A multi-protein receptor-ligand complex underlies combinatorial dendrite guidance choices in C. elegans

Dendrite morphogenesis in Caenorhabditis elegans

Since the days of Ramón y Cajal, the vast diversity of neuronal and particularly dendrite morphology has been used to catalog neurons into different classes. Dendrite morphology varies greatly and reflects the different functions performed by different types of neurons. Significant progress has been made in our understanding of how dendrites form and the molecular factors and forces that shape these often elaborately sculpted structures. Here, we review work in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans that has shed light on the developmental mechanisms that mediate dendrite morphogenesis with a focus on studies investigating ciliated sensory neurons and the highly elaborated dendritic trees of somatosensory neurons. These studies, which combine time-lapse imaging, genetics, and biochemistry, reveal an intricate network of factors that function both intrinsically in dendrites and extrinsically from surrounding tissues. Therefore, dendrite morphogenesis is the result of multiple tissue interactions, which ultimately determine the shape of dendritic arbors.

Stochastic growth and selective stabilization generate stereotyped dendritic arbors

Stereotyped dendritic arbors are shaped by dynamic and stochastic growth during neuronal development. It remains unclear how guidance receptors and ligands coordinate branch dynamic growth, retraction, and stabilization to specify dendritic arbors. We previously showed that extracellular ligand SAX-7/LICAM dictates the shape of the PVD sensory neuron via binding to the dendritic guidance receptor DMA-1, a single transmembrane adhesion molecule. Here, we perform structure-function analyses of DMA-1 and unexpectedly find that robust, stochastic dendritic growth does not require ligand-binding. Instead, ligand-binding inhibits growth, prevents retraction, and specifies arbor shape. Furthermore, we demonstrate that dendritic growth requires a pool of ligand-free DMA-1, which is maintained by receptor endocytosis and reinsertion to the plasma membrane via recycling endosomes. Mutants defective of DMA-1 endocytosis show severely truncated dendritic arbors. We present a model in which ligand-free guidance receptor mediates intrinsic, stochastic dendritic growth, while extracellular ligands instruct dendrite shape by inhibiting growth.

Adjacent Neuronal Fascicle Guides Motoneuron 24 Dendritic Branching and Axonal Routing Decisions through Dscam1 Signaling

The formation and precise positioning of axons and dendrites are crucial for the development of neural circuits. Although juxtracrine signaling via cell-cell contact is known to influence these processes, the specific structures and mechanisms regulating neuronal process positioning within the central nervous system (CNS) remain to be fully identified. Our study investigates motoneuron 24 (MN24) in the Drosophila embryonic CNS, which is characterized by a complex yet stereotyped axon projection pattern, known as 'axonal routing.' In this motoneuron, the primary dendritic branches project laterally toward the midline, specifically emerging at the sites where axons turn. We observed that Scp2-positive neurons contribute to the lateral fascicle structure in the ventral nerve cord (VNC) near MN24 dendrites. Notably, the knockout of the Down syndrome cell adhesion molecule (dscam1) results in the loss of dendrites and disruption of proper axonal routing in MN24, while not affecting the formation of the fascicle structure. Through cell-type specific knockdown and rescue experiments of dscam1, we have determined that the interaction between MN24 and Scp2-positive fascicle, mediated by Dscam1, promotes the development of both dendrites and axonal routing. Our findings demonstrate that the holistic configuration of neuronal structures, such as axons and dendrites, within single motoneurons can be governed by local contact with the adjacent neuron fascicle, a novel reference structure for neural circuitry wiring.

Endoplasmic Reticulum Exit Sites scale with somato-dendritic size in neurons

Nervous systems exhibit dramatic diversity in cell morphology and size. How neurons regulate their biosynthetic and secretory machinery to support such diversity is not well understood. Endoplasmic reticulum exit sites (ERESs) are essential for maintaining secretory flux, and are required for normal dendrite development, but how neurons of different size regulate secretory capacity remains unknown. In Caenorhabditis elegans, we find that the ERES number is strongly correlated with the size of a neuron's dendritic arbor. The elaborately branched sensory neuron, PVD, has especially high ERES numbers. Asymmetric cell division provides PVD with a large initial cell size critical for rapid establishment of PVD's high ERES number before neurite outgrowth, and these ERESs are maintained throughout development. Maintenance of ERES number requires the cell fate transcription factor MEC-3, C. elegans TOR (ceTOR/let-363), and nutrient availability, with mec-3 and ceTOR/let-363 mutant PVDs both displaying reductions in ERES number, soma size, and dendrite size. Notably, mec-3 mutant animals exhibit reduced expression of a ceTOR/let-363 reporter in PVD, and starvation reduces ERES number and somato-dendritic size in a manner genetically redundant with ceTOR/let-363 perturbation. Our data suggest that both asymmetric cell division and nutrient sensing pathways regulate secretory capacities to support elaborate dendritic arbors.

Convertase-dependent regulation of membrane-tethered and secreted ligands tunes dendrite adhesion

During neural development, cellular adhesion is crucial for interactions among and between neurons and surrounding tissues. This function is mediated by conserved cell adhesion molecules, which are tightly regulated to allow for coordinated neuronal outgrowth. Here, we show that the proprotein convertase KPC-1 (homolog of mammalian furin) regulates the Menorin adhesion complex during development of PVD dendritic arbors in Caenorhabditis elegans. We found a finely regulated antagonistic balance between PVD-expressed KPC-1 and the epidermally expressed putative cell adhesion molecule MNR-1 (Menorin). Genetically, partial loss of mnr-1 suppressed partial loss of kpc-1, and both loss of kpc-1 and transgenic overexpression of mnr-1 resulted in indistinguishable phenotypes in PVD dendrites. This balance regulated cell-surface localization of the DMA-1 leucine-rich transmembrane receptor in PVD neurons. Lastly, kpc-1 mutants showed increased amounts of MNR-1 and decreased amounts of muscle-derived LECT-2 (Chondromodulin II), which is also part of the Menorin adhesion complex. These observations suggest that KPC-1 in PVD neurons directly or indirectly controls the abundance of proteins of the Menorin adhesion complex from adjacent tissues, thereby providing negative feedback from the dendrite to the instructive cues of surrounding tissues.

