Tumor-derived transforming growth factor-β is critical for tumor progression and evasion from immune surveillance

Colorectal Cancer Risk Prediction Using the rs4939827 Polymorphism of the SMAD7 Gene in the Romanian Population

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is globally recognized as a prevalent malignancy known for its significant mortality rate. Recent years have witnessed a rising incidence trend in colorectal cancer, emphasizing the necessity for early diagnosis. Our study focused on examining the impact of the SMAD7 gene variant rs4939827 on the risk of colorectal cancer occurrence. The composition of our study group included 340 individuals, comprising 170 CRC diagnosed patients and 170 healthy controls. We performed genotyping of all biological samples using the TaqMan assay on the ABI 7500 Real-Time PCR System (Applied Biosystems, Waltham, MA, USA). This investigation focused on the rs4939827 gene variant, assessing its association with CRC risk and clinicopathological characteristics. Genotyping results for the SMAD7 gene variant rs4939827 revealed a 42.6% prevalence of the C allele in CRC patients (p = 0.245) and a 22.8% prevalence of the T allele in control subjects (p = 0.109). This study concluded that there was an elevated risk of CRC in the dominant model for CC/CT+TT, with a p-value of 0.113 and an odds ratio (OR) of 2.781, within a 95% confidence interval (CI) of 0.998 to 3.456. The findings of our research indicate a correlation between variants of the SMAD7 gene and the likelihood of developing colorectal cancer in our study population. Consequently, these results could be instrumental in facilitating early diagnosis of colorectal cancer utilizing information on single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and genetic susceptibility to the disease.

A novel GPI-anchored dominant-negative TGF-β receptor II renders T cells unresponsive to TGF-β signaling

Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) is a pleiotropic cytokine expressed by a wide range of cell types and is known for hampering the effectiveness of cancer immune cell therapeutic approaches. We have designed a novel construct containing the extracellular domain of the TGF-β receptor II linked to a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor (GPI-ecto-TβRII) lacking the transmembrane and cytoplasmic signaling domain of TGF-β receptor II (TβRII). T cells transduced with lentivirus expressing the GPI-ecto-TβRII construct show 5 to 15 times higher membrane expression compared with a previously established dominant-negative receptor carrying a truncated signaling domain. GPI-ecto-TβRII expression renders T cells unresponsive to TGF-β-induced signaling seen by a lack of SMAD phosphorylation upon exogeneous TGF-β treatment. Transduced T cells continue to express high levels of IFNγ and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), among other cytokines, in the presence of TGF-β while cytokine expression in untransduced T cells is being markedly suppressed. Furthermore, T cells expressing GPI-ecto-TβRII constructs have been shown to efficiently capture and inactivate TGF-β from their environment. These results indicate the potential benefits of GPI-ecto-TβRII expressing cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) in future cell therapies.

TGF-β at the crossroads of multiple prognosis in breast cancer, and beyond

Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), a pluripotent cytokine and a multifunctional growth factor has a crucial role in varied biological mechanisms like invasion, migration, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, apoptosis, wound healing, and immunosuppression. Moreover, it also has an imperative role both in normal mammary gland development as well as breast carcinogenesis. TGF-β has shown to have a paradoxical role in breast carcinogenesis, by transitioning from a growth inhibitor to a growth promoter with the disease advancement. The inter-communication and crosstalk of TGF-β with different signaling pathways has strengthened the likelihood to explore it as a comprehensive biomarker. In the last two decades, TGF-β has been studied extensively and has been found to be a promising biomarker for early detection, disease monitoring, treatment selection, and tumor progression making it beneficial for disease management. In this review, we focus on the signaling pathways and biological activities of the TGF-β family in breast cancer pathogenesis and its role as a circulatory and independent biomarker for breast cancer progression and metastasis. Moreover, this review highlights TGF-β as a drug target, and the underlying mechanisms through which it is involved in tumorigenesis that will aid in the development of varied therapies targeting the different stages of breast cancer.

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs); where do they stand in tumorigenesis and how they can change the face of cancer therapy?

The tumor microenvironment (TME) and its components have recently attracted tremendous attention in cancer treatment strategies, as alongside the genetic and epigenetic alterations in tumor cells, TME could also provide a fertile background for malignant cells to survive and proliferate. Interestingly, TME plays a vital role in the mediation of cancer metastasis and drug resistance even against immunotherapeutic agents. Among different cells that are presenting in TME, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) have shown to have significant value in the regulation of angiogenesis, tumor metastasis, and drug-resistance through manipulating the composition as well as the organization of extracellular matrix (ECM). Evidence has shown that the presence of both TAMs and CAFs in TME is associated with poor prognosis and failure of chemotherapeutic agents. It seems that these cells together with ECM form a shield around tumor cells to protect them from the toxic agents and even the adaptive arm of the immune system, which is responsible for tumor surveillance. Given this, targeting TAMs and CAFs seems to be an essential approach to potentiate the cytotoxic effects of anti-cancer agents, either conventional chemotherapeutic drugs or immunotherapies. In the present review, we aimed to take a deep look at the mechanobiology of CAFs and TAMs in tumor progression and to discuss the available therapeutic approaches for harnessing these cells in TME.

