptor 1, which is overexpressed in many tumors. Furthermore, genetic manipulation can be employed to introduce novel variants that are able to improve the loading capacity, targeting capabilities and bio-availability of this versatile drug delivery system. In this review, we discuss the main characteristics of FN and the most recent applications of this promising nanotechnology in the field of oncology with a particular emphasis on the imaging and treatment of solid tumors.

Neutrophils as an emerging therapeutic target and tool for cancer therapy

Activation of neutrophils is necessary for the protection of the host against microbial infection. This property can be used as mode of therapy for cancer treatment. Neutrophils have conflicting dual functions in cancer as either a tumor promoter or inhibitor. Neutrophil-based drug delivery has achieved increased attention in pre-clinical models. This review addresses in detail the different neutrophil constituents, the conflicting function of neutrophils and activation of the neutrophil as an important target of therapy for cancer treatment, and use of neutrophils or neutrophil membrane-derived vesicles as vehicles for drug delivery and targeting.

Nano-engineered immune cells as "guided missiles" for cancer therapy

Immune cells can actively regulate tumors or inflammatory sites and have good biocompatibility and safety. Currently, they are one of the most promising candidates for drug delivery systems. Moreover, immune cells can significantly extend the circulation time of nanoparticles and have broad-spectrum tumor-targeting properties. This article first introduces the immune cell types most commonly used in recent years, analyzes their advantages and disadvantages, and elucidates their application in anti-tumor therapy. Next, the various ways of loading nanoparticles on immune cells that have been used in recent years are summarized and simply divided into two categories: backpacks and Trojan horses. Finally, the two "mountains" that stand in front of us when using immune cells as cell carriers, off-target problems and effective release strategies, are discussed.

Changes in the nanoparticle uptake and distribution caused by an intramacrophagic parasitic infection

This study investigates if visceral leishmaniasis (VL) infection has some effects on the organ and cellular uptake and distribution of 100-200 nm near-infrared fluorescently labelled non-biodegradable polystyrene latex beads (PS NPs) or biodegradable polylactic-co-glycolic nanoparticles (PLGA NPs), as this parasitic infection produces morphological alterations in liver, spleen and bone marrow, organs highly involved in NP sequestration. The results showed that the magnitude of the effect was specific for each organ and type of NP. With the exception of the liver, the general trend was a decrease in NP organ and cellular uptake, mostly due to immune cell mobilization and/or weight organ gain, as vascular permeability was increased. Moreover, NPs redistributed among different phagocytic cells to adapt infection associated changes and cellular alterations. In the liver, it is noteworthy that only isolated Kuffer cells (KCs) captured NPs, whereas they were not taken up by KC forming granulomas. In the spleen, NPs redistributed from macrophages and dendritic cells towards B cells and inflammatory monocytes although they maintained their preferential accumulation in the marginal zone and red pulp. Comparatively, the infection rarely affected the NP cellular distribution in the bone marrow. NP cellular target changes in VL infection could affect their therapeutic efficacy and should be considered for more efficient drug delivery.

Design and Optimization of the Circulatory Cell-Driven Drug Delivery Platform

Achievement of high targeting efficiency for a drug delivery system remains a challenge of tumor diagnoses and nonsurgery therapies. Although nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have made great progress in extending circulation time, improving durability, and controlling drug release, the targeting efficiency remains low. And the development is limited to reducing side effects since overall survival rates are mostly unchanged. Therefore, great efforts have been made to explore cell-driven drug delivery systems in the tumor area. Cells, particularly those in the blood circulatory system, meet most of the demands that the nanoparticle-based delivery systems do not. These cells possess extended circulation times and innate chemomigration ability and can activate an immune response that exerts therapeutic effects. However, new challenges have emerged, such as payloads, cell function change, cargo leakage, and in situ release. Generally, employing cells from the blood circulatory system as cargo carriers has achieved great benefits and paved the way for tumor diagnosis and therapy. This review specifically covers (a) the properties of red blood cells, monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, natural killer cells, T lymphocytes, and mesenchymal stem cells; (b) the loading strategies to balance cargo amounts and cell function balance; (c) the cascade strategies to improve cell-driven targeting delivery efficiency; and (d) the features and applications of cell membranes, artificial cells, and extracellular vesicles in cancer treatment.

Bioactive nanotherapeutic trends to combat triple negative breast cancer

The management of aggressive breast cancer, particularly, triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) remains a formidable challenge, despite treatment advancement. Although newer therapies such as atezolizumab, olaparib, and sacituzumab can tackle the breast cancer prognosis and/or progression, but achieved limited survival benefit(s). The current research efforts are aimed to develop and implement strategies for improved bioavailability, targetability, reduce systemic toxicity, and enhance therapeutic outcome of FDA-approved treatment regimen. This review presents various nanoparticle technology mediated delivery of chemotherapeutic agent(s) for breast cancer treatment. This article also documents novel strategies to employ cellular and cell membrane cloaked (biomimetic) nanoparticles for effective clinical translation. These technologies offer a safe and active targeting nanomedicine for effective management of breast cancer, especially TNBC.

Endothelial cell membrane-based biosurface for targeted delivery to acute injury: analysis of leukocyte-mediated nanoparticle transportation

Mimicking and leveraging biological structures and materials provide important approaches to develop functional vehicles for drug delivery. Taking advantage of the affinity and adhesion between the activated endothelial cells and innate immune cells during inflammatory responses, hybrid polyester nanoparticles coated with endothelial cell membranes (EM-P) containing adhesion molecules were fabricated and their capability as vehicles to travel to the acute injury sites through leukocyte-mediated processes was investigated. The in vivo studies and quantitative analyses performed through the lung-inflammation mouse models demonstrated that the EM-Ps preferentially interacted with the neutrophils and monocytes in the circulation and the cellular membrane-based biosurface improved the nanoparticle transportation to the inflamed lung possibly via the motility of neutrophils. Utilizing the transgenic zebrafish model, the leukocyte-mediated transportation and biodistribution of EM-Ps were further visualized in real time at the whole-organism level. Endothelial membranes provided a new biosurface for developing biomimetic vehicles to allow the immune cell-mediated transportation and may enable advanced systems for active and highly efficient drug delivery.