The RIDD activity of C. elegans IRE1 modifies neuroendocrine signaling in anticipation of environment stress to ensure survival

Xbp1 splicing and regulated IRE1-dependent RNA decay (RIDD) are two RNase activities of the ER stress sensor IRE1. While Xbp1 splicing has important roles in stress responses and animal physiology, the physiological role(s) of RIDD remain enigmatic. Genetic evidence in C. elegans connects XBP1-independent IRE1 activity to organismal stress adaptation, but whether this is via RIDD, and what are the targets is yet unknown. We show that cytosolic kinase/RNase domain of C. elegans IRE1 is indeed capable of RIDD in human cells, and that sensory neurons use RIDD to signal environmental stress, by degrading mRNA of TGFβ-like growth factor DAF-7. daf-7 was degraded in human cells by both human and worm IRE1 RNAse activity with same efficiency and specificity as Blos1, confirming daf-7 as RIDD substrate. Surprisingly, daf-7 degradation in vivo was triggered by concentrations of ER stressor tunicamycin too low for xbp-1 splicing. Decrease in DAF-7 normally signals food limitation and harsh environment, triggering adaptive changes to promote population survival. Because C. elegans is a bacteriovore, and tunicamycin, like other common ER stressors, is an antibiotic secreted by Streptomyces spp., we asked whether daf-7 degradation by RIDD could signal pending food deprivation. Indeed, pre-emptive tunicamycin exposure increased survival of C. elegans populations under food limiting/high temperature stress, and this protection was abrogated by overexpression of DAF-7. Thus, C. elegans uses stress-inducing metabolites in its environment as danger signals, and employs IRE1's RIDD activity to modulate the neuroendocrine signaling for survival of upcoming environmental challenge.

The intrinsically disordered cytoplasmic tail of a dendrite branching receptor uses two distinct mechanisms to regulate the actin cytoskeleton

Dendrite morphogenesis is essential for neural circuit formation, yet the molecular mechanisms underlying complex dendrite branching remain elusive. Previous studies on the highly branched Caenorhabditis elegans PVD sensory neuron identified a membrane co-receptor complex that links extracellular signals to intracellular actin remodeling machinery, promoting high-order dendrite branching. In this complex, the claudin-like transmembrane protein HPO-30 recruits the WAVE regulatory complex (WRC) to dendrite branching sites, stimulating the Arp2/3 complex to polymerize actin. We report here our biochemical and structural analysis of this interaction, revealing that the intracellular domain (ICD) of HPO-30 is intrinsically disordered and employs two distinct mechanisms to regulate the actin cytoskeleton. First, HPO-30 ICD binding to the WRC requires dimerization and involves the entire ICD sequence, rather than a short linear peptide motif. This interaction enhances WRC activation by the GTPase Rac1. Second, HPO-30 ICD directly binds to the sides and barbed end of actin filaments. Binding to the barbed end requires ICD dimerization and inhibits both actin polymerization and depolymerization, resembling the actin capping protein CapZ. These dual functions provide an intriguing model of how membrane proteins can integrate distinct mechanisms to fine-tune local actin dynamics.

Ribo-On and Ribo-Off tools using a self-cleaving ribozyme allow manipulation of endogenous gene expression in C. elegans

Investigating gene function relies on the efficient manipulation of endogenous gene expression. Currently, a limited number of tools are available to robustly manipulate endogenous gene expression between "on" and "off" states. In this study, we insert a 63 bp coding sequence of T3H38 ribozyme into the 3' untranslated region (UTR) of C. elegans endogenous genes using the CRISPR/Cas9 technology, which reduces the endogenous gene expression to a nearly undetectable level and generated loss-of-function phenotypes similar to that of the genetic null animals. To achieve conditional knockout, a cassette of loxP-flanked transcriptional termination signal and ribozyme is inserted into the 3' UTR of endogenous genes, which eliminates gene expression spatially or temporally via the controllable expression of the Cre recombinase. Conditional endogenous gene turn-on can be achieved by either injecting morpholino, which blocks the ribozyme self-cleavage activity or using the Cre recombinase to remove the loxP-flanked ribozyme. Together, our results demonstrate that these ribozyme-based tools can efficiently manipulate endogenous gene expression both in space and time and expand the toolkit for studying the functions of endogenous genes.

The emerging roles of leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 in immune diseases: From mechanisms to therapeutic potential

Leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 (LECT2, also named ChM-II), initially identified as a chemokine mediating neutrophil migration, is a multifunctional secreted factor involved in diverse physiological and pathological processes. The high sequence similarity of LECT2 among different vertebrates makes it possible to explore its functions by using comparative biology. LECT2 is associated with many immune processes and immune-related diseases via its binding to cell surface receptors such as CD209a, Tie1, and Met in various cell types. In addition, the misfolding LECT2 leads to the amyloidosis of several crucial tissues (kidney, liver, and lung, etc.) by inducing the formation of insoluble fibrils. However, the mechanisms of LECT2-mediated diverse immune pathogenic conditions in various tissues remain to be fully elucidated due to the functional and signaling heterogeneity. Here, we provide a comprehensive summary of the structure, the “double-edged sword” function, and the extensive signaling pathways of LECT2 in immune diseases, as well as the potential applications of LECT2 in therapeutic interventions in preclinical or clinical trials. This review provides an integrated perspective on the current understanding of how LECT2 is associated with immune diseases, with the aim of facilitating the development of drugs or probes against LECT2 for the theranostics of immune-related diseases.

Two intrinsic timing mechanisms set start and end times for dendritic arborization of a nociceptive neuron

Choreographic dendritic arborization takes place within a defined time frame, but the timing mechanism is currently not known. Here, we report that the precisely timed lin-4-lin-14 regulatory circuit triggers an initial dendritic growth activity, whereas the precisely timed lin-28-let-7-lin-41 regulatory circuit signals a subsequent developmental decline in dendritic growth ability, hence restricting dendritic arborization within a set time frame. Loss-of-function mutations in the lin-4 microRNA gene cause limited dendritic outgrowth, whereas loss-of-function mutations in its direct target, the lin-14 transcription factor gene, cause precocious and excessive outgrowth. In contrast, loss-of-function mutations in the let-7 microRNA gene prevent a developmental decline in dendritic growth ability, whereas loss-of-function mutations in its direct target, the lin-41 tripartite motif protein gene, cause further decline. lin-4 and let-7 regulatory circuits are expressed in the right place at the right time to set start and end times for dendritic arborization. Replacing the lin-4 upstream cis-regulatory sequence at the lin-4 locus with a late-onset let-7 upstream cis-regulatory sequence delays dendrite arborization, whereas replacing the let-7 upstream cis-regulatory sequence at the let-7 locus with an early-onset lin-4 upstream cis-regulatory sequence causes a precocious decline in dendritic growth ability. Our results indicate that the lin-4-lin-14 and the lin-28-let-7-lin-41 regulatory circuits control the timing of dendrite arborization through antagonistic regulation of the DMA-1 receptor level on dendrites. The LIN-14 transcription factor likely directly represses dma-1 gene expression through a transcriptional means, whereas the LIN-41 tripartite motif protein likely indirectly promotes dma-1 gene expression through a posttranscriptional means.