Association of SMAD7 genetic markers and haplotypes with colorectal cancer risk

Purpose

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the common cancers with a high mortality rate worldwide. In Iran, there has been a trend of increased incidence of colorectal cancer in the last three decades that necessitates the early diagnosis. Genetic factors have an influential role in its etiology along with the conventional risk factors such as age, diet, and lifestyle. Results from GWAS have shown significant associations between SMAD7 gene variants and risk of CRC. This study aimed to assess the association of certain polymorphisms as well as haplotypes of this gene and risk of colorectal cancer.

Methods and materials

This study was designed as a case–control association study. After obtaining ethical approval and informed consent, blood samples from 209 patients with colorectal cancer were collected and DNA was extracted. Four variants: rs4939827, rs34007497, rs8085824 and rs8088297 were genotyped using ARMS-PCR method.

Results

SMAD7 rs4939827 in the recessive and co-dominant models was associated with colorectal cancer risk [TT/CT + CC: OR = 2.90, 95%CI (1.38–6.09), p = 0.005; CC + TT/CT: OR = 1.66, 95%CI (1.00–2.75), p = 0.01]. Haplotype analysis indicated that some SNP combinations including two for-SNPs haplotypes of T-T-C-C and T-C-C-A were significantly associated with CRC risk.

Conclusion

Based on the identified association of SMAD7 gene variations and haplotypes with colorectal cancer risk in our population, genetic variations in this gene region may have a role in CRC development. This data may shed light on the genetic predisposition of CRC which involves different pathways including TGF-β.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12920-021-01150-3.

First-In-Human Phase I Study of a Next-Generation, Oral, TGFβ Receptor 1 Inhibitor, LY3200882, in Patients with Advanced Cancer

PURPOSE

A novel, selective, next-generation transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) receptor type-1 small molecule inhibitor, LY3200882, demonstrated promising preclinical data. This first-in-human trial evaluated safety, tolerability, recommended phase II dose (RP2D), pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and preliminary antitumor activity of LY3200882 as monotherapy or with other anticancer agents in patients with advanced cancer.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This phase I multicenter study of oral LY3200882 (NCT02937272) comprised dose escalation, monotherapy expansion in grade 4 glioma, and combination therapy in solid tumors (LY3200882 and PD-L1 inhibitor LY3300054), pancreatic cancer (LY3200882, gemcitabine, and nab-paclitaxel), and head and neck squamous cell cancer (LY3200882, cisplatin, and radiation).

RESULTS

Overall, 139 patients with advanced cancer were treated. The majority (93.5%) of patients experienced ≥1 treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAE), with 39.6% LY3200882-related. Grade 3 LY3200882-related toxicities were only observed in combination therapy arms. One patient in the pancreatic cancer arm experienced cardiovascular toxicity. The LY3200882 monotherapy RP2Ds were established in two schedules: 50 mg twice a day 2-weeks-on/2-weeks-off and 35 mg twice a day 3-weeks-on/1-week-off. Four patients with grade 4 glioma had durable Revised Assessment in Neuro Oncology (RANO) partial responses (PR) with LY3200882 monotherapy (n = 3) or LY3200882-LY3300054 combination therapy (n = 1). In treatment-naïve patients with advanced pancreatic cancer, 6 of 12 patients achieved Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors (RECIST) v1.1 PR and 3 of 12 patients demonstrated stable disease, for an overall 75% disease-control rate with the combination of LY3200882, gemcitabine, and nab-paclitaxel.

CONCLUSIONS

LY3200882 as monotherapy and combination therapy was safe and well tolerated with preliminary antitumor activity observed in pancreatic cancer. Further studies to evaluate the efficacy of LY3200882 with gemcitabine and nab-paclitaxel in advanced pancreatic cancer are warranted.

Osteoimmuno-Oncology: Therapeutic Opportunities for Targeting Immune Cells in Bone Metastasis

Immunotherapies provide a potential treatment option for currently incurable bone metastases. Bone marrow is an important secondary lymphoid organ with a unique immune contexture. Even at non-disease state immune cells and bone cells interact with each other, bone cells supporting the development of immune cells and immune cells regulating bone turnover. In cancer, tumor cells interfere with this homeostatic process starting from formation of pre-metastatic niche and later supporting growth of bone metastases. In this review, we introduce a novel concept osteoimmuno-oncology (OIO), which refers to interactions between bone, immune and tumor cells in bone metastatic microenvironment. We also discuss therapeutic opportunities of targeting immune cells in bone metastases, and associated efficacy and safety concerns.

Novel therapies emerging in oncology to target the TGF-β pathway

The TGF-β signaling pathway governs key cellular processes under physiologic conditions and is deregulated in many pathologies, including cancer. TGF-β is a multifunctional cytokine that acts in a cell- and context-dependent manner as a tumor promoter or tumor suppressor. As a tumor promoter, the TGF-β pathway enhances cell proliferation, migratory invasion, metastatic spread within the tumor microenvironment and suppresses immunosurveillance. Collectively, the pleiotropic nature of TGF-β signaling contributes to drug resistance, tumor escape and undermines clinical response to therapy. Based upon a wealth of preclinical studies, the TGF-β pathway has been pharmacologically targeted using small molecule inhibitors, TGF-β-directed chimeric monoclonal antibodies, ligand traps, antisense oligonucleotides and vaccines that have been now evaluated in clinical trials. Here, we have assessed the safety and efficacy of TGF-β pathway antagonists from multiple drug classes that have been evaluated in completed and ongoing trials. We highlight Vactosertib, a highly potent small molecule TGF-β type 1 receptor kinase inhibitor that is well-tolerated with an acceptable safety profile that has shown efficacy against multiple types of cancer. The TGF-β ligand traps Bintrafusp alfa (a bifunctional conjugate that binds TGF-β and PD-L1), AVID200 (a computationally designed trap of TGF-β receptor ectodomains fused to an Fc domain) and Luspatercept (a recombinant fusion that links the activin receptor IIb to IgG) offer new ways to fight difficult-to-treat cancers. While TGF-β pathway antagonists are rapidly emerging as highly promising, safe and effective anticancer agents, significant challenges remain. Minimizing the unintentional inhibition of tumor-suppressing activity and inflammatory effects with the desired restraint on tumor-promoting activities has impeded the clinical development of TGF-β pathway antagonists. A better understanding of the mechanistic details of the TGF-β pathway should lead to more effective TGF-β antagonists and uncover biomarkers that better stratify patient selection, improve patient responses and further the clinical development of TGF-β antagonists.

