Iron Oxide Nanoflowers @ CuS Hybrids for Cancer Tri-Therapy: Interplay of Photothermal Therapy, Magnetic Hyperthermia and Photodynamic Therapy

Magnetic engineering nanoparticles: Versatile tools revolutionizing biomedical applications

The use of nanoparticles has increased significantly over the past few years in a number of fields, including diagnostics, biomedicine, environmental remediation, and water treatment, generating public interest. Among various types of nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have emerged as an essential tool for biomedical applications due to their distinct physicochemical properties compared to other nanoparticles. This review article focuses on the recent growth of MNPs and comprehensively reviews the advantages, multifunctional approaches, biomedical applications, and latest research on MNPs employed in various biomedical techniques. Biomedical applications of MNPs hold on to their ability to rapidly switch magnetic states under an external field at room temperature. Ideally, these MNPs should be highly susceptible to magnetization when the field is applied and then lose that magnetization just as quickly once the field is removed. This unique property allows MNPs to generate heat when exposed to high-frequency magnetic fields, making them valuable tools in developing treatments for hyperthermia and other heat-related illnesses. This review underscores the role of MNPs as tools that hold immense promise in transforming various aspects of healthcare, from diagnostics and imaging to therapeutic treatments, with discussion on a wide range of peer-reviewed articles published on the subject. At the conclusion of this work, challenges and potential future advances of MNPs in the biomedical field are highlighted.

Multicore iron oxide nanoparticles for magnetic hyperthermia and combination therapy against cancer cells

HYPOTHESIS

Multicore flower-like iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) are among the best candidates for magnetic hyperthermia applications against cancers. However, they are rarely investigated in physiological environments and their efficacy against cancer cells has been even less studied. The combination of magnetic hyperthermia, using multicore IONPs, with selected bioactive molecules should lead to an enhanced activity against cancer cells.

EXPERIMENTS

Multicore IONPs were synthesized by a seeded-growth thermal decomposition approach. Then, the cytotoxicity, cell uptake, and efficacy of the magnetic hyperthermia approach were studied with six cancer cell lines: PANC1 (pancreatic carcinoma), Mel202 (uveal melanoma), MCF7 (breast adenocarcinoma), MB231 (triple-negative breast cancer line), A549 (lung cancer), and HCT116 (colon cancer). Finally, IONPs were modified with a chemotherapeutic drug (SN38) and tumor suppressor microRNAs (miR-34a, miR-182, let-7b, and miR-137), to study their activity against cancer cells with and without combination with magnetic hyperthermia.

FINDINGS

Two types of multicore IONPs with very good heating abilities under magnetic stimulation have been prepared. Their concentration-dependent cytotoxicity and internalization have been established, showing a strong dependence on the cell line and the nanoparticle type. Magnetic hyperthermia causes significant cell death that is dramatically enhanced in combination with the bioactive molecules.

Bioinspired ferromagnetic NiFe2O4 nanoparticles: Eradication of fungal and drug-resistant bacterial pathogens and their established biofilm

Nickel ferrite nanoparticles (NiFe2O4 NPs) were synthesized using the medicinally important plant Aloe vera leaf extract, and their structural, morphological, and magnetic properties were characterized by x-ray diffraction (XRD), fourier transform infrared (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive x-ray (EDX), and vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM). The synthesized NPs were soft ferromagnetic and spinel in nature, with an average particle size of 22.2 nm. To the best of our understanding, this is the first comprehensive investigation into the antibacterial, anticandidal, antibiofilm, and antihyphal properties of NiFe2O4 NPs against C. albicans as well as drug-resistant gram-positive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and gram-negative multidrug resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MDR-P. aeruginosa) bacteria. NiFe2O4 NPs showed potent antimicrobial activity (MIC 1.6-2 mg/mL) against the test pathogens. NiFe2O4 NPs at 0.5 mg/mL suppressed biofilm formation by 49.5-53.1 % in test pathogens. The study found that the NPs not only prevent the formation of biofilm, but also eliminate existing mature biofilms by 50.5-75.79 % at 0.5 mg/mL, which was further validated by SEM. SEM examination revealed a reduction in the number of cells that form biofilms and adhere to the surface. Additionally, it considerably impeded the colonization and aggregation of the biofilm strains on the glass surface. Light microscopic examination demonstrated that NPs effectively prevent the expansion of hyphae, filaments, and yeast-to-hyphae transformation in C. albicans, resulting in a substantial decrease in their ability to cause infection. Moreover, SEM images of the treated cells exhibited the presence of wrinkles, deformities, and impaired cell walls, which suggests an alteration and instability of the membrane. This study demonstrated the efficacy of the greenly manufactured NPs in suppressing the proliferation of candida, drug-resistant bacteria, and their preexisting biofilms, as well as yeast-to-hyphae transformation. Therefore, these NPs with broad spectrum applications could be utilized in health settings to mitigate biofilm-related health conditions caused by pathogenic microbial strains.

Transition Metal Oxide Nanomaterials: New Weapons to Boost Anti-Tumor Immunity Cycle

Semiconductor nanomaterials have emerged as a significant factor in the advancement of tumor immunotherapy. This review discusses the potential of transition metal oxide (TMO) nanomaterials in the realm of anti-tumor immune modulation. These binary inorganic semiconductor compounds possess high electron mobility, extended ductility, and strong stability. Apart from being primary thermistor materials, they also serve as potent agents in enhancing the anti-tumor immunity cycle. The diverse metal oxidation states of TMOs result in a range of electronic properties, from metallicity to wide-bandgap insulating behavior. Notably, titanium oxide, manganese oxide, iron oxide, zinc oxide, and copper oxide have garnered interest due to their presence in tumor tissues and potential therapeutic implications. These nanoparticles (NPs) kickstart the tumor immunity cycle by inducing immunogenic cell death (ICD), prompting the release of ICD and tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) and working in conjunction with various therapies to trigger dendritic cell (DC) maturation, T cell response, and infiltration. Furthermore, they can alter the tumor microenvironment (TME) by reprogramming immunosuppressive tumor-associated macrophages into an inflammatory state, thereby impeding tumor growth. This review aims to bring attention to the research community regarding the diversity and significance of TMOs in the tumor immunity cycle, while also underscoring the potential and challenges associated with using TMOs in tumor immunotherapy.

Innovative Biomaterials for Bone Tumor Treatment and Regeneration: Tackling Postoperative Challenges and Charting the Path Forward

Surgical resection of bone tumors is the primary approach employed in the treatment of bone cancer. Simultaneously, perioperative interventions, particularly postoperative adjuvant anticancer strategies, play a crucial role in achieving satisfactory therapeutic outcomes. However, the occurrence of postoperative bone tumor recurrence, metastasis, extensive bone defects, and infection are significant risks that can result in unfavorable prognoses or even treatment failure. In recent years, there has been significant progress in the development of biomaterials, leading to the emergence of new treatment options for bone tumor therapy and bone regeneration. This progress report aims to comprehensively analyze the strategic development of unique therapeutic biomaterials with inherent healing properties and bioactive capabilities for bone tissue regeneration. These composite biomaterials, classified into metallic, inorganic non-metallic, and organic types, are thoroughly investigated for their responses to external stimuli such as light or magnetic fields, internal interventions including chemotherapy or catalytic therapy, and combination therapy, as well as their role in bone regeneration. Additionally, an overview of self-healing materials for osteogenesis is provided and their potential applications in combating osteosarcoma and promoting bone formation are explored. Furthermore, the safety concerns of integrated materials and current limitations are addressed, while also discussing the challenges and future prospects.