Specific N-glycans regulate an extracellular adhesion complex during somatosensory dendrite patterning

N-glycans are molecularly diverse sugars borne by over 70% of proteins transiting the secretory pathway and have been implicated in protein folding, stability, and localization. Mutations in genes important for N-glycosylation result in congenital disorders of glycosylation that are often associated with intellectual disability. Here, we show that structurally distinct N-glycans regulate an extracellular protein complex involved in the patterning of somatosensory dendrites in Caenorhabditis elegans. Specifically, aman-2/Golgi alpha-mannosidase II, a conserved key enzyme in the biosynthesis of specific N-glycans, regulates the activity of the Menorin adhesion complex without obviously affecting the protein stability and localization of its components. AMAN-2 functions cell-autonomously to allow for decoration of the neuronal transmembrane receptor DMA-1/LRR-TM with the correct set of high-mannose/hybrid/paucimannose N-glycans. Moreover, distinct types of N-glycans on specific N-glycosylation sites regulate DMA-1/LRR-TM receptor function, which, together with three other extracellular proteins, forms the Menorin adhesion complex. In summary, specific N-glycan structures regulate dendrite patterning by coordinating the activity of an extracellular adhesion complex, suggesting that the molecular diversity of N-glycans can contribute to developmental specificity in the nervous system.

The Immunoglobulin Superfamily Member Basigin Is Required for Complex Dendrite Formation in Drosophila

Coordination of dendrite growth with changes in the surrounding substrate occurs widely in the nervous system and is vital for establishing and maintaining neural circuits. However, the molecular basis of this important developmental process remains poorly understood. To identify potential mediators of neuron-substrate interactions important for dendrite morphogenesis, we undertook an expression pattern-based screen in Drosophila larvae, which revealed many proteins with expression in dendritic arborization (da) sensory neurons and in neurons and their epidermal substrate. We found that reporters for Basigin, a cell surface molecule of the immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily previously implicated in cell-cell and cell-substrate interactions, are expressed in da sensory neurons and epidermis. Loss of Basigin in da neurons led to defects in morphogenesis of the complex dendrites of class IV da neurons. Classes of sensory neurons with simpler branching patterns were unaffected by loss of Basigin. Structure-function analyses showed that a juxtamembrane KRR motif is critical for this function. Furthermore, knock down of Basigin in the epidermis led to defects in dendrite elaboration of class IV neurons, suggesting a non-autonomous role. Together, our findings support a role for Basigin in complex dendrite morphogenesis and interactions between dendrites and the adjacent epidermis.

A two-step actin polymerization mechanism drives dendrite branching

Background

Dendrite morphogenesis plays an essential role in establishing the connectivity and receptive fields of neurons during the development of the nervous system. To generate the diverse morphologies of branched dendrites, neurons use external cues and cell surface receptors to coordinate intracellular cytoskeletal organization; however, the molecular mechanisms of how this signaling forms branched dendrites are not fully understood.

Methods

We performed in vivo time-lapse imaging of the PVD neuron in C. elegans in several mutants of actin regulatory proteins, such as the WAVE Regulatory Complex (WRC) and UNC-34 (homolog of Enabled/Vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (Ena/VASP)). We examined the direct interaction between the WRC and UNC-34 and analyzed the localization of UNC-34 in vivo using transgenic worms expressing UNC-34 fused to GFP.

Results

We identify a stereotyped sequence of morphological events during dendrite outgrowth in the PVD neuron in C. elegans. Specifically, local increases in width (“swellings”) give rise to filopodia to facilitate a “rapid growth and pause” mode of growth. In unc-34 mutants, filopodia fail to form but swellings are intact. In WRC mutants, dendrite growth is largely absent, resulting from a lack of both swelling and filopodia formation. We also found that UNC-34 can directly bind to the WRC. Disrupting this binding by deleting the UNC-34 EVH1 domain prevented UNC-34 from localizing to swellings and dendrite tips, resulting in a stunted dendritic arbor and reduced filopodia outgrowth.

Conclusions

We propose that regulators of branched and linear F-actin cooperate to establish dendritic branches. By combining our work with existing literature, we propose that the dendrite guidance receptor DMA-1 recruits the WRC, which polymerizes branched F-actin to generate “swellings” on a mother dendrite. Then, WRC recruits the actin elongation factor UNC-34/Ena/VASP to initiate growth of a new dendritic branch from the swelling, with the help of the actin-binding protein UNC-115/abLIM. Extension of existing dendrites also proceeds via swelling formation at the dendrite tip followed by UNC-34-mediated outgrowth. Following dendrite initiation and extension, the stabilization of branches by guidance receptors further recruits WRC, resulting in an iterative process to build a complex dendritic arbor.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13064-021-00154-0.

The CATP-8/P5A-type ATPase functions in multiple pathways during neuronal patterning

The assembly of neuronal circuits involves the migrations of neurons from their place of birth to their final location in the nervous system, as well as the coordinated growth and patterning of axons and dendrites. In screens for genes required for patterning of the nervous system, we identified the catp-8/P5A-ATPase as an important regulator of neural patterning. P5A-ATPases are part of the P-type ATPases, a family of proteins known to serve a conserved function as transporters of ions, lipids and polyamines in unicellular eukaryotes, plants, and humans. While the function of many P-type ATPases is relatively well understood, the function of P5A-ATPases in metazoans remained elusive. We show here, that the Caenorhabditis elegans ortholog catp-8/P5A-ATPase is required for defined aspects of nervous system development. Specifically, the catp-8/P5A-ATPase serves functions in shaping the elaborately sculpted dendritic trees of somatosensory PVD neurons. Moreover, catp-8/P5A-ATPase is required for axonal guidance and repulsion at the midline, as well as embryonic and postembryonic neuronal migrations. Interestingly, not all axons at the midline require catp-8/P5A-ATPase, although the axons run in the same fascicles and navigate the same space. Similarly, not all neuronal migrations require catp-8/P5A-ATPase. A CATP-8/P5A-ATPase reporter is localized to the ER in most, if not all, tissues and catp-8/P5A-ATPase can function both cell-autonomously and non-autonomously to regulate neuronal development. Genetic analyses establish that catp-8/P5A-ATPase can function in multiple pathways, including the Menorin pathway, previously shown to control dendritic patterning in PVD, and Wnt signaling, which functions to control neuronal migrations. Lastly, we show that catp-8/P5A-ATPase is required for localizing select transmembrane proteins necessary for dendrite morphogenesis. Collectively, our studies suggest that catp-8/P5A-ATPase serves diverse, yet specific, roles in different genetic pathways and may be involved in the regulation or localization of transmembrane and secreted proteins to specific subcellular compartments.