Human milk and infant formula modulate the intestinal microbiota and immune systems of human microbiota-associated mice

Many infants on an exclusive breastfeeding regimen are often fed inadequate amounts, and this creates an imbalance between the overall effects of breast milk and commercial infant formulas. We comparatively analyzed the impact of human milk and two infant formulas in modulating the intestinal microbiota and the immune systems of mice colonized by healthy infant feces. The results showed that compared to infant formula, human milk decreased the levels of alanine transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, and total protein. Also, it improved the immune system through the level of cytokines (CD4+ lymphocytes, Th1, Th2, Th17, and Treg cells) and immunity indicators (IL-2, IL-4, IL-9, and sIgA). Human milk decreased intestinal mucosal permeability compared to infant formula. Bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis revealed that human milk increased the abundance of Akkermansia and Bacteroides, while infant formula increased the abundance of Lactobacillus and Escherichia_Shigella. Collectively, our results showed that human milk is more suitable for infants than the two commercial infant formulas based on intestinal microbiota and immune system analyses. These findings thus support a theoretical basis for the development of infant formulas.

A Palette of Cytokines to Measure Anti-Tumor Efficacy of T Cell-Based Therapeutics

Cytokines are key molecules within the tumor microenvironment (TME) that can be used as biomarkers to predict the magnitude of anti-tumor immune responses. During immune monitoring, it has been customary to predict outcomes based on the abundance of a single cytokine, in particular IFN-γ or TGF-β, as a readout of ongoing anti-cancer immunity. However, individual cytokines within the TME can exhibit dual opposing roles. For example, both IFN-γ and TGF-β have been associated with pro- and anti-tumor functions. Moreover, cytokines originating from different cellular sources influence the crosstalk between CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, while the array of cytokines expressed by T cells is also instrumental in defining the mechanisms of action and efficacy of treatments. Thus, it becomes increasingly clear that a reliable readout of ongoing immunity within the TME will have to include more than the measurement of a single cytokine. This review focuses on defining a panel of cytokines that could help to reliably predict and analyze the outcomes of T cell-based anti-tumor therapies.

Increased infiltration of regulatory T cells in hepatocellular carcinoma of patients with hepatitis B virus pre-S2 mutant

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a frequent and deadly human cancer worldwide that is intimately associated with chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. Pre-S2 mutant is a HBV oncoprotein that plays important roles in HCC development and is linked to poor prognosis in HCC patients. However, the profiles of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in HCC tissues of pre-S2 mutant-positive patients remain unknown. In this study, we performed fluorescent immunohistochemistry staining to detect the infiltration of 'anti-tumor' cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and 'pro-tumor' regulatory T cells (Tregs) in pre-S2 mutant-positive and -negative HCC patients. We showed that pre-S2 mutant-positive patients had a significantly higher infiltration of CD4⁺CD25⁺ cells and forkhead box P3 (Foxp3)-expressing cells but similar CTLs and lower granzyme B-expressing cells in HCC tissues compared with pre-S2 mutant-negative patients. Moreover, the percentage of pre-S2 plus pre-S1 + pre-S2 deletion (pre-S2 mutant) was positively correlated with the density of CD4⁺CD25⁺ cells and Foxp3-expressing cells but negatively with granzyme B-expressing cells in HCC tissues. Considering that increased intratumoral Tregs have been shown to promote tumor immune evasion, our data may provide new insights into the pathogenesis of HBV pre-S2 mutant-induced HCC and suggest that therapeutics targeting Tregs may be a promising strategy for treating pre-S2 mutant-positive high-risk patient population.

Tumor-associated macrophages: role in tumorigenesis and immunotherapy implications

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) occupy an important position in the tumor microenvironment (TME), they are a highly plastic heterogeneous population with complex effects on tumorigenesis and development. TAMs secrete a variety of cytokines, chemokines, and proteases, which promote the remodeling of extracellular matrix, tumor cell growth and metastasis, tumor vessel and lymphangiogenesis, and immunosuppression. TAMs with different phenotypes have different effects on tumor proliferation and metastasis. TAMs act a pivotal part in occurrence and development of tumors, and are very attractive target to inhibit tumor growth and metastasis in tumor immunotherapy. This article reviews the interrelationship between TAMs and tumor microenvironment and its related applications in tumor therapy.