NIR and magnetism dual-response multi-core magnetic vortex nanoflowers for boosting magneto-photothermal cancer therapy

Due to the relatively low efficiency of magnetic hyperthermia and photothermal conversion, it is rather challenging for magneto-photothermal nanoagents to be used as an effective treatment during tumor hyperthermal therapy. The advancement of magnetic nanoparticles exhibiting a vortex-domain structure holds great promise as a viable strategy to enhance the application performance of conventional magnetic nanoparticles while retaining their inherent biocompatibility. Here, we report the development of Mn0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 nanoflowers with ellipsoidal magnetic cores, and show them as effective nanoagents for magneto-photothermal synergistic therapy. Comparative studies were conducted on the heating performance of anisometric Mn0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 (MZF) nanoparticles, including nanocubes (MZF-C), hollow spheres (MZF-HS), nanoflowers consisting of ellipsoidal magnetic cores (MZF-NFE), and nanoflowers consisting of needle-like magnetic cores (MZF-NFN). MZF-NFE exhibits an intrinsic loss parameter (ILP) of up to 15.3 N h m2 kg-1, which is better than that of commercial equivalents. Micromagnetic simulations reveal the magnetization configurations and reversal characteristics of the various MZF shapes. Additionally, all nanostructures displayed a considerable photothermal conversion efficiency rate of more than 18%. Our results demonstrated that by combining the dual exposure of MHT and PTT for hyperthermia treatments induced by MZF-NFE, BT549, MCF-7, and 4T1 cell viability can be significantly decreased by ∼95.7% in vitro.

Mechanism and potentialities of photothermal and photodynamic therapy of transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) against cancer

The ultimate goal of nanoparticle-based phototherapy is to suppress tumor growth. Photothermal therapy (PTT) and photothermal photodynamic therapy (PDT) are two types of physicochemical therapy that use light radiation with multiple wavelength ranges in the near-infrared to treat cancer. When a laser is pointed at tissue, photons are taken in the intercellular and intracellular regions, converting photon energy to heat. It has attracted much interest and research in recent years. The advent of transition materials dichalcogenides (TMDCs) is a revolutionary step in PDT/PTT-based cancer therapy. The TMDCs is a multilayer 2D nano-composite. TMDCs contain three atomic layers in which two chalcogens squash in the transition metal. The chalcogen atoms are highly reactive, and the surface characteristics of TMDCs help them to target deep cancer cells. They absorb Near Infrared (NIR), which kills deep cancer cells. In this review, we have discussed the history and mechanism of PDT/PTT and the use of TMDCs and nanoparticle-based systems, which have been practiced for theranostics purposes. We have also discussed PDT/PTT combined with immunotherapy, in which the cancer cell apoptosis is done by activating the immune cells, such as CD8+.

Magnetite nanoparticles: an emerging adjunctive tool for the improvement of cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has emerged as a groundbreaking field, offering promising and transformative tools for oncological research and treatment. However, it faces several limitations, including variations in cancer types, dependence on the tumor microenvironments (TMEs), immune cell exhaustion, and adverse reactions. Magnetic nanoparticles, particularly magnetite nanoparticles (MNPs), with established pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics for clinical use, hold great promise in this context and are now being explored for therapeutic aims. Numerous preclinical studies have illustrated their efficacy in enhancing immunotherapy through various strategies, such as modulating leukocyte functions, creating favorable TMEs for cytotoxic T lymphocytes, combining with monoclonal antibodies, and stimulating the immune response via magnetic hyperthermia (MHT) treatment (Front Immunol. 2021;12:701485. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.701485). However, the current clinical trials of MNPs are mostly for diagnostic aims and as a tool for generating hyperthermia for tumor ablation. With concerns about the adverse effects of MNPs in the in vivo systems, clinical translation and clinical study of MNP-boosted immunotherapy remains limited. The lack of extensive clinical investigations poses a current barrier to patient application. Urgent efforts are needed to ascertain both the efficacy of MNP-enhanced immunotherapy and its safety profile in combination therapy. This article reviews the roles, potential, and challenges of using MNPs in advancing cancer immunotherapy. The application of MNPs in boosting immunotherapy, and its perspective role in research and development is also discussed.

Advancements in Photothermal Therapy Using Near-Infrared Light for Bone Tumors

Bone tumors, particularly osteosarcoma, are prevalent among children and adolescents. This ailment has emerged as the second most frequent cause of cancer-related mortality in adolescents. Conventional treatment methods comprise extensive surgical resection, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. Consequently, the management of bone tumors and bone regeneration poses significant clinical challenges. Photothermal tumor therapy has attracted considerable attention owing to its minimal invasiveness and high selectivity. However, key challenges have limited its widespread clinical use. Enhancing the tumor specificity of photosensitizers through targeting or localized activation holds potential for better outcomes with fewer adverse effects. Combinations with chemotherapies or immunotherapies also present avenues for improvement. In this review, we provide an overview of the most recent strategies aimed at overcoming the limitations of photothermal therapy (PTT), along with current research directions in the context of bone tumors, including (1) target strategies, (2) photothermal therapy combined with multiple therapies (immunotherapies, chemotherapies, and chemodynamic therapies, magnetic, and photodynamic therapies), and (3) bifunctional scaffolds for photothermal therapy and bone regeneration. We delve into the pros and cons of these combination methods and explore current research focal points. Lastly, we address the challenges and prospects of photothermal combination therapy.

Surface engineered nanohybrids in plasmonic photothermal therapy for cancer: Regulatory and translational challenges

Plasmonic materials as non-invasive and selective treatment strategies are gaining increasing attention in the healthcare sector due to their remarkable optical and electronic properties, where the interface between matter and light becomes enhanced and highly localized. Some attractive applications of plasmonic materials in healthcare include drug delivery to target specific tissues or cells, hence reducing the side effects of the drug and improving their efficacy; enhancing the contrast and resolution in bioimaging; and selectively heating and destroying the cancerous cells while parting the healthy cells. Despite such advancements in photothermal therapy for cancer treatment, some limitations are still challenging. These include poor photothermal conversion efficiency, heat resistance, less accumulation in the tumor microenvironment, poor biosafety of photothermal agents, damage to the surrounding healthy tissues, post-treatment inflammatory responses, etc. Even though the clinical application of photothermal therapy is primarily restricted due to poor tissue penetration of excitation light, enzyme therapy is hindered due to less therapeutic efficacy. Several multimodal strategies, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, photodynamic therapy, and immunotherapy were developed to circumvent these side effects associated with plasmonic photothermal agents for effective mild-temperature photothermal therapy. It can be prophesied that the nanohybrid platform could pave the way for developing cutting-edge multifunctional precise nanomedicine via an ecologically sustainable approach towards cancer therapy. In the present review, we have highlighted the significant challenges of photothermal therapy from the laboratory to the clinical setting and their struggle to get approval from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Cuproptosis: A novel therapeutic target for overcoming cancer drug resistance

Cuproptosis is a newly identified form of cell death driven by copper. Recently, the role of copper and copper triggered cell death in the pathogenesis of cancers have attracted attentions. Cuproptosis has garnered enormous interest in cancer research communities because of its great potential for cancer therapy. Copper-based treatment exerts an inhibiting role in tumor growth and may open the door for the treatment of chemotherapy-insensitive tumors. In this review, we provide a critical analysis on copper homeostasis and the role of copper dysregulation in the development and progression of cancers. Then the core molecular mechanisms of cuproptosis and its role in cancer is discussed, followed by summarizing the current understanding of copper-based agents (copper chelators, copper ionophores, and copper complexes-based dynamic therapy) for cancer treatment. Additionally, we summarize the emerging data on copper complexes-based agents and copper ionophores to subdue tumor chemotherapy resistance in different types of cancers. We also review the small-molecule compounds and nanoparticles (NPs) that may kill cancer cells by inducing cuproptosis, which will shed new light on the development of anticancer drugs through inducing cuproptosis in the future. Finally, the important concepts and pressing questions of cuproptosis in future research that should be focused on were discussed. This review article suggests that targeting cuproptosis could be a novel antitumor therapy and treatment strategy to overcome cancer drug resistance.