Transparent Touch: Insights From Model Systems on Epidermal Control of Somatosensory Innervation

Somatosensory neurons (SSNs) densely innervate our largest organ, the skin, and shape our experience of the world, mediating responses to sensory stimuli including touch, pressure, and temperature. Historically, epidermal contributions to somatosensation, including roles in shaping innervation patterns and responses to sensory stimuli, have been understudied. However, recent work demonstrates that epidermal signals dictate patterns of SSN skin innervation through a variety of mechanisms including targeting afferents to the epidermis, providing instructive cues for branching morphogenesis, growth control and structural stability of neurites, and facilitating neurite-neurite interactions. Here, we focus onstudies conducted in worms (Caenorhabditis elegans), fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster), and zebrafish (Danio rerio): prominent model systems in which anatomical and genetic analyses have defined fundamental principles by which epidermal cells govern SSN development.

CATP-8/P5A ATPase Regulates ER Processing of the DMA-1 Receptor for Dendritic Branching

Dendrite morphogenesis is essential for a neuron to establish its receptive field and is, thus, the anatomical basis for the proper functioning of the nervous system. The molecular mechanisms governing dendrite branching are not fully understood. Using the multi-dendritic PVD neuron in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, we identify CATP-8/P5A ATPase as a key regulator of dendrite branching that controls the translocation of the DMA-1 receptor to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The specific signal peptide of DMA-1 and the ATPase activity of CATP-8 are essential for this process. Our results reveal that P5A ATPase may regulate protein translocation in the ER.

Molecular mechanisms that mediate dendrite morphogenesis

Neurons develop dendritic morphologies that bear cell type-specific features in dendritic field size and geometry, branch placement and density, and the types and distributions of synaptic contacts. Dendritic patterns influence the types and numbers of inputs a neuron receives, and the ways in which neural information is processed and transmitted in the circuitry. Even subtle alterations in dendritic structures can have profound consequences on neuronal function and are implicated in neurodevelopmental disorders. In this chapter, I review how growing dendrites acquire their exquisite patterns by drawing examples from diverse neuronal cell types in vertebrate and invertebrate model systems. Dendrite morphogenesis is shaped by intrinsic and extrinsic factors such as transcriptional regulators, guidance and adhesion molecules, neighboring cells and synaptic partners. I discuss molecular mechanisms that regulate dendrite morphogenesis with a focus on five aspects of dendrite patterning: (1) Dendritic cytoskeleton and cellular machineries that build the arbor; (2) Gene regulatory mechanisms; (3) Afferent cues that regulate dendritic arbor growth; (4) Space-filling strategies that optimize dendritic coverage; and (5) Molecular cues that specify dendrite wiring. Cell type-specific implementation of these patterning mechanisms produces the diversity of dendrite morphologies that wire the nervous system.

Programmed and self-organized flow of information during morphogenesis

How the shape of embryos and organs emerges during development is a fundamental question that has fascinated scientists for centuries. Tissue dynamics arise from a small set of cell behaviours, including shape changes, cell contact remodelling, cell migration, cell division and cell extrusion. These behaviours require control over cell mechanics, namely active stresses associated with protrusive, contractile and adhesive forces, and hydrostatic pressure, as well as material properties of cells that dictate how cells respond to active stresses. In this Review, we address how cell mechanics and the associated cell behaviours are robustly organized in space and time during tissue morphogenesis. We first outline how not only gene expression and the resulting biochemical cues, but also mechanics and geometry act as sources of morphogenetic information to ultimately define the time and length scales of the cell behaviours driving morphogenesis. Next, we present two idealized modes of how this information flows - how it is read out and translated into a biological effect - during morphogenesis. The first, akin to a programme, follows deterministic rules and is hierarchical. The second follows the principles of self-organization, which rests on statistical rules characterizing the system's composition and configuration, local interactions and feedback. We discuss the contribution of these two modes to the mechanisms of four very general classes of tissue deformation, namely tissue folding and invagination, tissue flow and extension, tissue hollowing and, finally, tissue branching. Overall, we suggest a conceptual framework for understanding morphogenetic information that encapsulates genetics and biochemistry as well as mechanics and geometry as information modules, and the interplay of deterministic and self-organized mechanisms of their deployment, thereby diverging considerably from the traditional notion that shape is fully encoded and determined by genes.

Deterministic and Stochastic Rules of Branching Govern Dendrite Morphogenesis of Sensory Neurons

Dendrite morphology is necessary for the correct integration of inputs that neurons receive. The branching mechanisms allowing neurons to acquire their type-specific morphology remain unclear. Classically, axon and dendrite patterns were shown to be guided by molecules, providing deterministic cues. However, the extent to which deterministic and stochastic mechanisms, based upon purely statistical bias, contribute to the emergence of dendrite shape is largely unknown. We address this issue using the Drosophila class I vpda multi-dendritic neurons. Detailed quantitative analysis of vpda dendrite morphogenesis indicates that the primary branch grows very robustly in a fixed direction, though secondary branch numbers and lengths showed fluctuations characteristic of stochastic systems. Live-tracking dendrites and computational modeling revealed how neuron shape emerges from few local statistical parameters of branch dynamics. We report key opposing aspects of how tree architecture feedbacks on the local probability of branch shrinkage. Child branches promote stabilization of parent branches, although self-repulsion promotes shrinkage. Finally, we show that self-repulsion, mediated by the adhesion molecule Dscam1, indirectly patterns the growth of secondary branches by spatially restricting their direction of stable growth perpendicular to the primary branch. Thus, the stochastic nature of secondary branch dynamics and the existence of geometric feedback emphasize the importance of self-organization in neuronal dendrite morphogenesis.

L1cam curbs the differentiation of adult-born hippocampal neurons

L1 is an immunoglobulin domain (Ig)-containing protein essential for a wide range of neurodevelopmental processes highly conserved across species from worms to humans. L1 can act as a cell adhesion molecule by binding to other Ig-containing proteins or as a ligand for certain tyrosine kinase receptors such as FGFRs and TRKs, which are required not only during neurodevelopment but also in hippocampal neurogenesis. Yet, the role of L1 itself in adult hippocampal neurogenesis remains unaddressed. Here, we used several Cre-driver lines in mice to conditionally delete a floxed allele of L1cam at different points along the differentiation lineage of new neurons and in surrounding neurons in the adult dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. We found that L1cam deletion in stem/progenitor cells increased: 1) the differentiation of progenitors into new neurons, 2) the complexity of dendritic arbors in immature neurons, and 3) anxiety-related behavior. In addition, deletion of L1cam in neurons leads to an earlier age-related decline in hippocampal neurogenesis. These data suggest that L1 is not only important for normal nervous system development, but also for maintaining certain neural processes in adulthood.