Targeting transforming growth factor-β signaling for enhanced cancer chemotherapy

During the past decades, drugs targeting transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) signaling have received tremendous attention for late-stage cancer treatment since TGFβ signaling has been recognized as a prime driver for tumor progression and metastasis. Nonetheless, in healthy and pre-malignant tissues, TGFβ functions as a potent tumor suppressor. Furthermore, TGFβ signaling plays a key role in normal development and homeostasis by regulating cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, apoptosis, and immune evasion, and by suppressing tumor-associated inflammation. Therefore, targeting TGFβ signaling for cancer therapy is challenging. Recently, we and others showed that blocking TGFβ signaling increased chemotherapy efficacy, particularly for nanomedicines. In this review, we briefly introduce the TGFβ signaling pathway, and the multifaceted functions of TGFβ signaling in cancer, including regulating the tumor microenvironment (TME) and the behavior of cancer cells. We also summarize TGFβ targeting agents. Then, we highlight TGFβ inhibition strategies to restore the extracellular matrix (ECM), regulate the tumor vasculature, reverse epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and impair the stemness of cancer stem-like cells (CSCs) to enhance cancer chemotherapy efficacy. Finally, the current challenges and future opportunities in targeting TGFβ signaling for cancer therapy are discussed.

Cow, Goat, and Mare Milk Diets Differentially Modulated the Immune System and Gut Microbiota of Mice Colonized by Healthy Infant Feces

Studies on the possible alternative supplements to breastmilk are gaining research interests. Although milk from cow, goat, and mare is nutritious, its effects on the relationship between the immune system, metabolites, and gut microbiota remain unclear. This study aimed to comprehensively evaluate the effects of cow, goat, and mare milk on the immune system, metabolites, and gut microbiota of mice colonized by healthy infant feces using human milk as a standard. We examined the serum biochemistry parameters, immunity indicators, T cells, gut microbiota abundance, and metabolites. Results showed that the impact of human milk on alanine transaminase, glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase, total protein, globulin, and glucose values was different from the cow, goat, and mare milk types. The effects of mare milk on the percentage of CD4⁺ T, Th1, Th2, Th17, and Treg cells, and the levels of IL-2, IL-4, sIgA, and d-lactic acid in the serum of the human microbiota-associated mice were comparable to those of human milk. Also, bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis revealed that human milk enriched the relative abundance of Akkermansia and Bacteroides, cow milk increased the relative abundance of Lactobacillus, goat milk increased the relative abundance of Escherichia-Shigella, and mare milk improved the relative abundance of Klebsiella. Besides, mare milk was similar to human milk in the concentration of the metabolites we analyzed. Our findings suggest that mare milk can positively modulate the gut microbiota and immunity status of infants and thus could be a possible replacement for human milk.

Cyano Enone-Bearing Triterpenoid Soloxolone Methyl Inhibits Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition of Human Lung Adenocarcinoma Cells In Vitro and Metastasis of Murine Melanoma In Vivo

Introduction of α-cyano α,β-unsaturated carbonyl moiety into natural cyclic compounds markedly improves their bioactivities, including inhibitory potential against tumor growth and metastasis. Previously, we showed that cyano enone-bearing derivatives of 18βH-glycyrrhetinic (GA) and deoxycholic acids displayed marked cytotoxicity in different tumor cell lines. Moreover, GA derivative soloxolone methyl (SM) was found to induce ER stress and apoptosis in tumor cells in vitro and inhibit growth of carcinoma Krebs-2 in vivo. In this work, we studied the effects of these compounds used in non-toxic dosage on the processes associated with metastatic potential of tumor cells. Performed screening revealed SM as a hit compound, which inhibits motility of murine melanoma B16 and human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells and significantly suppresses colony formation of A549 cells. Further study showed that SM effectively blocked transforming growth factor β (TGF-β)-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of A549 cells: namely, inhibited TGF-β-stimulated motility and invasion of tumor cells as well as loss of their epithelial characteristics, such as, an acquisition of spindle-like phenotype, up- and down-regulation of mesenchymal (vimentin, fibronectin) and epithelial (E-cadherin, zona occludens-1 (ZO-1)) markers, respectively. Network pharmacology analysis with subsequent verification by molecular modeling revealed that matrix metalloproteinases MMP-2/-9 and c-Jun N-terminal protein kinase 1 (JNK1) can be considered as hypothetical primary targets of SM, mediating its marked anti-EMT activity. The inhibitory effect of SM on EMT revealed in vitro was further confirmed in a metastatic model of murine B16 melanoma: SM was found to effectively block metastatic dissemination of melanoma B16 cells in vivo, increase expression of E-cadherin and suppress expression of MMP-9 in lung metastatic foci. Altogether, our data provided valuable information for a better understanding of the antitumor activity of cyano enone-bearing semisynthetic compounds and revealed SM as a promising anti-metastatic drug candidate.

Noncoding RNAs: the shot callers in tumor immune escape

Immunotherapy, designed to exploit the functions of the host immune system against tumors, has shown considerable potential against several malignancies. However, the utility of immunotherapy is heavily limited due to the low response rate and various side effects in the clinical setting. Immune escape of tumor cells may be a critical reason for such low response rates. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) have been identified as key regulatory factors in tumors and the immune system. Consequently, ncRNAs show promise as targets to improve the efficacy of immunotherapy in tumors. However, the relationship between ncRNAs and tumor immune escape (TIE) has not yet been comprehensively summarized. In this review, we provide a detailed account of the current knowledge on ncRNAs associated with TIE and their potential roles in tumor growth and survival mechanisms. This review bridges the gap between ncRNAs and TIE and broadens our understanding of their relationship, providing new insights and strategies to improve immunotherapy response rates by specifically targeting the ncRNAs involved in TIE.