Highly elastic photothermal nanofibrillated cellulose aerogels for solar-assisted efficient cleanup of viscous oil spill

Frequent oil spills and illegal industrial pollutant discharge cause ecological and resource damages, so it is necessary to establish efficient adsorption and recovery strategies for oils in wastewater. Herein, inspired by solar-driven viscosity-breaking, we propose a facile approach to fabricate multifunctional nanofibrillated cellulose-based aerogel with high elasticity, excellent photothermal conversion, efficient selective oil adsorption and antibacterial properties. Firstly, copper sulfide (CuS) nanoparticles were in situ deposited on the template of oxidative nanofibrillated cellulose (ONC), aiming at achieving efficient photothermal effect and antibacterial properties. Ethylene glycol diglycidyl ether (EGDE) was employed to establish multiple crosslinking network between CuS@ONC and polyethyleneimine (PEI). A thin hydrophobic PMTS layer deposited on the surface of aerogel via a facile gas-solid reaction ensured stable oil selectivity. The resulting composite aerogel can rapidly adsorb oil under solar self-heating, significantly reducing the adsorption time from 25 to 5 min. Furthermore, it exhibits excellent adsorption capacities for various oils, retaining over 92 % of its initial capacity even after 20 adsorption-desorption cycles, and the antibacterial properties extend its lifespan. This work offers a promising method for constructing multifunctional aerogels for efficient oil-water separation, especially beneficial for high-viscosity and high-melting-point oil cleanup.

Photothermal therapy of copper incorporated nanomaterials for biomedicine

Studies have reported on the significance of copper incorporated nanomaterials (CINMs) in cancer theranostics and tissue regeneration. Given their unique physicochemical properties and tunable nanostructures, CINMs are used in photothermal therapy (PTT) and photothermal-derived combination therapies. They have the potential to overcome the challenges of unsatisfactory efficacy of conventional therapies in an efficient and non-invasive manner. This review summarizes the recent advances in CINMs-based PTT in biomedicine. First, the classification and structure of CINMs are introduced. CINMs-based PTT combination therapy in tumors and PTT guided by multiple imaging modalities are then reviewed. Various representative designs of CINMs-based PTT in bone, skin and other organs are presented. Furthermore, the biosafety of CINMs is discussed. Finally, this analysis delves into the current challenges that researchers face and offers an optimistic outlook on the prospects of clinical translational research in this field. This review aims at elucidating on the applications of CINMs-based PTT and derived combination therapies in biomedicine to encourage future design and clinical translation.

Customizing cancer treatment at the nanoscale: a focus on anaplastic thyroid cancer therapy

Anaplastic thyroid cancer (ATC) is a rare but highly aggressive kind of thyroid cancer. Various therapeutic methods have been considered for the treatment of ATC, but its prognosis remains poor. With the advent of the nanomedicine era, the use of nanotechnology has been introduced in the treatment of various cancers and has shown great potential and broad prospects in ATC treatment. The current review meticulously describes and summarizes the research progress of various nanomedicine-based therapeutic methods of ATC, including chemotherapy, differentiation therapy, radioiodine therapy, gene therapy, targeted therapy, photothermal therapy, and combination therapy. Furthermore, potential future challenges and opportunities for the currently developed nanomedicines for ATC treatment are discussed. As far as we know, there are few reviews focusing on the nanomedicine of ATC therapy, and it is believed that this review will generate widespread interest from researchers in a variety of fields to further expedite preclinical research and clinical translation of ATC nanomedicines.

In vivo synergistic tumor therapies based on copper sulfide photothermal therapeutic nanoplatforms

Tumor cells may be eliminated by increasing their temperature. This is achieved via photothermal therapy (PTT) by penetrating the tumor tissue with near-infrared light and converting light energy into heat using photothermal agents. Copper sulfide nanoparticles (CuS NPs) are commonly used as PTAs in PTT. In this review, we aimed to discuss the synergism between tumor PTT with CuS NPs and other therapies such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, dynamic therapies (photodynamic, chemodynamic, and sonodynamic therapy), immunotherapy, gene therapy, gas therapy, and magnetic hyperthermia. Furthermore, we summarized the results obtained with a combination of two treatments and at least two therapies, with PTT as one of the included therapies. Finally, we summarized the benefits and drawbacks of various therapeutic options and state of the art CuS-based PTT and provided future directions for such therapies.

Smart and versatile biomaterials for cutaneous wound healing

The global increase of cutaneous wounds imposes huge health and financial burdens on patients and society. Despite improved wound healing outcomes, conventional wound dressings are far from ideal, owing to the complex healing process. Smart wound dressings, which are sensitive to or interact with changes in wound condition or environment, have been proposed as appealing therapeutic platforms to effectively facilitate wound healing. In this review, the wound healing processes and features of existing biomaterials are firstly introduced, followed by summarizing the mechanisms of smart responsive materials. Afterwards, recent advances and designs in smart and versatile materials of extensive applications for cutaneous wound healing were submarined. Finally, clinical progresses, challenges and future perspectives of the smart wound dressing are discussed. Overall, by mapping the composition and intrinsic structure of smart responsive materials to their individual needs of cutaneous wounds, with particular attention to the responsive mechanisms, this review is promising to advance further progress in designing smart responsive materials for wounds and drive clinical translation.

Chitosan/Alginate Nanogels Containing Multicore Magnetic Nanoparticles for Delivery of Doxorubicin

In this study, multicore-like iron oxide (Fe3O4) and manganese ferrite (MnFe2O4) nanoparticles were synthesized and combined with nanogels based on chitosan and alginate to obtain a multimodal drug delivery system. The nanoparticles exhibited crystalline structures and displayed sizes of 20 ± 3 nm (Fe3O4) and 11 ± 2 nm (MnFe2O4). The Fe3O4 nanoparticles showed a higher saturation magnetization and heating efficiency compared with the MnFe2O4 nanoparticles. Functionalization with citrate and bovine serum albumin was found to improve the stability and modified surface properties. The nanoparticles were encapsulated in nanogels, and provided high drug encapsulation efficiencies (~70%) using doxorubicin as a model drug. The nanogels exhibited sustained drug release, with enhanced release under near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation and acidic pH. The nanogels containing BSA-functionalized nanoparticles displayed improved sustained drug release at physiological pH, and the release kinetics followed a diffusion-controlled mechanism. These results demonstrate the potential of synthesized nanoparticles and nanogels for controlled drug delivery, offering opportunities for targeted and on-demand release in biomedical applications.

