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Xu Y, Lin Y, Yu M, Zhou K. The nucleus accumbens in reward and aversion processing: insights and implications. Front Behav Neurosci 2024; 18:1420028. [PMID: 39184934 PMCID: PMC11341389 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2024.1420028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 07/26/2024] [Indexed: 08/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The nucleus accumbens (NAc), a central component of the brain's reward circuitry, has been implicated in a wide range of behaviors and emotional states. Emerging evidence, primarily drawing from recent rodent studies, suggests that the function of the NAc in reward and aversion processing is multifaceted. Prolonged stress or drug use induces maladaptive neuronal function in the NAc circuitry, which results in pathological conditions. This review aims to provide comprehensive and up-to-date insights on the role of the NAc in motivated behavior regulation and highlights areas that demand further in-depth analysis. It synthesizes the latest findings on how distinct NAc neuronal populations and pathways contribute to the processing of opposite valences. The review examines how a range of neuromodulators, especially monoamines, influence the NAc's control over various motivational states. Furthermore, it delves into the complex underlying mechanisms of psychiatric disorders such as addiction and depression and evaluates prospective interventions to restore NAc functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Kuikui Zhou
- School of Health and Life Sciences, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, China
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2
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Grafelman EM, Côté BE, Vlach L, Geise E, Padula GN, Wheeler DS, Hearing M, Mantsch J, Wheeler RA. Aversion-induced drug taking and escape behavior involve similar nucleus accumbens core dopamine signaling signatures. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.08.05.606651. [PMID: 39149329 PMCID: PMC11326185 DOI: 10.1101/2024.08.05.606651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/17/2024]
Abstract
Dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens core (NAcC) has long been associated with the promotion of motivated behavior. However, inhibited dopamine signaling can increase behavior in certain settings, such as during drug self-administration. While aversive environmental stimuli can reduce dopamine, it is unclear whether such stimuli reliably engage this mechanism in different contexts. Here we compared the physiological and behavioral responses to the same aversive stimulus in different designs to determine if there is uniformity in the manner that aversive stimuli are encoded and promote behavior. NAcC dopamine was measured using fiber photometry in male and female rats during cocaine self-administration sessions in which an acutely aversive 90 dB white noise was intermittently presented. In a separate group of rats, aversion-induced changes in dopamine were measured in an escape design in which operant responses terminated aversive white noise. Aversive white noise significantly reduced NAcC dopamine and increased cocaine self-administration in both male and female rats. The same relationship was observed in the escape design, in which white noise reduced dopamine and promoted escape attempts. In both designs, the magnitude of the dopamine reduction predicted behavioral performance. While prior research demonstrated that pharmacologically reduced dopamine signaling can promote intake, this report demonstrates that this physiological mechanism is naturally engaged by aversive environmental stimuli and generalizable to non-drug contexts. These findings illustrate a common physiological signature in response to aversion that may promote both adaptive and maladaptive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine M Grafelman
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA
| | - Bridgitte E Côté
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, 53226
| | - Lisa Vlach
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA
| | - Ella Geise
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA
| | - G Nino Padula
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA
| | - Daniel S Wheeler
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA
| | - Matthew Hearing
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA
| | - John Mantsch
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, 53226
| | - Robert A Wheeler
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA
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3
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Strigo IA, Craig ADB, Simmons AN. Expectation of pain and relief: A dynamical model of the neural basis for pain-trauma co-morbidity. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 163:105750. [PMID: 38849067 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Revised: 05/30/2024] [Accepted: 06/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024]
Abstract