CNOT7 depletion reverses natural killer cell resistance by modulating the tumor immune microenvironment of hepatocellular carcinoma

A major obstacle to effective cancer immunotherapy is the tumor immune microenvironment. Natural killer (NK) cell resistance has been suggested as a primary cause of poor prognosis in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), which seemingly correlates with CNOT7 overexpression. CNOT7, a cytoplasmic mRNA deadenylase that is highly expressed in HCC, may regulate cytokine transforming growth factor‐β1 (TGF‐β1) secretion by controlling nuclear factor‐κB subunit p65 trafficking. CNOT7 depletion suppresses TGF‐β1 secretion in HCC and promotes interferon‐γ (IFN‐γ) secretion by NK cells, and we previously demonstrated that CNOT7 depletion reversed IFN‐γ resistance in HCC cells. Therefore, we hypothesized that CNOT7 depletion might reverse NK cell resistance by influencing the tumor immune microenvironment of HCC. To test this hypothesis, we examined the correlation between CNOT7, STAT1, TGF‐β1 and IFN‐γ expression with hepatitis B virus‐related cirrhosis and HCC with hepatitis B virus‐related cirrhosis. We found that modulation of CNOT7 expression alters TGF‐β1 secretion in HCC and IFN‐γ secretion in NK cells. We also examined the effects of NK cells in HepG2 cells with CNOT7 knockdown, which showed that NK cell surface CD107a expression is up‐regulated and caspase‐3 expression is significantly enhanced in CNOT7‐deficient HepG2 cells. Overall, our results show that knockdown of CNOT7 expression reverses NK cell resistance in HCC cells. Therefore, CNOT7 depletion has potential as a new adjuvant therapy in immunotherapy for HCC.

Nongenetic Mechanisms of Drug Resistance in Melanoma

Resistance to targeted and immune-based therapies limits cures in patients with metastatic melanoma. A growing number of reports have identified nongenetic primary resistance mechanisms including intrinsic microenvironment- and lineage plasticity–mediated processes serving critical functions in the persistence of disease throughout therapy. There is a temporally shifting spectrum of cellular identities fluidly occupied by therapy-persisting melanoma cells responsible for driving therapeutic resistance and metastasis. The key epigenetic, metabolic, and phenotypic reprogramming events requisite for the manifestation and maintenance of so-called persister melanoma populations remain poorly understood and underscore the need to comprehensively investigate actionable vulnerabilities. Here we attempt to integrate the field's observations on nongenetic mechanisms of drug resistance in melanoma. We postulate that the future design of therapeutic strategies specifically addressing therapy-persisting subpopulations of melanoma will improve the curative potential of therapy for patients with metastatic disease.

WISP-1 Promotes Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma Cells Via the miR-153-3p/Snail Axis

Around half of all patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) present with lymphatic metastasis, a strong predictor of poor survival. Improving survival rates depends on preventing the first step in the “invasion-metastasis cascade,” epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and developing antilymphangiogenesis therapies that antagonize lymphatic metastasis. The extracellular matrix-related protein WISP-1 (WNT1-inducible signaling pathway protein-1) stimulates bone remodeling and tumor progression. We have previously reported that WISP-1 promotes OSCC cell migration and lymphangiogenesis induced by vascular endothelial growth factor C (VEGF-C). This investigation sought to determine the role of WISP-1 in regulating EMT in OSCC. Our analysis of oral cancer data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database revealed significant and positive associations between levels of WISP-1 expression and clinical disease stage, as well as regional lymph node metastasis. We also found higher levels of WISP-1 expression in serum samples obtained from patients with OSCC compared with samples from healthy controls. In a series of in vitro investigations, WISP-1 activated EMT signaling via the FAK/ILK/Akt and Snail signaling transduction pathways and downregulated miR-153-3p expression in OSCC cells. Our findings detail how WISP-1 promotes EMT via the miR-153-3p/Snail axis in OSCC cells.

Misrepair in Context: TGFβ Regulation of DNA Repair

Repair of DNA damage protects genomic integrity, which is key to tissue functional integrity. In cancer, the type and fidelity of DNA damage response is the fundamental basis for clinical response to cytotoxic therapy. Here we consider the contribution of transforming growth factor-beta (TGFβ), a ubiquitous, pleotropic cytokine that is abundant in the tumor microenvironment, to therapeutic response. The action of TGFβ is best illustrated in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Survival of HNSCC patients with human papilloma virus (HPV) positive cancer is more than double compared to those with HPV-negative HNSCC. Notably, HPV infection profoundly impairs TGFβ signaling. HPV blockade of TGFβ signaling, or pharmaceutical TGFβ inhibition that phenocopies HPV infection, shifts cancer cells from error-free homologous-recombination DNA double-strand-break (DSB) repair to error-prone alternative end-joining (altEJ). Cells using altEJ are more sensitive to standard of care radiotherapy and cisplatin, and are sensitized to PARP inhibitors. Hence, HPV-positive HNSCC is an experiment of nature that provides a strong rationale for the use of TGFβ inhibitors for optimal therapeutic combinations that improve patient outcome.