Nanoparticle-Based Photothermal Therapy for Breast Cancer Noninvasive Treatment

Rapid advancements in materials science and nanotechnology, intertwined with oncology, have positioned photothermal therapy (PTT) as a promising noninvasive treatment strategy for cancer. The breast's superficial anatomical location and aesthetic significance render breast cancer a particularly pertinent candidate for the clinical application of PTT following melanoma. This review comprehensively explores the research conducted on the various types of nanoparticles employed in PTT for breast cancer and elaborates on their specific roles and mechanisms of action. The integration of PTT with existing clinical therapies for breast cancer is scrutinized, underscoring its potential for synergistic outcomes. Additionally, the mechanisms underlying PTT and consequential modifications to the tumor microenvironment after treatment are elaborated from a medical perspective. Future research directions are suggested, with an emphasis on the development of integrative platforms that combine multiple therapeutic approaches and the optimization of nanoparticle synthesis for enhanced treatment efficacy. The goal is to push the boundaries of PTT toward a comprehensive, clinically applicable treatment for breast cancer.

An ultrasmall PVP-Fe-Cu-Ni-S nano-agent for synergistic cancer therapy through triggering ferroptosis and autophagy

Photothermal therapy (PTT) is an emerging field where photothermal agents could convert visible or near-infrared (NIR) radiation into heat to kill tumor cells. However, the low photothermal conversion efficiency of photothermal agents and their limited antitumor activities hinder the development of these agents into monotherapies for cancer. Herein, we have fabricated an ultrasmall polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)-Fe-Cu-Ni-S (PVP-NP) nano-agent via a simple hot injection method with excellent photothermal conversion efficiency (∼96%). Photothermal therapy with this nano-agent effectively inhibits tumor growth without apparent toxic side-effects. Mechanistically, our results demonstrated that, after NIR irradiation, PVP-NPs can induce ROS/singlet oxygen generation, decrease the mitochondrial membrane potential, release extracellular Fe2+, and consume glutathione, triggering autophagy and ferroptosis of cancer cells. Moreover, PVP-NPs exhibit excellent contrast enhancement according to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) analysis. In summary, PVP-NPs have a high photothermal conversion efficiency and can be applied for MRI-guided synergistic photothermal/photodynamic/chemodynamic cancer therapy, resolving the bottleneck of existing phototherapeutic agents.

Recent advances on hyperthermia therapy applications of carbon-based nanocomposites

Generally, hyperthermia is referred to the composites capability to increase local temperature in such a way that the generated heat would lead to cancerous or bacteria cells destruction, with minimum damage to normal tissue cells. Many different materials have been utilized for hyperthermia application via different heat generating methods. Carbon-based nanomaterials consisting of graphene oxide (GO), carbon nanotube (CNT), carbon dot (CD) and carbon quantum dot (CQD), nanodiamond (ND), fullerene and carbon fiber (CF), have been studied significantly for different applications including hyperthermia due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, chemical and physical stability, thermal and electrical conductivity and in some cases photothermal conversion. Therefore, in this comprehensive review, a structure-based view on carbon nanomaterials application in hyperthermia therapy of cancer and bacteria via various methods such as optical, magnetic, ultrasonic and radiofrequency-induced hyperthermia is presented.

Chlorin e6-modified iron oxide nanoparticles for photothermal-photodynamic ablation of glioblastoma cells

Introduction: The effective treatment of glioblastoma still remains a great challenge. We herein report the development of chlorin e6 (Ce6)-conjugated iron oxide (Fe3O4-Ce6) nanoparticles for ablation of glioblastoma cells via combining photothermal therapy (PTT) with photodynamic therapy (PDT). Methods: Ce6 was conjugated to the synthesized Fe3O4 nanoparticles to form Fe3O4-Ce6 nanoparticles displaying the optical property of Ce6. Results and discussion: Under 808 nm laser irradiation, Fe3O4-Ce6 nanoparticles generated heat and the temperature increase did not have obvious changes after five cycles of laser irradiation, suggesting their good photothermal effect and photothermal stability. In addition, 660 nm laser irradiation of Fe3O4-Ce6 nanoparticles produced singlet oxygen (1O2) to mediate PDT. The Fe3O4-Ce6 nanoparticles without laser irradiation showed a low cytotoxicity, but they would obviously kill C6 cancer cells after laser irradiation via the combinational effect of PTT and PDT. Fe3O4-Ce6 nanoparticles thus could be used as a nanotherapeutic agent for combinational ablation of glioblastoma cells.

Comparative analysis of cobalt ferrite and iron oxide nanoparticles using bimodal hyperthermia, along with physical and in silico interaction with human hemoglobin

Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have captivated the scientific community towards biomedical applications owing to their numerous distinctive physio-chemical properties. In this work, cobalt ferrite (CFNPs) and iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) were synthesized using the thermal decomposition method and then functionalized with polyacrylic acid (PAA) for aqueous dispersion. Associated techniques, namely TEM, FESEM, DLS, XRD, and VSM, were used to characterize the synthesized nanoparticles. We also investigated the light-induced and magnetic-field-induced hyperthermia properties of the PAA-functionalized MNPs. It was found that the PAA-CFNPs show a high specific absorption rate (SAR) compared with the PAA-IONPs. Since blood plasma is essential for the delivery and targeting of drugs, studying biological interactions is crucial for effective therapeutic use. Therefore, we performed physical and in silico studies to probe into the mechanistic interaction of CFNPs and IONPs with human hemoglobin. From these studies, we inferred the successful binding between the nanoparticles and protein. Preliminary in vitro cytocompatibility and photothermal toxicity studies in breast cancer (MCF-7) cells treated with the nanoparticles revealed a low dark toxicity and significant laser-induced photothermal toxicity.

Nanozymes and nanoflower: Physiochemical properties, mechanism and biomedical applications

Natural enzymes possess several drawbacks which limits their application in industries, wastewater remediation and biomedical field. Therefore, in recent years researchers have developed enzyme mimicking nanomaterials and enzymatic hybrid nanoflower which are alternatives of enzyme. Nanozymes and organic inorganic hybrid nanoflower have been developed which mimics natural enzymes functionalities such as diverse enzyme mimicking activities, enhanced catalytic activities, low cost, ease of preparation, stability and biocompatibility. Nanozymes include metal and metal oxide nanoparticles mimicking oxidases, peroxidases, superoxide dismutase and catalases while enzymatic and non-enzymatic biomolecules were used for preparing hybrid nanoflower. In this review nanozymes and hybrid nanoflower have been compared in terms of physiochemical properties, common synthetic routes, mechanism of action, modification, green synthesis and application in the field of disease diagnosis, imaging, environmental remediation and disease treatment. We also address the current challenges facing nanozyme and hybrid nanoflower research and the possible way to fulfil their potential in future.