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is highly co-morbid with chronic pain conditions. When present, PTSD significantly worsens chronic pain outcomes. Likewise, pain contributes to a more severe PTSD as evidenced by greater disability, more frequent use of harmful opioid analgesics and increased pain severity. The biomechanism behind this comorbidity is incompletely understood, however recent work strongly supports the widely-accepted role of expectation, in the entanglement of chronic pain and trauma symptoms. This work has shown that those with trauma have a maladaptive brain response while expecting stress and pain, whereas those with chronic pain may have a notable impairment in brain response while expecting pain relief. This dynamical expectation model of the interaction between neural systems underlying expectation of pain onset (traumatic stress) and pain offset (chronic pain) is biologically viable and may provide a biomechanistic insight into pain-trauma comorbidity. These predictive mechanisms work through interoceptive pathways in the brain critically the insula cortex. Here we highlight how the neural expectation-related mechanisms augment the existing models of pain and trauma to better understand the dynamics of pain and trauma comorbidity. These ideas will point to targeted complementary clinical approaches, based on mechanistically separable neural biophenotypes for the entanglement of chronic pain and trauma symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina A Strigo
- Emotion and Pain Laboratory, San Francisco Veterans Affairs Health Care Center, 4150 Clement Street, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, 401 Parnassus Ave, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
| | | | - Alan N Simmons
- Center of Excellence in Stress and Mental Health, San Diego Veterans Affairs Health Care Center, 3350 La Jolla Village Dr, San Diego, CA 92161, USA; Stress and Neuroimaging Laboratory, San Diego Veterans Affairs Health Care Center, 3350 La Jolla Village Drive, MC 151-B, San Diego, CA 92161, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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4
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Strigo IA, Kadlec M, Mitchell JM, Simmons AN. Identification of group differences in predictive anticipatory biasing of pain during uncertainty: preparing for the worst but hoping for the best. Pain 2024; 165:1735-1747. [PMID: 38501988 PMCID: PMC11247452 DOI: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000003207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Pain anticipation during conditions of uncertainty can unveil intrinsic biases, and understanding these biases can guide pain treatment interventions. This study used machine learning and functional magnetic resonance imaging to predict anticipatory responses in a pain anticipation experiment. One hundred forty-seven participants that included healthy controls (n = 57) and individuals with current and/or past mental health diagnosis (n = 90) received cues indicating upcoming pain stimuli: 2 cues predicted high and low temperatures, while a third cue introduced uncertainty. Accurate differentiation of neural patterns associated with specific anticipatory conditions was observed, involving activation in the anterior short gyrus of the insula and the nucleus accumbens. Three distinct response profiles emerged: subjects with a negative bias towards high pain anticipation, those with a positive bias towards low pain anticipation, and individuals whose predictions during uncertainty were unbiased. These profiles remained stable over one year, were consistent across diagnosed psychopathologies, and correlated with cognitive coping styles and underlying insula anatomy. The findings suggest that individualized and stable pain anticipation occurs in uncertain conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina A. Strigo
- Emotion and Pain Laboratory, San Francisco Veterans Affairs Health Care Center, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Molly Kadlec
- Center for Imaging of Neurodegenerative Diseases, San Francisco Veterans Affairs Health Care Center, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Jennifer M. Mitchell
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Alan N. Simmons
- San Diego Veterans Affairs Health Care Center, San Diego, CA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
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5
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Bornhoft KN, Prohofsky J, O'Neal TJ, Wolff AR, Saunders BT. Valence ambiguity dynamically shapes striatal dopamine heterogeneity. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.05.17.594692. [PMID: 38798567 PMCID: PMC11118546 DOI: 10.1101/2024.05.17.594692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
Adaptive decision making relies on dynamic updating of learned associations where environmental cues come to predict positive and negatively valenced stimuli, such as food or threat. Flexible cue-guided behaviors depend on a network of brain systems, including dopamine signaling in the striatum, which is critical for learning and maintenance of conditioned behaviors. Critically, it remains unclear how dopamine signaling encodes multi-valent, dynamic learning contexts, where positive and negative associations must be rapidly disambiguated. To understand this, we employed a Pavlovian discrimination paradigm, where cues predicting positive and negative outcomes were intermingled during conditioning sessions, and their meaning was serially reversed across training. We found that rats readily distinguished these cues, and updated their behavior rapidly upon valence reversal. Using fiber photometry, we recorded dopamine signaling in three major striatal subregions -,the dorsolateral striatum (DLS), the nucleus accumbens core, and the nucleus accumbens medial shell - and found heterogeneous responses to positive and negative conditioned cues and their predicted outcomes. Valence ambiguity introduced by cue reversal reshaped striatal dopamine on different timelines: nucleus accumbens core and shell signals updated more readily than those in the DLS. Together, these results suggest that striatal dopamine flexibly encodes multi-valent learning contexts, and these signals are dynamically modulated by changing contingencies to resolve ambiguity about the meaning of environmental cues.