Transforming growth factor β signaling pathway: A promising therapeutic target for cancer

Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) is part of the transforming growth factor β superfamily which is involved in many physiological processes and closely related to the carcinogenesis. Here, we discuss the TGF-β structure, function, and its canonical Smads signaling pathway. Importantly, TGF-β has been proved that it plays both tumor suppressor as well as an activator role in tumor progression. In an early stage, TGF-β inhibits cell proliferation and is involved in cell apoptosis. In an advanced tumor, TGF-β signaling pathway induces tumor invasion and metastasis through promoting angiogenesis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and immune escape. Furthermore, we are centered on updated research results into the inhibitors as drugs which have been studied in preclinical or clinical trials in tumor carcinogenesis to prevent the TGF-β synthesis and block its signaling pathways such as antibodies, antisense molecules, and small-molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Thus, it is highlighting the crucial role of TGF-β in tumor therapy and may provide opportunities for the new antitumor strategies in patients with cancer.

Autoantibodies against glucose-regulated protein 78 as serological biomarkers in metastatic and recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma

Purpose

To identify Heptocellular carcinoma (HCC) associated antigens by proteomics, and validate whether autoantibodies against tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) could be used for diagnosis and conditional monitoring.

RESULTS

The 78 kDa glucose regulated protein (GRP78) was selected as a candidate TAA. The titers of autoantibodies against 78 kDa glucose regulated protein (GRP78) from patients with HCC, liver cirrhosis (LC), and chronic hepatitis (CH) were significantly higher than that from normal controls (P<0.05, P<0.001, and P<0.01, respectively). The expression of autoantibodies against GRP78 was associated with clinical stage (P<0.01), portal vein invasion (P<0.05), and metastasis (P<0.05). The expression of anti-GRP78 antibodies was significantly higher 1 month after surgery in recurrent patients who had accepted hepatic resection 1 month after surgery compared to patients who had surgery before surgery or within 1 week after surgery (P<0.01 and P<0.001). Immunohistochemistry (IHC) showed higher expression of GRP78 in HCC compared to the non-HCC liver tissues (P <0.05).

Materials and Methods

HCC serum with high titer of autoantibodies against TAAs were screened and used for a proteome-based approach to identify HCC associated antigens. Indirect enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA) was used to detect the corresponding autoantibodies against TAAs.

Conclusion

GRP78 is an autoantigen that could stimulate autoimmune responses and serve as a potential marker for recurrent and metastatic progression in HCC.

SMAD7 polymorphisms and colorectal cancer risk: a meta-analysis of case-control studies

Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 7 (SMAD7) inhibits the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling pathway, which regulates carcinogenesis and cancer progression. A number of studies have reported that SMAD7 polymorphisms (rs4464148, rs4939827, and rs12953717) are associated with colorectal cancer (CRC) risk, but the results from these studies remain conflicting. To determine a more precise estimation of the relationship between SMAD7 and CRC, we undertook a large-scale meta-analysis of 63 studies, which included a total of 187,181 subjects (86,585 cases and 100,596 controls). The results of our meta-analysis revealed that the C allele of rs4464148 [CC vs. TT+TC, odds ratio (OR) =1.23, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.14–1.33, P < 0.01], the T allele of rs4939827 [TT vs. CC+TC, odds ratio OR=1.15, 95%CI:1.07–1.22, P < 0.01] and the T allele of rs12953717 [TT vs. CC+TC, OR =1.22, 95%CI:1.16–1.29, P < 0.01] were all associated with the increased CRC risk. Subgroup analysis according to ethnicity showed rs4464148 and rs12953717 were associated with the risk of CRC in both Caucasians and Asians, whereas rs4939827 was a risk polymorphism for CRC specifically in Caucasians. In summary, this large-scale meta-analysis indicated that SMAD7 polymorphisms (rs4464148, rs4939827, and rs12953717) correlate with CRC.

Augmented anti-tumor activity of NK-92 cells expressing chimeric receptors of TGF-βR II and NKG2D

The capacity of natural killer (NK) cells to kill tumor cells without specific antigen recognition provides an advantage over T cells and makes them potential effectors for tumor immunotherapy. However, the efficacy of NK cell adoptive therapy can be limited by the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is a potent immunosuppressive cytokine that can suppress NK cell function. To convert the suppressive signal induced by TGF-β to an activating signal, we genetically modified NK-92 cells to express a chimeric receptor with TGF-β type II receptor extracellular and transmembrane domains and the intracellular domain of NK cell-activating receptor NKG2D (TN chimeric receptor). NK-92 cells expressing TN receptors were resistant to TGF-β-induced suppressive signaling and did not down-regulate NKG2D. These modified NK-92 cells had higher killing capacity and interferon γ (IFN-γ) production against tumor cells compared with the control cells and their cytotoxicity could be further enhanced by TGF-β. More interestingly, the NK-92 cells expressing TN receptors were better chemo-attracted to the tumor cells expressing TGF-β. The presence of these modified NK-92 cells significantly inhibited the differentiation of human naïve CD4+ T cells to regulatory T cells. NK-92-TN cells could also inhibit tumor growth in vivo in a hepatocellular carcinoma xenograft tumor model. Therefore, TN chimeric receptors can be a novel strategy to augment anti-tumor efficacy in NK cell adoptive therapy.