Mutually exclusive dendritic arbors in C. elegans neurons share a common architecture and convergent molecular cues

Stress-induced changes to the dendritic architecture of neurons have been demonstrated in numerous mammalian and invertebrate systems. Remodeling of dendrites varies tremendously among neuron types. During the stress-induced dauer stage of Caenorhabditis elegans, the IL2 neurons arborize to cover the anterior body wall. In contrast, the FLP neurons arborize to cover an identical receptive field during reproductive development. Using time-course imaging, we show that branching between these two neuron types is highly coordinated. Furthermore, we find that the IL2 and FLP arbors have a similar dendritic architecture and use an identical downstream effector complex to control branching; however, regulation of this complex differs between stress-induced IL2 branching and FLP branching during reproductive development. We demonstrate that the unfolded protein response (UPR) sensor IRE-1, required for localization of the complex in FLP branching, is dispensable for IL2 branching at standard cultivation temperatures. Exposure of ire-1 mutants to elevated temperatures results in defective IL2 branching, thereby demonstrating a previously unknown genotype by environment interaction within the UPR. We find that the FOXO homolog, DAF-16, is required cell-autonomously to control arborization during stress-induced arborization. Likewise, several aspects of the dauer formation pathway are necessary for the neuron to remodel, including the phosphatase PTEN/DAF-18 and Cytochrome P450/DAF-9. Finally, we find that the TOR associated protein, RAPTOR/DAF-15 regulates mutually exclusive branching of the IL2 and FLP dendrites. DAF-15 promotes IL2 branching during dauer and inhibits precocious FLP growth. Together, our results shed light on molecular processes that regulate stress-mediated remodeling of dendrites across neuron classes.

Neurite Branching Regulated by Neuronal Cell Surface Molecules in Caenorhabditis elegans

The high synaptic density in the nervous system results from the ability of neurites to branch. Neuronal cell surface molecules play central roles during neurite branch formation. The underlying mechanisms of surface molecule activity have often been elucidated using invertebrates with simple nervous systems. Here, we review recent advances in understanding the molecular mechanisms of neurite branching in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. We discuss how cell surface receptor complexes link to and modulate actin dynamics to regulate dendritic and axonal branch formation. The mechanisms of neurite branching are often coupled with other neural circuit developmental processes, such as synapse formation and axon guidance, via the same cell-cell surface molecular interactions. We also cover ectopic and sex-specific neurite branching in C. elegans in an attempt to illustrate the importance of these studies in contributing to our understanding of conserved cell surface molecule regulation of neurite branch formation.

[Intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms regulating neuronal dendrite morphogenesis]

Neurons are the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. Precisely regulated dendrite morphogenesis is the basis of neural circuit assembly. Numerous studies have been conducted to explore the regulatory mechanisms of dendritic morphogenesis. According to their action regions, we divide them into two categories: the intrinsic and extrinsic regulators of neuronal dendritic morphogenesis. Intrinsic factors are cell type-specific transcription factors, actin polymerization or depolymerization regulators and regulators of the secretion or endocytic pathways. These intrinsic factors are produced by neuron itself and play an important role in regulating the development of dendrites. The extrinsic regulators are either secreted proteins or transmembrane domain containing cell adhesion molecules. They often form receptor-ligand pairs to mediate attractive or repulsive dendritic guidance. In this review, we summarize recent findings on the intrinsic and external molecular mechanisms of dendrite morphogenesis from multiple model organisms, including Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila and mice. These studies will provide a better understanding on how defective dendrite development and maintenance are associated with neurological diseases.

Beyond being innervated: the epidermis actively shapes sensory dendritic patterning

Sensing environmental cues requires well-built neuronal circuits linked to the body surface. Sensory neurons generate dendrites to innervate surface epithelium, thereby making it the largest sensory organ in the body. Previous studies have illustrated that neuronal type, physiological function and branching patterns are determined by intrinsic factors. Perhaps for effective sensation or protection, sensory dendrites bind to or are surrounded by the substrate epidermis. Recent studies have shed light on the mechanisms by which dendrites interact with their substrates. These interactions suggest that substrates can regulate dendrite guidance, arborization and degeneration. In this review, we focus on recent studies of Drosophila and Caenorhabditis elegans that demonstrate how epidermal cells can regulate dendrites in several aspects.

A Myt1 family transcription factor defines neuronal fate by repressing non-neuronal genes

Cellular differentiation requires both activation of target cell transcriptional programs and repression of non-target cell programs. The Myt1 family of zinc finger transcription factors contributes to fibroblast to neuron reprogramming in vitro. Here, we show that ztf-11 (Zinc-finger Transcription Factor-11), the sole Caenorhabditis elegans Myt1 homolog, is required for neurogenesis in multiple neuronal lineages from previously differentiated epithelial cells, including a neuron generated by a developmental epithelial-to-neuronal transdifferentiation event. ztf-11 is exclusively expressed in all neuronal precursors with remarkable specificity at single-cell resolution. Loss of ztf-11 leads to upregulation of non-neuronal genes and reduced neurogenesis. Ectopic expression of ztf-11 in epidermal lineages is sufficient to produce additional neurons. ZTF-11 functions together with the MuvB corepressor complex to suppress the activation of non-neuronal genes in neurons. These results dovetail with the ability of Myt1l (Myt1-like) to drive neuronal transdifferentiation in vitro in vertebrate systems. Together, we identified an evolutionarily conserved mechanism to specify neuronal cell fate by repressing non-neuronal genes.

Monensin Sensitive 1 Regulates Dendritic Arborization in Drosophila by Modulating Endocytic Flux

Monensin Sensitive 1 (Mon1) is a component of the Mon1:Ccz1 complex that mediates Rab5 to Rab7 conversion in eukaryotic cells by serving as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Rab7 during vesicular trafficking. We find that Mon1 activity modulates the complexity of Class IV dendritic arborization (da) neurons during larval development. Loss of Mon1 function leads to an increase in arborization and complexity, while increased expression, leads to reduced arborization. The ability of Mon1 to influence dendritic development is possibly a function of its interactions with Rab family GTPases that are central players in vesicular trafficking. Earlier, these GTPases, specifically Rab1, Rab5, Rab10, and Rab11 have been shown to regulate dendritic arborization. We have conducted genetic epistasis experiments, by modulating the activity of Rab5, Rab7, and Rab11 in da neurons, in Mon1 mutants, and demonstrate that the ability of Mon1 to regulate arborization is possibly due to its effect on the recycling pathway. Dendritic branching is critical for proper connectivity and physiological function of the neuron. An understanding of regulatory elements, such as Mon1, as demonstrated in our study, is essential to understand neuronal function.