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Trost W, Trevor C, Fernandez N, Steiner F, Frühholz S. Live music stimulates the affective brain and emotionally entrains listeners in real time. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2316306121. [PMID: 38408255 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2316306121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Music is powerful in conveying emotions and triggering affective brain mechanisms. Affective brain responses in previous studies were however rather inconsistent, potentially because of the non-adaptive nature of recorded music used so far. Live music instead can be dynamic and adaptive and is often modulated in response to audience feedback to maximize emotional responses in listeners. Here, we introduce a setup for studying emotional responses to live music in a closed-loop neurofeedback setup. This setup linked live performances by musicians to neural processing in listeners, with listeners' amygdala activity was displayed to musicians in real time. Brain activity was measured using functional MRI, and especially amygdala activity was quantified in real time for the neurofeedback signal. Live pleasant and unpleasant piano music performed in response to amygdala neurofeedback from listeners was acoustically very different from comparable recorded music and elicited significantly higher and more consistent amygdala activity. Higher activity was also found in a broader neural network for emotion processing during live compared to recorded music. This finding included observations of the predominance for aversive coding in the ventral striatum while listening to unpleasant music, and involvement of the thalamic pulvinar nucleus, presumably for regulating attentional and cortical flow mechanisms. Live music also stimulated a dense functional neural network with the amygdala as a central node influencing other brain systems. Finally, only live music showed a strong and positive coupling between features of the musical performance and brain activity in listeners pointing to real-time and dynamic entrainment processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wiebke Trost
- Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Unit, Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich 8050, Switzerland
| | - Caitlyn Trevor
- Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Unit, Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich 8050, Switzerland
| | - Natalia Fernandez
- Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Unit, Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich 8050, Switzerland
| | - Florence Steiner
- Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Unit, Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich 8050, Switzerland
| | - Sascha Frühholz
- Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Unit, Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich 8050, Switzerland
- Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Zurich 8057, Switzerland
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo 0373, Norway
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7
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Hamati R, Ahrens J, Shvetz C, Holahan MR, Tuominen L. 65 years of research on dopamine's role in classical fear conditioning and extinction: A systematic review. Eur J Neurosci 2024; 59:1099-1140. [PMID: 37848184 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.16157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023]
Abstract
Dopamine, a catecholamine neurotransmitter, has historically been associated with the encoding of reward, whereas its role in aversion has received less attention. Here, we systematically gathered the vast evidence of the role of dopamine in the simplest forms of aversive learning: classical fear conditioning and extinction. In the past, crude methods were used to augment or inhibit dopamine to study its relationship with fear conditioning and extinction. More advanced techniques such as conditional genetic, chemogenic and optogenetic approaches now provide causal evidence for dopamine's role in these learning processes. Dopamine neurons encode conditioned stimuli during fear conditioning and extinction and convey the signal via activation of D1-4 receptor sites particularly in the amygdala, prefrontal cortex and striatum. The coordinated activation of dopamine receptors allows for the continuous formation, consolidation, retrieval and updating of fear and extinction memory in a dynamic and reciprocal manner. Based on the reviewed literature, we conclude that dopamine is crucial for the encoding of classical fear conditioning and extinction and contributes in a way that is comparable to its role in encoding reward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rami Hamati
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jessica Ahrens
- Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Cecelia Shvetz
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Matthew R Holahan
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Lauri Tuominen
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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8