Role of Natural Killer Cells in HIV-Associated Malignancies

Now in its fourth decade, the burden of HIV disease still persists, despite significant milestone achievements in HIV prevention, diagnosis, treatment, care, and support. Even with long-term use of currently available antiretroviral therapies (ARTs), eradication of HIV remains elusive and now poses a unique set of challenges for the HIV-infected individual. The occurrence of HIV-associated non-AIDS-related comorbidities outside the scope of AIDS-defining illnesses, in particular non-AIDS-defining cancers, is much greater than the age-matched uninfected population. The underlying mechanism is now recognized in part to be related to the immune dysregulated and inflammatory status characteristic of HIV infection that persists despite ART. Natural killer (NK) cells are multifunctional effector immune cells that play a critical role in shaping the innate immune responses to viral infections and cancer. NK cells can modulate the adaptive immune response via their role in dendritic cell (DC) maturation, removal of immature tolerogenic DCs, and their ability to produce immunoregulatory cytokines. NK cells are therefore poised as attractive therapeutic targets that can be harnessed to control or clear both HIV and HIV-associated malignancies. To date, features of the tumor microenvironment and the evolution of NK-cell function among individuals with HIV-related malignancies remain unclear and may be distinct from malignancies observed in uninfected persons. This review intends to uncouple anti-HIV and antitumor NK-cell features that can be manipulated to halt the evolution of HIV disease and HIV-associated malignancies and serve as potential preventative and curative immunotherapeutic options.

Critical Role of Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells in Tumor-Induced Liver Immune Suppression through Inhibition of NKT Cell Function

Metastasis followed by the tumor development is the primary cause of death for cancer patients. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of how the growth of tumor resulted in the immune suppression, especially at the blood-enriched organ such as liver, were largely unknown. In this report, we studied the liver immune response of tumor-bearing (TB) mice using concanavalin A (Con A)-induced hepatitis model. We demonstrated that TB mice displayed an immune suppression phenotype, with attenuated alanine aminotransferase levels and liver damage upon Con A treatment. We also elucidated that large amounts of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) being influx into the liver in TB mice and these MDSCs were essential for liver immune suppression through both depletion and reconstitution approaches. We further determined that these MDSCs selectively suppressed the IFN-γ production deriving from NKT cells through membrane-bound transforming growth factor β (TGF-β). Finally, we defined a tumor-derived TGF-β-triggered CXCL1/2/5- and CXCR2-dependent recruitment of MDSC into the liver. In summary, our results defined a novel mechanism of liver immune suppression triggered by growing living tumor and provided possible therapeutic targets against these MDSCs.

The role of the immune system in neurofibromatosis type 1-associated nervous system tumors

With the recent development of new anticancer therapies targeting the immune system, it is important to understand which immune cell types and cytokines play critical roles in suppressing or promoting tumorigenesis. The role of mast cells in promoting neurofibroma growth in neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) patients was hypothesized decades ago. More recent experiments in mouse models have demonstrated the causal role of mast cells in neurofibroma development and of microglia in optic pathway glioma development. We review here what is known about the role of NF1 mutation in immune cell function and the role of immune cells in promoting tumorigenesis in NF1. We also review the therapies targeting immune cell pathways and their promise in NF1 tumors.

Chloroquine (CQ) exerts anti-breast cancer through modulating microenvironment and inducing apoptosis

CQ is an anti-malaria drug, which has been used for years. However, there are published articles about its activity in anti-cancers. The aim of this approach was to look at possibility and related mechanisms of anti-breast cancer (mouse breast cancer cell line 4T1) by CQ alone. The studies of anti 4T1 in vitro and in vivo by CQ were performed. The growth of 4T1 in vitro and in vivo, survival of mice post treatment with CQ, changes of immune parameters and microenvironment in mice were evaluated. Our results demonstrate that CQ could markedly inhibit growth of 4T1 in vitro through inducing apoptosis of cells, inhibiting secretion of TGF-β and prolong the mice survival in vivo through boosting immune system by upregulating CD8+ T cell, and through down-regulating tumor associated macrophages (TAM), myeloid derived suppressing cells (MDSC) and Tregs, in microenvironment of mice bearing tumor. This provides a new mode of action for CQ and it is therefore concluded that CQ could be with potential in breast cancer therapy.

COPD promotes migration of A549 lung cancer cells: the role of chemokine CCL21

Patients with COPD develop lung cancer more frequently than healthy smokers. At the same time, molecular mediators promoting various aspects of cancer cell progression are still elusive. In this report, we examined whether COPD can be coupled with increased migration of non-small-cell lung cancer cells A549 and, if so, whether this effect may be related to altered production and activity of chemokines CCL21, CXCL5, and CXCL12. The study showed that the migration of A549 cells through the polycarbonate membrane and basement membrane extract toward a chemotactic gradient elicited by serum from patients with COPD was markedly higher as compared with serum from healthy donors. The concentration of CCL21 and CXCL12, but not CXCL5, in serum from patients with COPD was also increased. Experiments in which CCL21- and CXCL12-dependent signaling was blocked revealed that increased migration of the cancer cells upon treatment with serum from patients with COPD was mediated exclusively by CCL21. Collectively, our results indicate that COPD may contribute to the progression of lung cancer via CCL21-dependent intensification of cancer cell migration.