Actin assembly and non-muscle myosin activity drive dendrite retraction in an UNC-6/Netrin dependent self-avoidance response

Dendrite growth is constrained by a self-avoidance response that induces retraction but the downstream pathways that balance these opposing mechanisms are unknown. We have proposed that the diffusible cue UNC-6(Netrin) is captured by UNC-40(DCC) for a short-range interaction with UNC-5 to trigger self-avoidance in the C. elegans PVD neuron. Here we report that the actin-polymerizing proteins UNC-34(Ena/VASP), WSP-1(WASP), UNC-73(Trio), MIG-10(Lamellipodin) and the Arp2/3 complex effect dendrite retraction in the self-avoidance response mediated by UNC-6(Netrin). The paradoxical idea that actin polymerization results in shorter rather than longer dendrites is explained by our finding that NMY-1 (non-muscle myosin II) is necessary for retraction and could therefore mediate this effect in a contractile mechanism. Our results also show that dendrite length is determined by the antagonistic effects on the actin cytoskeleton of separate sets of effectors for retraction mediated by UNC-6(Netrin) versus outgrowth promoted by the DMA-1 receptor. Thus, our findings suggest that the dendrite length depends on an intrinsic mechanism that balances distinct modes of actin assembly for growth versus retraction.

Neurons may extend highly branched dendrites to detect input over a broad receptive field. The formation of actin filaments may drive dendrite elongation. The architecture of the dendritic arbor also depends on mechanisms that limit expansion. For example, sister dendrites from a single neuron usually do not overlap due to self-avoidance. Although cell surface proteins are known to mediate self-avoidance, the downstream pathways that drive dendrite retraction in this phenomenon are largely unknown. Studies of the highly branched PVD sensory neuron in C. elegans have suggested a model of self-avoidance in which the UNC-40/DCC receptor captures the diffusible cue UNC-6/Netrin at the tips of PVD dendrites where it interacts with the UNC-5 receptor on an opposing sister dendrite to induce retraction. Here we report genetic evidence that UNC-5-dependent retraction requires downstream actin polymerization. This finding evokes a paradox: How might actin polymerization drive both dendrite growth and retraction? We propose two answers: (1) Distinct sets of effectors are involved in actin assembly for growth vs retraction; (2) Non-muscle myosin interacts with a nascent actin assemblage to trigger retraction. Our results show that dendrite length depends on the balanced effects of specific molecular components that induce growth vs retraction.

Developmental Neurobiology: It Takes Nrg to Separate Dendrites

The development of sensory receptive fields requires the coordinated spatial patterning of neurites from multiple sensory neuron subtypes. A new study identifies a role for neuron-skin cell interactions in preventing the bundling of dendritic arbors from distinct neurons.

Mechanisms that regulate morphogenesis of a highly branched neuron in C. elegans

The shape of an individual neuron is linked to its function with axons sending signals to other cells and dendrites receiving them. Although much is known of the mechanisms for axonal outgrowth, the striking complexity of dendritic architecture has hindered efforts to uncover pathways that direct dendritic branching. Here we review the results of an experimental strategy that exploits the power of genetic analysis and live cell imaging of the PVD sensory neuron in C. elegans to reveal key molecular drivers of dendrite morphogenesis.

Lessons from Worm Dendritic Patterning

The structural and functional properties of neurons have intrigued scientists since the pioneering work of Santiago Ramón y Cajal. Since then, emerging cutting-edge technologies, including light and electron microscopy, electrophysiology, biochemistry, optogenetics, and molecular biology, have dramatically increased our understanding of dendritic properties. This advancement was also facilitated by the establishment of different animal model organisms, from flies to mammals. Here we describe the emerging model system of a Caenorhabditis elegans polymodal neuron named PVD, whose dendritic tree follows a stereotypical structure characterized by repeating candelabra-like structural units. In the past decade, progress has been made in understanding PVD's functions, morphogenesis, regeneration, and aging, yet many questions still remain.

Neurite Development and Repair in Worms and Flies

How the nervous system is wired has been a central question of neuroscience since the inception of the field, and many of the foundational discoveries and conceptual advances have been made through the study of invertebrate experimental organisms, including Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster. Although many guidance molecules and receptors have been identified, recent experiments have shed light on the many modes of action for these pathways. Here, we summarize the recent progress in determining how the physical and temporal constraints of the surrounding environment provide instructive regulations in nervous system wiring. We use Netrin and its receptors as an example to analyze the complexity of how they guide neurite outgrowth. In neurite repair, conserved injury detection and response-signaling pathways regulate gene expression and cytoskeletal dynamics. We also describe recent developments in the research on molecular mechanisms of neurite regeneration in worms and flies.

Morphogenesis of neurons and glia within an epithelium

To sense the outside world, some neurons protrude across epithelia, the cellular barriers that line every surface of our bodies. To study the morphogenesis of such neurons, we examined the C. elegans amphid, in which dendrites protrude through a glial channel at the nose. During development, amphid dendrites extend by attaching to the nose via DYF-7, a type of protein typically found in epithelial apical ECM. Here, we show that amphid neurons and glia exhibit epithelial properties, including tight junctions and apical-basal polarity, and develop in a manner resembling other epithelia. We find that DYF-7 is a fibril-forming apical ECM component that promotes formation of the tube-shaped glial channel, reminiscent of roles for apical ECM in other narrow epithelial tubes. We also identify a requirement for FRM-2, a homolog of EPBL15/moe/Yurt that promotes epithelial integrity in other systems. Finally, we show that other environmentally exposed neurons share a requirement for DYF-7. Together, our results suggest that these neurons and glia can be viewed as part of an epithelium continuous with the skin, and are shaped by mechanisms shared with other epithelia.

Atlastin-1 regulates morphology and function of endoplasmic reticulum in dendrites

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is characterized by interconnected tubules and sheets. Neuronal ER adopts specific morphology in axons, dendrites and soma. Here we study mechanisms underlying ER morphogenesis in a C. elegans sensory neuron PVD. In PVD soma and dendrite branch points, ER tubules connect to form networks. ER tubules fill primary dendrites but only extend to some but not all dendritic branches. We find that the Atlastin-1 ortholog, atln-1 is required for neuronal ER morphology. In atln-1 mutants with impaired GTPase activity, ER networks in soma and dendrite branch points are reduced and replaced by tubules, and ER tubules retracted from high-order dendritic branches, causing destabilized microtubule in these branches. The abnormal ER morphology likely causes defects in mitochondria fission at dendritic branch points. Mutant alleles of Atlastin-1 found in Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia (HSP) patients show similar ER phenotypes, suggesting that neuronal ER impairment contributes to HSP disease pathogenesis.

The molecular mechanisms that achieve ER morphology in neurites are not well understood. This study uses a forward genetic approach to demonstrate that atln-1 is required for neuronal ER morphology and that C. elegans atln-1 mutants exhibit defects in mitochondria fission at dendritic branch points and abnormalities in protein homeostasis.