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Dinckol O, Wenger NH, Zachry JE, Kutlu MG. Nucleus accumbens core single cell ensembles bidirectionally respond to experienced versus observed aversive events. Sci Rep 2023; 13:22602. [PMID: 38114559 PMCID: PMC10730531 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-49686-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Fear learning is a critical feature of survival skills among mammals. In rodents, fear learning manifests itself through direct experience of the aversive event or social transmission of aversive stimuli such as observing and acting on conspecifics' distress. The neuronal network underlying the social transmission of information largely overlaps with the brain regions that mediate behavioral responses to aversive and rewarding stimuli. In this study, we recorded single cell activity patterns of nucleus accumbens (NAc) core neurons using in vivo optical imaging of calcium transients via miniature scopes. This cutting-edge imaging methodology not only allows us to record activity patterns of individual neurons but also lets us longitudinally follow these individual neurons across time and different behavioral states. Using this approach, we identified NAc core single cell ensembles that respond to experienced and/or observed aversive stimuli. Our results showed that experienced and observed aversive stimuli evoke NAc core ensemble activity that is largely positive, with a smaller subset of negative responses. The size of the NAc single cell ensemble response was greater for experienced aversive stimuli compared to observed aversive events. Our results also revealed sex differences in the NAc core single cell ensembles responses to experience aversive stimuli, where females showed a greater accumbal response. Importantly, we found a subpopulation within the NAc core single cell ensembles that show a bidirectional response to experienced aversive stimuli versus observed aversive stimuli (i.e., negative response to experienced and positive response to observed). Our results suggest that the NAc plays a role in differentiating somatosensory experience from social observation of aversion at a single cell level. These results have important implications for psychopathologies where social information processing is maladaptive, such as autism spectrum disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oyku Dinckol
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rowan-Virtua School of Translational Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Rowan University, Stratford, NJ, 08084, USA
- Rowan-Virtua School of Osteopathic Medicine, Rowan University, Stratford, NJ, 08084, USA
| | - Noah Harris Wenger
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rowan-Virtua School of Translational Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Rowan University, Stratford, NJ, 08084, USA
- Rowan-Virtua School of Osteopathic Medicine, Rowan University, Stratford, NJ, 08084, USA
| | - Jennifer E Zachry
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Munir Gunes Kutlu
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rowan-Virtua School of Translational Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Rowan University, Stratford, NJ, 08084, USA.
- Rowan-Virtua School of Osteopathic Medicine, Rowan University, Stratford, NJ, 08084, USA.
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9
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Geisler CE, Hayes MR. Metabolic hormone action in the VTA: Reward-directed behavior and mechanistic insights. Physiol Behav 2023; 268:114236. [PMID: 37178855 PMCID: PMC10330780 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2023.114236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Dysfunctional signaling in midbrain reward circuits perpetuates diseases characterized by compulsive overconsumption of rewarding substances such as substance abuse, binge eating disorder, and obesity. Ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopaminergic activity serves as an index for how rewarding stimuli are perceived and triggers behaviors necessary to obtain future rewards. The evolutionary linking of reward with seeking and consuming palatable foods ensured an organism's survival, and hormone systems that regulate appetite concomitantly developed to regulate motivated behaviors. Today, these same mechanisms serve to regulate reward-directed behavior around food, drugs, alcohol, and social interactions. Understanding how hormonal regulation of VTA dopaminergic output alters motivated behaviors is essential to leveraging therapeutics that target these hormone systems to treat addiction and disordered eating. This review will outline our current understanding of the mechanisms underlying VTA action of the metabolic hormones ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide-1, amylin, leptin, and insulin to regulate behavior around food and drugs of abuse, highlighting commonalities and differences in how these five hormones ultimately modulate VTA dopamine signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline E Geisler
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - Matthew R Hayes
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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10