Short hairpin RNA silencing of TGF-βRII and FZD-7 synergistically suppresses proliferation and metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is a multifunctional regulator of cell growth, apoptosis, differentiation and migration. The Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway has been implicated in a wide spectrum of diseases, including numerous cancers and degenerative disease. The aim of the present study was to investigate if simultaneous blocking of TGF-β and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways exerts synergistic anti-tumor effects on hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells. Short hairpin (sh) RNA eukaryotic expression vectors, specific to TGF-β receptor II (RII) and Frizzled receptor (FZD)-7, were constructed by gene recombination. The expression vectors were transfected into human HCC HepG2 and Huh-7 cells using Lipofectamine 2000 to investigate the synergistic effects between TGF-β and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways on HCC cell proliferation, invasion and migration and the cell-cycle distribution. Western blot analysis was used to identify the expression of β-catenin, c-Myc and cyclin D1 in transfected cells to investigate the underlying mechanisms that cause TGF-β and Wnt/β-catenin signaling in HCC cells. shTGF-βRII-c and shFZD-7-2 were selected as the most efficient plasmids. A cell growth assay and colony-forming assay consistently demonstrated that the proliferative activity of the co-transfected group was significantly decreased compared to the single-transfected group. A wound healing invasion and migration assay demonstrated that co-transfection of shTGF-βRII-c and shFZD-7-2 decreased the invasion and migration abilities of the cells compared with either single-transfected group. In addition, the present study demonstrated that the observed reduction in cell proliferation was due to the cells arresting at the G1 phase of the cell cycle, and the downregulation of β-catenin, c-Myc and cyclin D1 impaired the proliferative and invasive abilities of the HCC cells. The present results demonstrate that simultaneous blocking of TGF-β and Wnt/β-catenin signaling by targeting TGF-βRII and FZD-7 may inhibit the proliferation and metastasis of HCC cells more effectively compared with blocking either the TGF-β or Wnt/β-catenin pathway.

TGF-β induces HLA-G expression through inhibiting miR-152 in gastric cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Mounting evidences have showed the important role of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) in immunological surveillance of tumors. Some studies have also indicated human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-G-associated immune escape involving TGF-β management in gastric cancer (GC). However, the mechanism underlying it is unclear. This study aims to verify the correlations between HLA-G and TGF-β, involving the potential targeting of miR-152 on HLA-G.

RESULTS

TGF-β and HLA-G levels were analyzed in blood samples from twenty GC patients with ELISA assays, while TGF-β showed directly proportional to HLA-G levels in GC patients, and TGF-β induced HLA-G up-regulation was also confirmed in GC cell lines. Furthermore, miR-152 expression could be inhibited by TGF-β, and the negative post-transcriptionally regulation of miR-152 on HLA-G was also demonstrated through gain- and loss-of-function studies. Besides, miR-152 overexpression repressed HLA-G up-regulation induced by TGF-β. And, miR-152 expression levels showed inversely proportional to both HLA-G and also TGF-β levels in GC patients.

CONCLUSION

TGF-β could induce HLA-G expression in GC by inhibiting miR-152, involving its negative regulation on HLA-G. Since TGF-β induced HLA-G up-regulation plays important role in immune escape, a potential application of miR-152 was suggested in GC treatment, or miR-152 might be one potential biomarker for GC.

The Dynamics of Interactions Among Immune and Glioblastoma Cells

Glioblastoma is the most common intracranial malignancy that constitutes about 50 % of all gliomas. Despite aggressive, multimodal therapy consisting of surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, the outcome of patients with glioblastoma remains poor with 5-year survival rates of <10 %. Resistance to conventional therapies is most likely caused by several factors. Alterations in the functions of local immune mediators may represent a critical contributor to this resistance. The tumor microenvironment contains innate and adaptive immune cells in addition to the cancer cells and their surrounding stroma. These various cells communicate with each other by means of direct cell-cell contact or by soluble factors including cytokines and chemokines, and act in autocrine and paracrine manners to modulate tumor growth. There are dynamic interactions among the local immune elements and the tumor cells, where primarily the protective immune cells attempt to overcome the malignant cells. However, by developing somatic mutations and epigenetic modifications, the glioblastoma tumor cells acquire the capability of counteracting the local immune responses, and even exploit the immune cells and products for their own growth benefits. In this review, we survey those immune mechanisms that likely contribute to glioblastoma pathogenesis and may serve as a basis for novel treatment strategies.

Association between the TGFBR2 G-875A polymorphism and cancer risk: evidence from a meta-analysis

Disrupted transforming growth factor- β (TGF-β) signaling is involved in the development of various types of cancer and the TGF-β receptor II (TGFBR2) is a key mediator of TGF-β growth inhibitory signals. It is reported that the G-875A polymorphism in TGFBR2 is implicated in risk of various cancers. However, results for the association between this polymorphism and cancer remain conflicting. To derive a more precise estimation, a meta-analysis of 3,808 cases and 4,489 controls from nine published case-control studies was performed. Our analysis indicated that G-875A is associated with a trend of decreased cancer risk for allele A versus(vs.) allele G [odds ratio (OR) =0.64, 95% confidence intervals (CI): 0.55-0.74], as well as for both dominant model [(A/ A+G/A) vs. G/G, OR=0.76, 95% CI: 0.64-0.90] and recessive model [A/A vs. (G/G+G/A), OR=0.74, 95% CI: 0.59-0.93). However, larger scale primary studies are required to further evaluate the interaction of TGFBR2 G-875A polymorphism and cancer risk in specific cancer subtypes.