TIAM-1/GEF can shape somatosensory dendrites independently of its GEF activity by regulating F-actin localization

Dendritic arbors are crucial for nervous system assembly, but the intracellular mechanisms that govern their assembly remain incompletely understood. Here, we show that the dendrites of PVD neurons in Caenorhabditis elegans are patterned by distinct pathways downstream of the DMA-1 leucine-rich transmembrane (LRR-TM) receptor. DMA-1/LRR-TM interacts through a PDZ ligand motif with the guanine nucleotide exchange factor TIAM-1/GEF in a complex with act-4/Actin to pattern higher order 4° dendrite branches by localizing F-actin to the distal ends of developing dendrites. Surprisingly, TIAM-1/GEF appears to function independently of Rac1 guanine nucleotide exchange factor activity. A partially redundant pathway, dependent on HPO-30/Claudin, regulates formation of 2° and 3° branches, possibly by regulating membrane localization and trafficking of DMA-1/LRR-TM. Collectively, our experiments suggest that HPO-30/Claudin localizes the DMA-1/LRR-TM receptor on PVD dendrites, which in turn can control dendrite patterning by directly modulating F-actin dynamics through TIAM-1/GEF.

Adhesive L1CAM-Robo Signaling Aligns Growth Cone F-Actin Dynamics to Promote Axon-Dendrite Fasciculation in C. elegans

Neurite fasciculation through contact-dependent signaling is important for the wiring and function of the neuronal circuits. Here, we describe a type of axon-dendrite fasciculation in C. elegans, where proximal dendrites of the nociceptor PVD adhere to the axon of the ALA interneuron. This axon-dendrite fasciculation is mediated by a previously uncharacterized adhesive signaling by the ALA membrane signal SAX-7/L1CAM and the PVD receptor SAX-3/Robo but independent of Slit. L1CAM physically interacts with Robo and instructs dendrite adhesion in a Robo-dependent manner. Fasciculation mediated by L1CAM-Robo signaling aligns F-actin dynamics in the dendrite growth cone and facilitates dynamic growth cone behaviors for efficient dendrite guidance. Disruption of PVD dendrite fasciculation impairs nociceptive mechanosensation and rhythmicity in body curvature, suggesting that dendrite fasciculation governs the functions of mechanosensory circuits. Our work elucidates the molecular mechanisms by which adhesive axon-dendrite signaling shapes the construction and function of sensory neuronal circuits.

Axon-Dependent Patterning and Maintenance of Somatosensory Dendritic Arbors

The mechanisms that pattern and maintain dendritic arbors are key to understanding the principles that govern nervous system assembly. The activity of presynaptic axons has long been known to shape dendrites, but activity-independent functions of axons in this process have remained elusive. Here, we show that in Caenorhabditis elegans, the axons of the ALA neuron control guidance and extension of the 1° dendrites of PVD somatosensory neurons independently of ALA activity. PVD 1° dendrites mimic ALA axon guidance defects in loss-of-function mutants for the extracellular matrix molecule MIG-6/Papilin or the UNC-6/Netrin pathway, suggesting that axon-dendrite adhesion is important for dendrite formation. We found that the SAX-7/L1CAM cell adhesion molecule engages in distinct molecular mechanisms to mediate extensions of PVD 1° dendrites and maintain the ALA-PVD axon-dendritic fascicle, respectively. Thus, axons can serve as critical scaffolds to pattern and maintain dendrites through contact-dependent but activity-independent mechanisms.

Towards an Understanding of Synapse Formation

Synapses are intercellular junctions specialized for fast, point-to-point information transfer from a presynaptic neuron to a postsynaptic cell. At a synapse, a presynaptic terminal secretes neurotransmitters via a canonical release machinery, while a postsynaptic specialization senses neurotransmitters via diverse receptors. Synaptic junctions are likely organized by trans-synaptic cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs) that bidirectionally orchestrate synapse formation, restructuring, and elimination. Many candidate synaptic CAMs were described, but which CAMs are central actors and which are bystanders remains unclear. Moreover, multiple genes encoding synaptic CAMs were linked to neuropsychiatric disorders, but the mechanisms involved are unresolved. Here, I propose that engagement of multifarious synaptic CAMs produces parallel trans-synaptic signals that mediate the establishment, organization, and plasticity of synapses, thereby controlling information processing by neural circuits. Among others, this hypothesis implies that synapse formation can be understood in terms of inter- and intracellular signaling, and that neuropsychiatric disorders involve an impairment in such signaling.

A Dendritic Guidance Receptor Complex Brings Together Distinct Actin Regulators to Drive Efficient F-Actin Assembly and Branching

Proper morphogenesis of dendrites plays a fundamental role in the establishment of neural circuits. The molecular mechanism by which dendrites grow highly complex branches is not well understood. Here, using the Caenorhabditis elegans PVD neuron, we demonstrate that high-order dendritic branching requires actin polymerization driven by coordinated interactions between two membrane proteins, DMA-1 and HPO-30, with their cytoplasmic interactors, the RacGEF TIAM-1 and the actin nucleation promotion factor WAVE regulatory complex (WRC). The dendrite branching receptor DMA-1 directly binds to the PDZ domain of TIAM-1, while the claudin-like protein HPO-30 directly interacts with the WRC. On dendrites, DMA-1 and HPO-30 form a receptor-associated signaling complex to bring TIAM-1 and the WRC to close proximity, leading to elevated assembly of F-actin needed to drive high-order dendrite branching. The synergistic activation of F-actin assembly by scaffolding distinct actin regulators might represent a general mechanism in promoting complex dendrite arborization.

Four specific immunoglobulin domains in UNC-52/Perlecan function with NID-1/Nidogen during dendrite morphogenesis in Caenorhabditis elegans

The extracellular matrix is essential for various aspects of nervous system patterning. For example, sensory dendrites in flies, worms and fish have been shown to rely on coordinated interactions of tissues with extracellular matrix proteins. Here we show that the conserved basement membrane protein UNC-52/Perlecan is required for establishing the correct number of the highly ordered dendritic trees in the somatosensory neuron PVD in Caenorhabditis elegans This function is dependent on four specific immunoglobulin domains, but independent of the known functions of UNC-52 in mediating muscle-skin attachment. Intriguingly, the four conserved immunoglobulin domains in UNC-52 are necessary to correctly localize the basement membrane protein NID-1/Nidogen. Genetic experiments further show that unc-52, nid-1 and genes of the netrin axon guidance signaling cassette share a common pathway to establish the correct number of somatosensory dendrites. Our studies suggest that, in addition to its role in mediating muscle-skin attachment, UNC-52 functions through immunoglobulin domains to establish an ordered lattice of basement membrane proteins, which may control the function of morphogens during dendrite patterning.