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Dinckol O, Zachry JE, Kutlu MG. Nucleus accumbens core single cell ensembles bidirectionally respond to experienced versus observed aversive events. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.07.17.549364. [PMID: 37503203 PMCID: PMC10370069 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.17.549364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Empathy is the ability to adopt others' sensory and emotional states and is an evolutionarily conserved trait among mammals. In rodents, empathy manifests itself as social modulation of aversive stimuli such as acknowledging and acting on conspecifics' distress. The neuronal network underlying social transmission of information is known to overlap with the brain regions that mediate behavioral responses to aversive and rewarding stimuli. In this study, we recorded single cell activity patterns of nucleus accumbens (NAc) core neurons using in vivo optical imaging of calcium transients via miniature scopes. This cutting-edge imaging methodology not only allows us to record activity patterns of individual neurons but also lets us longitudinally follow these individual neurons across time and different behavioral states. Using this approach, we identified NAc core single cell ensembles that respond to experienced and/or observed aversive stimuli. Our results showed that experienced and observed aversive stimuli evoke NAc core ensemble activity that is largely positive, with a smaller subset of negative responses. The size of the NAc single cell ensemble response was greater for experienced aversive stimuli compared to observed aversive events. Our results also revealed a subpopulation within the NAc core single cell ensembles that show a bidirectional response to experienced aversive stimuli versus observed aversive stimuli (i.e., negative response to experienced and positive response to observed). These results suggest that the NAc plays a role in differentiating somatosensory experience from social observation of aversion at a single cell level. This has important implications for psychopathologies where social information processing is maladaptive, such as autism spectrum disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Munir Gunes Kutlu
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rowan-Virtua School of Osteopathic Medicine, Stratford, NJ, USA
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Rowan-Virtua School of Osteopathic Medicine, Stratford, NJ, USA
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11
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Furuyama T, Imayoshi A, Iyobe T, Ono M, Ishikawa T, Ozaki N, Kato N, Yamamoto R. Multiple factors contribute to flight behaviors during fear conditioning. Sci Rep 2023; 13:10402. [PMID: 37369752 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-37612-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 06/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Shifting defensive mode from one to another by the imminence of threat is crucial for survival. The transition of defensive mode from freezing to flight is observed during the modified fear conditioning, however, the flight during fear conditioning is not well characterized. To characterize the flight behaviors during the fear conditioning, we conducted experiments in male mice focusing on the influence of the context, the intensity of the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus (CS), the schedule of conditioning, and the state of the subject. Flight behaviors triggered by salient CS showed characteristics of fear-potentiated defensive behaviors depending on the conditioned context, while repetitive conditioning enhanced the expression of the flight and developed an association between the CS and the flight. The salient auditory stimulus was the primary factor to trigger flight behaviors. Also, the spaced conditioning increased the expression of flight behaviors. Taken together, the flight behavior during fear conditioning is not a simple conditioned response nor simple fear-potentiated behavior, but a complicated mixture of multiple components of defensive behaviors. The transition of defensive mode could be induced by the integration of multiple innate and learned components of fear or anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takafumi Furuyama
- Department of Physiology, Kanazawa Medical University, Uchinada, Ishikawa, Japan.
| | - Ayana Imayoshi
- Department of Physiology, Kanazawa Medical University, Uchinada, Ishikawa, Japan
| | - Toyo Iyobe
- Department of Physiology, Kanazawa Medical University, Uchinada, Ishikawa, Japan
| | - Munenori Ono
- Department of Physiology, Kanazawa Medical University, Uchinada, Ishikawa, Japan
| | - Tatsuya Ishikawa
- Department of Functional Anatomy, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Ishikawa, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Ozaki
- Department of Functional Anatomy, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Ishikawa, Japan
| | - Nobuo Kato
- Department of Physiology, Kanazawa Medical University, Uchinada, Ishikawa, Japan
| | - Ryo Yamamoto
- Department of Physiology, Kanazawa Medical University, Uchinada, Ishikawa, Japan.
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