Self-regulated cobalt zinc ferrite system as a potential nanoplatform for the synergistic effect of hyperthermia-chemo agent for cancer therapy

Magnetic hyperthermia (MH) has been studied for almost seventy-five years, but its efficacy in clinical applications is still fiercely contested. Despite this, few magnetic nanosystems are approved for clinical usage due to their strong affinity as drug carriers. The most important condition for hyperthermia applications for successful cancer therapy is magnetic nanoparticles with a controlled heating pattern (42-46 °C) for a prolonged timeframe. In the current study, cobalt-zinc nanoferrites (MNPs) having a Curie temperature of 46 ℃ with a tunable heating profile was loaded with Doxorubicin (DOX) through a surface conjugation technique (DOX-Cs-MNPs), and characterized by using multiple techniques. The magnetic hyterises (M-H) curves revealed the occurrence of superparamagnetism in the MNPs with extremely low coercivity; further, the DOX-loaded nanoparticles exhibited enhanced saturation magnetization. More importantly, the MNPs showed that they could maintain a therapeutic temperature for an indefinite amount of time. High drug loading affinity (86 %) was observed on MNPs with pH and temperature-controlled release. Under in vitro conditions, the biocompatible DOX-Cs-MNPs caused substantial apoptosis in MCF-7 cells (72 %) with overall cell death of < 95 %. The distinctive MNPs thus have the potential to be used in clinical applications.

Surface modified iron-oxide based engineered nanomaterials for hyperthermia therapy of cancer cells

Magnetic hyperthermia is emerging as a promising alternative to the currently available cancer treatment modalities. Superparamagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) are extensively studied functional nanomaterials for biomedical applications, owing to their tunable physio-chemical properties and magnetic properties. Out of various ferrite classes, spinel and inverse-spinel ferrites are widely used but are affected by particle size distribution, particle shape, particle-particle interaction, geometry, and crystallinity. Notably, their heating ability makes them suitable candidates for heat-mediated cancer cell ablation or hyperthermia therapy. Exposing SPIONs to an externally applied magnetic field of appropriate frequency and intensity causes them to release heat to ablate cancer cells. Majorly, three heating mechanisms are exhibited by magnetic nanomaterials: Nèel relaxation, Brownian relaxation, and hysteresis losses. In SPIONs, Nèel and Brownian relaxations dominate, whereas hysteric losses are negligible. These nanomaterials possess high magnetization values capable of generating heat to ablate cancer cells. Furthermore, surface functionalization of these materials imparts the ability to selectively target cancer cells and deliver cargo to the affected area sparing the normal body cells. The surface of nanoparticles can be functionalized with various physical, chemical, and biological coatings. Moreover, hyperthermia can be applied in combination with other cancer treatment modalities in order to enhance the efficiency of treatment.

Towards the Standardization of Photothermal Measurements of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles in Two Biological Windows

A systematic study on laser-induced heating carried out in two biological windows (800 nm and 1053 nm) for Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles in water suspension showed evidence of the strong dependence of the specific absorption rate (SAR) on extrinsic parameters such as the vessel volume or laser spot size. The results show that a minimum of 100 μL must be used in order to obtain vessel-size-independent SARs. In addition, at a constant intensity but different laser powers and spot size ratios, the SARs can differ by a three-fold factor, showing that the laser power and irradiated area strongly affect the heating curves for both wavelengths. The infrared molecular absorber IRA 980B was characterized under the same experimental conditions, and the results confirm the universality of the SARs' dependence on these extrinsic parameters. Based on these results, we propose using solutions of IRA 980B as a standard probe for SAR measurements and employing the ratio SAR_{iron oxide}/SAR_{IRA 980B} to compare different measurements performed in different laboratories. This measurement standardization allows us to extract more accurate information about the heating performance of different nanoparticles.

Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)-IR780 conjugate nanoparticles for breast cancer phototherapy

Aims: To address the limitations of IR780 by preparing hydrophilic polymer-IR780 conjugates and to employ these conjugates in the assembly of nanoparticles (NPs) intended for cancer photothermal therapy. Materials & methods: The cyclohexenyl ring of IR780 was conjugated for the first time with thiol-terminated poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) (PEtOx). This novel poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)-IR780 (PEtOx-IR) conjugate was combined with D-α-tocopheryl succinate (TOS), leading to the assembly of mixed NPs (PEtOx-IR/TOS NPs). Results: PEtOx-IR/TOS NPs displayed optimal colloidal stability as well as cytocompatibility in healthy cells at doses within the therapeutic range. In turn, the combination of PEtOx-IR/TOS NPs and near-infrared light reduced heterotypic breast cancer spheroid viability to just 15%. Conclusion: PEtOx-IR/TOS NPs are promising agents for breast cancer photothermal therapy.

Multifunctional plasmonic-magnetic nanoparticles for bioimaging and hyperthermia

Multicompartment nanoparticles have raised great interest for different biomedical applications, thanks to the combined properties of different materials within a single entity. These hybrid systems have opened new avenues toward diagnosis and combination therapies, thus becoming preferred theranostic agents. When hybrid nanoparticles comprise magnetic and plasmonic components, both magnetic and optical properties can be achieved, which are potentially useful for multimodal bioimaging, hyperthermal therapies and magnetically driven selective delivery. Nanostructures comprising iron oxide and gold are usually selected for biomedical applications, as they display size-dependent properties, biocompatibility, and unique physical and chemical characteristics that can be tuned through highly precise synthetic protocols. We provide herein an overview of the most recent synthetic protocols to prepare magnetic-plasmonic nanostructures made of iron oxide and gold, to then highlight the progress made on multifunctional magnetic-plasmonic bioimaging and heating-based therapies. We discuss the advantages and limitations of the various systems in these directions.

Recent advances in biological membrane-based nanomaterials for cancer therapy

Nanomaterials have shown significant advantages in cancer theranostics, owing to their enhanced permeability and retention effect in tumors and multi-function integration capability. Biological membranes, which are collected from various cells and their secreted membrane structures, can further be applied to establish membrane-based nanomaterials with perfect biocompatibility, tumor-targeting capacity, immune-stimulatory activity and adjustable versatility for cancer therapy. In this review, according to their source, membranes are divided into four groups: (1) cell membranes; (2) secretory membranes; (3) engineered membranes; and (4) hybrid membranes. First, cell membranes can be extracted from natural cells of the body, tumor tissue cells, and bacteria. Furthermore, secretory membranes mainly refer to exosome, apoptotic body and bacterial outer membrane vesicle, and membranes with specific protein/peptide expression or therapeutic inclusions are obtained from engineered cells. Finally, a hybrid membrane will be constituted by two or more of the abovementioned membranes. These membranes can form drug-carrying nanoparticles themselves or coat multi-functional nanoparticles, further realizing efficient cancer therapy. We summarize the application of various biological membrane-based nanomaterials in cancer therapy and point out their advantages as well as the places that need to be further improved, providing systematic knowledge of this field and a strategy for further optimization.

Photothermal conversion and transfer in photothermal therapy: From macroscale to nanoscale

Photothermal therapy (PTT) is a promising alternative therapy for benign or even malignant tumors. To improve the selective heating of tumor cells, target-specific photothermal conversion agents are often included, especially nanoparticles. Meanwhile, some indirect methods by manipulating the radiation and heat delivery are also adopted. Therefore, to gain a clear understanding of the mechanism, and to improve the controllability of PTT, a few issues need to be clarified, including bioheat and radiation transfer, localized and collective heating of nanoparticles, etc. In this review, we provide an introduction to the typical bioheat transfer and radiation transfer models along with the dynamic thermophysical properties of biological tissue. On this basis, we reviewed the most recent advances in the temperature control methods in PTT from macroscale to nanoscale. Most importantly, a comprehensive introduction of the localized and collective heating effects of nanoparticle clusters is provided to give a clear insight into the mechanism for PPT from the microscale and nanoscale point of view.