Functionally distinct and selectively phosphorylated GPCR subpopulations co-exist in a single cell

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) transduce pleiotropic intracellular signals in a broad range of physiological responses and disease states. Activated GPCRs can undergo agonist-induced phosphorylation by G protein receptor kinases (GRKs) and second messenger-dependent protein kinases such as protein kinase A (PKA). Here, we characterize spatially segregated subpopulations of β₂-adrenergic receptor (β₂AR) undergoing selective phosphorylation by GRKs or PKA in a single cell. GRKs primarily label monomeric β₂ARs that undergo endocytosis, whereas PKA modifies dimeric β₂ARs that remain at the cell surface. In hippocampal neurons, PKA-phosphorylated β₂ARs are enriched in dendrites, whereas GRK-phosphorylated β₂ARs accumulate in soma, being excluded from dendrites in a neuron maturation-dependent manner. Moreover, we show that PKA-phosphorylated β₂ARs are necessary to augment the activity of L-type calcium channel. Collectively, these findings provide evidence that functionally distinct subpopulations of this prototypical GPCR exist in a single cell.

β₂-adrenergic receptor (β₂AR) can be phosphorylated by G protein receptor kinases and second messenger-dependent kinases. Here, the authors demonstrate that these phosphorylation events are specific to functionally distinct and spatially segregated subpopulations of β₂AR that co-exist in a single cell.

Dynein and EFF-1 control dendrite morphology by regulating the localization pattern of SAX-7 in epidermal cells

Our previous work showed that the cell adhesion molecule SAX-7 forms an elaborate pattern in Caenorhabditis elegans epidermal cells, which instructs PVD dendrite branching. However, the molecular mechanism forming the SAX-7 pattern in the epidermis is not fully understood. Here, we report that the dynein light intermediate chain DLI-1 and the fusogen EFF-1 are required in epidermal cells to pattern SAX-7. While previous reports suggest that these two molecules act cell-autonomously in the PVD, our results show that the disorganized PVD dendritic arbors in these mutants are due to the abnormal SAX-7 localization patterns in epidermal cells. Three lines of evidence support this notion. First, the epidermal SAX-7 pattern was severely affected in dli-1 and eff-1 mutants. Second, the abnormal SAX-7 pattern was predictive of the ectopic PVD dendrites. Third, expression of DLI-1 or EFF-1 in the epidermis rescued both the SAX-7 pattern and the disorganized PVD dendrite phenotypes, whereas expression of these molecules in the PVD did not. We also show that DLI-1 functions cell-autonomously in the PVD to promote distal branch formation. These results demonstrate the unexpected roles of DLI-1 and EFF-1 in the epidermis in the control of PVD dendrite morphogenesis.

Separate transcriptionally regulated pathways specify distinct classes of sister dendrites in a nociceptive neuron

The dendritic processes of nociceptive neurons transduce external signals into neurochemical cues that alert the organism to potentially damaging stimuli. The receptive field for each sensory neuron is defined by its dendritic arbor, but the mechanisms that shape dendritic architecture are incompletely understood. Using the model nociceptor, the PVD neuron in C. elegans, we determined that two types of PVD lateral branches project along the dorsal/ventral axis to generate the PVD dendritic arbor: (1) Pioneer dendrites that adhere to the epidermis, and (2) Commissural dendrites that fasciculate with circumferential motor neuron processes. Previous reports have shown that the LIM homeodomain transcription factor MEC-3 is required for all higher order PVD branching and that one of its targets, the claudin-like membrane protein HPO-30, preferentially promotes outgrowth of pioneer branches. Here, we show that another MEC-3 target, the conserved TFIIA-like zinc finger transcription factor EGL-46, adopts the alternative role of specifying commissural dendrites. The known EGL-46 binding partner, the TEAD transcription factor EGL-44, is also required for PVD commissural branch outgrowth. Double mutants of hpo-30 and egl-44 show strong enhancement of the lateral branching defect with decreased numbers of both pioneer and commissural dendrites. Thus, HPO-30/Claudin and EGL-46/EGL-44 function downstream of MEC-3 and in parallel acting pathways to direct outgrowth of two distinct classes of PVD dendritic branches.

Worms on the spectrum - C. elegans models in autism research

The small non-parasitic nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is widely used in neuroscience thanks to its well-understood development and lineage of the nervous system. Furthermore, C. elegans has been used to model many human developmental and neurological conditions to better understand disease mechanisms and identify potential therapeutic strategies. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is the most prevalent of all neurodevelopmental disorders, and the C. elegans system may provide opportunities to learn more about this complex disorder. Since basic cell biology and biochemistry of the C. elegans nervous system is generally very similar to mammals, cellular or molecular phenotypes can be investigated, along with a repertoire of behaviours. For instance, worms have contributed greatly to the understanding of mechanisms underlying mutations in genes coding for synaptic proteins such as neuroligin and neurexin. Using worms to model neurodevelopmental disorders like ASD is an emerging topic that harbours great, untapped potential. This review summarizes the numerous contributions of C. elegans to the field of neurodevelopment and introduces the nematode system as a potential research tool to study essential roles of genes associated with ASD.

Reduced Insulin/Insulin-Like Growth Factor Receptor Signaling Mitigates Defective Dendrite Morphogenesis in Mutants of the ER Stress Sensor IRE-1

Neurons receive excitatory or sensory inputs through their dendrites, which often branch extensively to form unique neuron-specific structures. How neurons regulate the formation of their particular arbor is only partially understood. In genetic screens using the multidendritic arbor of PVD somatosensory neurons in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, we identified a mutation in the ER stress sensor IRE-1/Ire1 (inositol requiring enzyme 1) as crucial for proper PVD dendrite arborization in vivo. We further found that regulation of dendrite growth in cultured rat hippocampal neurons depends on Ire1 function, showing an evolutionarily conserved role for IRE-1/Ire1 in dendrite patterning. PVD neurons of nematodes lacking ire-1 display reduced arbor complexity, whereas mutations in genes encoding other ER stress sensors displayed normal PVD dendrites, specifying IRE-1 as a selective ER stress sensor that is essential for PVD dendrite morphogenesis. Although structure function analyses indicated that IRE-1's nuclease activity is necessary for its role in dendrite morphogenesis, mutations in xbp-1, the best-known target of non-canonical splicing by IRE-1/Ire1, do not exhibit PVD phenotypes. We further determined that secretion and distal localization to dendrites of the DMA-1/leucine rich transmembrane receptor (DMA-1/LRR-TM) is defective in ire-1 but not xbp-1 mutants, suggesting a block in the secretory pathway. Interestingly, reducing Insulin/IGF1 signaling can bypass the secretory block and restore normal targeting of DMA-1, and consequently normal PVD arborization even in the complete absence of functional IRE-1. This bypass of ire-1 requires the DAF-16/FOXO transcription factor. In sum, our work identifies a conserved role for ire-1 in neuronal branching, which is independent of xbp-1, and suggests that arborization defects associated with neuronal pathologies may be overcome by reducing Insulin/IGF signaling and improving ER homeostasis and function.