In silico evaluation of adverse eddy current effects in preclinical tests of magnetic hyperthermia

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Magnetic hyperthermia is an oncological therapy that employs magnetic nanoparticles activated by alternating current (AC) magnetic fields with frequencies between 50 kHz and 1 MHz, to release heat in a diseased tissue and produce a local temperature increase of about 5 °C. To assess the treatment efficacy, in vivo tests on murine models (mice and rats) are typically performed. However, these are often carried out without satisfying the biophysical constraints on the electromagnetic (EM) field exposure, with consequent generation of hot spots and undesirable heating of healthy tissues. Here, we investigate possible adverse eddy current effects, to estimate AC magnetic field parameters (frequency and amplitude) that can potentially guarantee safe animal tests of magnetic hyperthermia.

METHODS

The analysis is performed through in silico modelling by means of finite element simulation tools, specifically developed to study eddy current effects in computational animal models, during magnetic hyperthermia treatments. The numerical tools enable us to locally evaluate the specific absorption rate (SAR) and the produced temperature increase, under different field exposure conditions.

RESULTS

The simulation outcomes demonstrate that in mice with weight lower than 30 g the thermal effects induced by AC magnetic fields are very weak, also when slightly overcoming the Hergt-Dutz limit, that is the product of the magnetic field amplitude and frequency should be lower than 5·10⁹ A/(m·s). Conversely, we observe significant temperature increases in 500 g rats, amplified when the field is applied transversally to the body longitudinal axis. A strong mitigation of side-effects can be achieved by introducing water boluses or by applying focused fields.

CONCLUSIONS

The developed physics-based modelling approach has proved to be a useful predictive tool for the optimization of preclinical tests of magnetic hyperthermia, allowing the identification of proper EM field conditions and the design of setups that guarantee safe levels of field exposure during animal treatments. In such contest, the obtained results can be considered as valid indicators to assess reference levels for animal testing of biomedical techniques that involve EM fields, like magnetic hyperthermia, thus complying with the Directive 2010/63/EU on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes.

Antitumor Applications of Photothermal Agents and Photothermal Synergistic Therapies

As a new tumor treatment strategy, photothermal therapy (PTT) has the advantages of accuracy, ease of administration, a high efficiency and low side effects. Photothermal transduction agents (PTAs) are the key factor which play an important role in PTT. The mechanism of PTT is discussed in detail. The photothermal conversion efficiency (PCE) can be improved by increasing the light absorption and reducing the light scattering of photothermal conversion agents. Additionally, non-radiative relaxation path attenuation can also promote energy conversion to obtain a higher value in terms of PCE. The structure and photothermal characteristics of various kinds of PTAs (metal materials, carbon-based nanomaterials, two-dimensional nanomaterials, and organic materials) were compared and analyzed. This paper reviews the antitumor applications of photothermal synergistic therapies, including PTT combined with immunotherapy, chemotherapy, and photodynamic therapy. This review proposes that these PTAs promote the development of photothermal synergistic therapies and have a great potential in the application of tumor treatment.

Poly-β-Cyclodextrin-coated neodymium-containing copper sulfide nanoparticles as an effective anticancer drug carrier

Aim: This study aims at tuning the properties of the nanoparticles by incorporating neodymium, exploring the sustained release of drug, and the anticancer activity on breast cancer cells.Methods: The crystal characteristics of NdCuS₂ nanoparticles are analyzed using X-ray diffraction. The morphology and size of the nanoparticles were characterized using Transmission Electron Microscope and particle size analyzer. The rate of release of the encapsulated camptothecin and anticancer effects on breast cancer cells are investigated.Results: The nanoparticles are rod-shaped, 132 ± 8 nm long and 27 ± 7 nm wide. The band gap of the nanoparticles is 4.85 eV. The drug encapsulation efficiency is 94.76% (w/w). The drug is released in a sustained manner, over a period of 180 hours. The cytotoxicity of the camptothecin-loaded NPs is examined on MDA-MB-231 cells and the IC50 is 4.39 µg mL^-1Conclusion: The NdCuS₂ nanoparticles are promising as theranostic agents considering their material characteristics and anticancer activity.

Minimally invasive nanomedicine: nanotechnology in photo-/ultrasound-/radiation-/magnetism-mediated therapy and imaging

Traditional treatments such as chemotherapy and surgery usually cause severe side effects and excruciating pain. The emergence of nanomedicines and minimally invasive therapies (MITs) has brought hope to patients with malignant diseases. Especially, minimally invasive nanomedicines (MINs), which combine the advantages of nanomedicines and MITs, can effectively target pathological cells/tissues/organs to improve the bioavailability of drugs, minimize side effects and achieve painless treatment with a small incision or no incision, thereby acquiring good therapeutic effects. In this review, we provide a comprehensive review of the research status and challenges of MINs, which generally refers to the medical applications of nanotechnology in photo-/ultrasound-/radiation-/magnetism-mediated therapy and imaging. Additionally, we also discuss their combined application in various fields including cancers, cardiovascular diseases, tissue engineering, neuro-functional diseases, and infectious diseases. The prospects, and potential bench-to-bedside translation of MINs are also presented in this review. We expect that this review can inspire the broad interest for a wide range of readers working in the fields of interdisciplinary subjects including (but not limited to) chemistry, nanomedicine, bioengineering, nanotechnology, materials science, pharmacology, and biomedicine.

Fe3 O4 @Au@Cu2-x S Heterostructures Designed for Tri-Modal Therapy: Photo- Magnetic Hyperthermia and 64 Cu Radio-Insertion

Here, the synthesis and proof of exploitation of three-material inorganic heterostructures made of iron oxide-gold-copper sulfide (Fe₃ O₄ @Au@Cu_2-x S) are reported. Starting with Fe₃ O₄ -Au dumbbell heterostructure as seeds, a third Cu_2-x S domain is selectively grown on the Au domain. The as-synthesized trimers are transferred to water by a two-step ligand exchange procedure exploiting thiol-polyethylene glycol to coordinate Au and Cu_2-x S surfaces and polycatechol-polyethylene glycol to bind the Fe₃ O₄ surface. The saline stable trimers possess multi-functional properties: the Fe₃ O₄ domain, of appropriate size and crystallinity, guarantees optimal heating losses in magnetic hyperthermia (MHT) under magnetic field conditions of clinical use. These trimers have indeed record values of specific adsorption rate among the inorganic-heterostructures so far reported. The presence of Au and Cu_2-x S domains ensures a large adsorption which falls in the first near-infrared (NIR) biological window and is here exploited, under laser excitation at 808 nm, to produce photo-thermal heat alone or in combination with MHT obtained from the Fe₃ O₄ domain. Finally, an intercalation protocol with radioactive ⁶⁴ Cu ions is developed on the Cu_2-x S domain, reaching high radiochemical yield and specific activity making the Fe₃ O₄ @Au@Cu_2-x S trimers suitable as carriers for ⁶⁴ Cu in internal radiotherapy (iRT) and traceable by positron emission tomography (PET).

Smart nanocomposite assemblies for multimodal cancer theranostics

Despite great strides in anticancer research, performance statistics of current treatment modalities remain dismal, highlighting the need for safe, efficacious strategies for tumour mitigation. Non-invasive fusion technology platforms combining photodynamic, photothermal and hyperthermia therapies have emerged as alternate strategies with potential to meet many of the unmet clinical demands in the domain of cancer. These therapies make use of metallic and magnetic nanoparticles with light absorbing properties, which are manipulated to generate either reactive cytotoxic oxygen species or heat for tumour ablation. Combination therapies integrating light, heat and magnetism-mediated nanoplatforms with the conventional approaches of chemotherapy, radiotherapy and surgery are emerging as precision medicine for targeted interventions against cancer. This article aims to compile recent developments of advanced nanocomposite assemblies that integrate multimodal therapeutics for cancer treatment. Amalgamation of various effective, non-invasive technological platforms such as photodynamic therapy (PDT), photothermal therapy (PTT), magnetic hyperthermia (MHT), and chemodynamic therapy (CDT) have tremendous potential in presenting safe and efficacious solutions to the formidable challenges in cancer therapeutics.

Rare-Earth Doped Iron Oxide Nanostructures for Cancer Theranostics: Magnetic Hyperthermia and Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) have been extensively investigated during the last couple of decades because of their potential applications across various disciplines ranging from spintronics to nanotheranostics. However, pure iron oxide nanoparticles cannot meet the requirement for practical applications. Doping is considered as one of the most prominent and simplest techniques to achieve optimized multifunctional properties in nanomaterials. Doped iron oxides, particularly, rare-earth (RE) doped nanostructures have shown much-improved performance for a wide range of biomedical applications, including magnetic hyperthermia and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), compared to pure iron oxide. Extensive investigations have revealed that bigger-sized RE ions possessing high magnetic moment and strong spin-orbit coupling can serve as promising dopants to significantly regulate the properties of iron oxides for advanced biomedical applications. This review provides a detailed investigation on the role of RE ions as primary dopants for engineering the structural and magnetic properties of Fe₃ O₄ nanoparticles to carefully introspect and correlate their impact on cancer theranostics with a special focus on magnetic hyperthermia and MRI. In addition, prospects for achieving high-performance magnetic hyperthermia and MRI are thoroughly discussed. Finally, suggestions on future work in these two areas are also proposed.

Structure-Property-Function Relationships of Iron Oxide Multicore Nanoflowers in Magnetic Hyperthermia and Photothermia

Magnetite and maghemite multicore nanoflowers (NFs) synthesized using the modified polyol-mediated routes are to date among the most effective nanoheaters in magnetic hyperthermia (MHT). Recently, magnetite NFs have also shown high photothermal (PT) performances in the most desired second near-infrared (NIR-II) biological window, making them attractive in the field of nanoparticle-activated thermal therapies. However, what makes magnetic NFs efficient heating agents in both modalities still remains an open question. In this work, we investigate the role of many parameters of the polyol synthesis on the final NFs' size, shape, chemical composition, number of cores, and crystallinity. These nanofeatures are later correlated to the magnetic, optical, and electronic properties of the NFs as well as their collective macroscopic thermal properties in MHT and PT to find relationships between their structure, properties, and function. We evidence the critical role of iron(III) and heating ramps on the elaboration of well-defined NFs with a high number of multicores. While MHT efficiency is found to be proportional to the average number of magnetic cores within the assemblies, the optical responses of the NFs and their collective photothermal properties depend directly on the mean volume of the NFs (as supported by optical cross sections numerical simulations) and strongly on the structural disorder in the NFs, rather than the stoichiometry. The concentration of defects in the nanostructures, evaluated by photoluminescence and Urbach energy (E_U), evidence a switch in the optical behavior for a limit value of E_U = 0.4 eV where a discontinuous transition from high to poor PT efficiency is also observed.

Copper-induced tumor cell death mechanisms and antitumor theragnostic applications of copper complexes

Recent studies found that unbalanced copper homeostasis affect tumor growth, causing irreversible damage. Copper can induce multiple forms of cell death, including apoptosis and autophagy, through various mechanisms, including reactive oxygen species accumulation, proteasome inhibition, and antiangiogenesis. Hence, copper in vivo has attracted tremendous attention and is in the research spotlight in the field of tumor treatment. This review first highlights three typical forms of copper's antitumor mechanisms. Then, the development of diverse biomaterials and nanotechnology allowing copper to be fabricated into diverse structures to realize its theragnostic action is discussed. Novel copper complexes and their clinical applications are subsequently described.

Biomedical Applications of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: Current Insights Progress and Perspectives

The enormous development of nanomaterials technology and the immediate response of many areas of science, research, and practice to their possible application has led to the publication of thousands of scientific papers, books, and reports. This vast amount of information requires careful classification and order, especially for specifically targeted practical needs. Therefore, the present review aims to summarize to some extent the role of iron oxide nanoparticles in biomedical research. Summarizing the fundamental properties of the magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles, the review's next focus was to classify research studies related to applying these particles for cancer diagnostics and therapy (similar to photothermal therapy, hyperthermia), in nano theranostics, multimodal therapy. Special attention is paid to research studies dealing with the opportunities of combining different nanomaterials to achieve optimal systems for biomedical application. In this regard, original data about the synthesis and characterization of nanolipidic magnetic hybrid systems are included as an example. The last section of the review is dedicated to the capacities of magnetite-based magnetic nanoparticles for the management of oncological diseases.

In Vivo Assimilation of CuS, Iron Oxide and Iron Oxide@CuS Nanoparticles in Mice: A 6-Month Follow-Up Study

Nanoparticles (NPs) are at the leading edge of nanomedicine, and determining their biosafety remains a mandatory precondition for biomedical applications. Herein, we explore the bioassimilation of copper sulfide NPs reported as powerful photo-responsive anticancer therapeutic agents. The nanoparticles investigated present a hollow shell morphology, that can be left empty (CuS NPs) or be filled with an iron oxide flower-like core (iron oxide@CuS NPs), and are compared with the iron oxide nanoparticles only (iron oxide NPs). CuS, iron oxide@CuS and iron oxide NPs were injected in 6-week-old mice, at doses coherent with an antitumoral treatment. Cu and Fe were quantified in the liver, spleen, kidneys, and lungs over 6 months, including the control animals, thus providing endogenous Cu and Fe levels in the first months after animal birth. After intravenous NPs administration, 77.0 ± 3.9% of the mass of Cu injected, and 78.6 ± 3.8% of the mass of Fe, were detected in the liver. In the spleen, we found 3.3 ± 0.6% of the injected Cu and 3.8 ± 0.6% for the Fe. No negative impact was observed on organ weight, nor on Cu or Fe homeostasis in the long term. The mass of the two metals returned to the control values within three months, a result that was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy and histology images. This bioassimilation with no negative impact comforts the possible translation of these nanomaterials into clinical practice.

High Temperature Continuous Flow Syntheses of Iron Oxide Nanoflowers Using the Polyol Route in a Multi-Parametric Millifluidic Device

One of the most versatile routes for the elaboration of nanomaterials in materials science, including the synthesis of magnetic iron oxide nanoclusters, is the high-temperature polyol process. However, despite its versatility, this process still lacks reproducibility and scale-up, in addition to the low yield obtained in final materials. In this work, we demonstrate a home-made multiparametric continuous flow millifluidic system that can operate at high temperatures (up to 400 °C). After optimization, we validate its potential for the production of nanomaterials using the polyol route at 220 °C by elaborating ferrite iron oxide nanoclusters called nanoflowers (CoFe₂O₄, Fe₃O₄, MnFe₂O₄) with well-controlled nanostructure and composition, which are highly demanded due to their physical properties. Moreover, we demonstrate that by using such a continuous process, the chemical yield and reproducibility of the nanoflower synthesis are strongly improved as well as the possibility to produce these nanomaterials on a large scale with quantities up to 45 g per day.

Recent advances and trends in nanoparticles based photothermal and photodynamic therapy

Light-mediated therapies, including photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) have been exploited as minimally invasive techniques for ablation of various tumors., Both modalities may eradicate tumors with minimal side effects to normal tissues and organs. Moreover, developments of light-mediated approaches using nanoparticles (NPs) and photosensitizer (PS) as diagnostic and therapeutic agents may have a crucial role in achieving successful cancer treatment. In recent years, novel nanoplatforms and strategies have been investigated to boost the therapeutic effect.. In this regard, gold, iron oxide, graphene oxide nanoparticles and hybrid nanocomposites have attracted attention.. Moreover, the combination of these materials with PS, in the form of hybrid NPs, reduces in vitro and in vivo normal tissue cytotoxicity, improves their solubility property in the biological environment and enhances the therapeutic effects. In this review, we look into the basic principles of PTT and PDT with their strengths and limitations to treat cancers. We also will discuss light-based nanoparticles and their PTT and PDT applications in the preclinical and clinical translation. Also, recent advances and trends in this field will be discussed along with the clinical challenges of PTT and PDT.

[Photothermal effect of nano-copper sulfide against tongue squamous cell carcinoma]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the anti-tumor effect of BSA@CuS-PEG nanocomposites on tongue squamous cell carcinoma.

METHODS

Transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, Zeta potential and ultraviolet absorption spectroscopy were used to characterize the synthesized BSA@CuS-PEG nanocomposite, whose photothermal properties was assessed with near infrared Ⅱ region excitation light (1064 nm). The cytotoxicity of the nanocomposite in Cal27 and SCC9 cells was evaluated using CCK-8 assay, and its effect on cell cycle distribution was analyzed using flow cytometry. The in vivo antitumor effect of BSA@CuS-PEG was investigated in a Balb/c mouse model bearing subcutaneous Cal27 tumor xenograft.

RESULTS

The synthesized BSA@CuS-PEG nanocomposite showed a temperature variation (ΔT) of about 30 ℃ under near-infrared (NIR) irradiation (0.5 W/cm2), suggesting its excellent photothermal sensitivity. CCK-8 assay showed that BSA@CuS-PEG had no significant toxicity to tumor cells, but upon NIR irradiation, the nanocomposite produced a significant stronger inhibitory effect on Cal27 and SCC9 cells than free nanocomposites (P < 0.001). Cell cycle analysis showed that compared with free nanocomposites, BSA@CuS-PEG plus NIR irradiation caused more obvious cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase in tongue cancer cells (P < 0.001). In the tumor-bearing mice, BSA@CuS-PEG combined with NIR irradiation produced a significant anti-tumor effect as compared with saline treatment plus NIR irradiation (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

The BSA@CuS-PEG nanocomposite shows prominent photothermal properties and good anti-tumor effects both in vivo and in vitro, and thus provides a promising method for non-invasive early diagnosis and non-surgical treatment of primary tongue cancer.

Progress in Nanocarriers Codelivery System to Enhance the Anticancer Effect of Photodynamic Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising anticancer noninvasive method and has great potential for clinical applications. Unfortunately, PDT still has many limitations, such as metastatic tumor at unknown sites, inadequate light delivery and a lack of sufficient oxygen. Recent studies have demonstrated that photodynamic therapy in combination with other therapies can enhance anticancer effects. The development of new nanomaterials provides a platform for the codelivery of two or more therapeutic drugs, which is a promising cancer treatment method. The use of multifunctional nanocarriers for the codelivery of two or more drugs can improve physical and chemical properties, increase tumor site aggregation, and enhance the antitumor effect through synergistic actions, which is worthy of further study. This review focuses on the latest research progress on the synergistic enhancement of PDT by simultaneous multidrug administration using codelivery nanocarriers. We introduce the design of codelivery nanocarriers and discuss the mechanism of PDT combined with other antitumor methods. The combination of PDT and chemotherapy, gene therapy, immunotherapy, photothermal therapy, hyperthermia, radiotherapy, sonodynamic therapy and even multidrug therapy are discussed to provide a comprehensive understanding.

Two step promotion of a hot tumor immune environment by gold decorated iron oxide nanoflowers and light-triggered mild hyperthermia

Nanoparticle-mediated photothermal therapy (PTT) is an emerging modality to treat tumors with both spatial and temporal control provided by light activation. Gold decorated iron oxide nanoflowers (GIONF) are good candidates for PTT due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability and light-to-heat conversion. Profound changes in the tumor immune environment might be early induced by the gold and iron oxide metallic agents in addition to the photothermal effects. This study aims to elucidate the outcome of GIONF on their own, and of GIONF-induced mild hyperthermia in the tumor immune infiltrate in a murine model of triple negative breast cancer. First we explored the effects of 24 h GIONF exposure on bone-marrow derived macrophages (BMDM), revealing significant effects on the BMDM phenotype and secretion, 6 days post-incubation, with important downregulation of several cytokines and MHCII expression, predominantly towards a pro-inflammatory response. Intratumoral administration of GIONF promoted an increase in monocyte recruitment at day 1 post-administration, shifting towards a pro-inflammatory anti-tumor microenvironment with lower Treg population and a 4 fold lower CD4/CD8 ratio compared to the control at day 12. On top of the GIONF effects, mild hyperthermia (43 °C for 15 min), although it does not induce significant changes in tumor growth, resulted in an additional increase of CD8+ T lymphocytes and pro-inflammatory cytokines. The combination of a timely controlled immune response to GIONF and to mild hyperthermia could be used as a remotely triggered adjuvant treatment to immunotherapy approaches at the best favorable time-window.

Nanomagnet-facilitated pharmaco-compatibility for cancer diagnostics: Underlying risks and the emergence of ultrasmall nanomagnets

Cancer therapy is a fast-emerging biomedical paradigm that elevates the diagnostic and therapeutic potential of a nanovector for identification, monitoring, targeting, and post-treatment response analysis. Nanovectors of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION) are of tremendous significance in cancer therapy because of their inherited high surface area, high reactivity, biocompatibility, superior contrast, and magnetic and photo-inducibility properties. In addition to a brief introduction, we summarize various progressive aspects of nanomagnets pertaining to their production with an emphasis on sustainable biomimetic approaches. Post-synthesis particulate and surface alterations in terms of pharmaco-affinity, liquid accessibility, and biocompatibility to facilitate cancer therapy are highlighted. SPION parameters including particle contrast, core-fusions, surface area, reactivity, photosensitivity, photodynamics, and photothermal properties, which facilitate diverse cancer diagnostics, are discussed. We also elaborate on the concept of magnetism to selectively focus chemotherapeutics on tumors, cell sorting, purification of bioentities, and elimination of toxins. Finally, while addressing the toxicity of nanomaterials, the advent of ultrasmall nanomagnets as a healthier alternative with superior properties and compatible cellular interactions is reviewed. In summary, these discussions spotlight the versatility and integration of multi-tasking nanomagnets and ultrasmall nanomagnets for diverse cancer theragnostics.

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SPION synthesis with ascribed prominence on sustainable procedures.

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Particulate species, composition, and surface alteration-enabled theragnostics are highlighted.

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Inherent properties of SPIONs facilitating cancer diagnostics are elaborated.

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Magnetism-based “chemotherapeutics,” cell-sorting, and bioentity purification are emphasized.

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Emergence of ultrasmall SPIONs as a healthier option is summarized.