Detection of sexually transmitted pathogens and co-infection with human papillomavirus in women residing in rural Eastern Cape, South Africa

Mapping the HPV Landscape in South African Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Viral Genotypes, Microbiota, and Immune Signals

This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluate human papillomavirus (HPV) prevalence, genotype distribution, and associations with cervicovaginal microbiota and cytokine profiles among South African women, where cervical cancer ranks as the second most common cancer. PubMed, SCOPUS, and Web of Science were searched for studies on HPV infection up to 21 September 2024. The pooled prevalence was estimated using a random-effects model, with subgroup analyses by province, sample type, and HIV status. Publication bias was evaluated using funnel plots and Egger's test. Of the 19,765 studies screened, 120 met the inclusion criteria, comprising 83,266 participants. Results indicate a high HPV burden, with a pooled prevalence of 58% (95% CI: 52-64%), varying regionally from 53% (95% CI: 41-65%) to 64% (95% CI: 55-73%), with some regions under-researched. Cervical samples had the highest HPV prevalence (60% (95% CI: 54-66%)), while non-genital samples were less studied. High-risk (HR) HPV types, notably HPV 16 (7.5%), HPV 35 (4.1%), and HPV 18 (3.9%), were prominent, with HPV 35 emphasizing the need for expanded vaccine coverage. HIV-positive women had a higher pooled HPV prevalence (63% (95% CI: 55-71%)). Funnel plot analysis and Egger's test suggested a potential publication bias (p = 0.047). HPV-positive women exhibited lower Lactobacillus levels and an increase in Bacterial Vaginosis (BV)-associated species like Gardnerella, potentially supporting HPV persistence. Cytokine analysis showed elevated MIP-1α and MIP-1β in HPV infections, though cytokine profiles may depend on HPV genotypes. These findings underscore the need for research on HPV-microbiome-immune interactions and call for comprehensive HPV-prevention strategies, including vaccines targeting regional HPV types and tailored interventions for HIV-positive populations.

Herpes simplex virus type 2 in sub-Saharan Africa and the potential impact of helminth immune modulation

Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) and helminth infections are among the most widespread infectious diseases in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Helminths are known to modulate host immune responses and consequently impact the severity and outcomes of unrelated diseases, including allergies, autoimmune conditions, and infectious diseases. In this way, helminths may modulate essential immune responses against HSV-2 during co-infection and may alter susceptibility to and pathology of HSV-2. However, the epidemiology of STH/HSV-2 co-infections is understudied, and whether helminths influence the host immune response to HSV-2 is not well understood. In this perspective piece, we briefly examine the current knowledge on helminth immune modulation of important pathogens that are endemic to SSA, arguing that it is important to explore HSV-2 and helminth co-infections to elucidate potential interactions between HSV-2 and helminths. This is particularly relevant in SSA, where both pathogens are highly prevalent.

The relationship between selected sexually transmitted pathogens, HPV and HIV infection status in women presenting with gynaecological symptoms in Maputo City, Mozambique

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) have a profound impact on sexual and reproductive health worldwide. Syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia, and trichomoniasis are four currently curable STIs. However, most STI cases are asymptomatic and not detected without laboratory diagnostics. Hepatitis B virus, herpes simplex virus, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and human papillomavirus (HPV) are four viral and incurable infections, but they can be mitigated by treatment. We investigated the prevalence of selected sexually transmitted pathogens and their relationship with HPV and HIV infection in women from Maputo, the capital of Mozambique. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 233 non-pregnant women seeking health care relating to gynecological symptoms in Mavalane Health facilities in Maputo, between the 1st of February 2018 and the 30th of July 2019. Cervical brush samples were collected and DNA was extracted. Selected STIs including HPV were detected using multiplex STD and HPV Direct Flow Chip Kits through a manual Hybrispot platform (Vitro, Master Diagnostica, Sevilla, Spain). HIV testing was performed using rapid tests: Determine HIV 1/2 test (Alere Abbott Laboratories, Tokyo, Japan) for screening, and UniGold HIV (Trinity Biotech, Ireland) for confirmation. All women (n = 233) were negative for Haemophilus ducreyi and Herpes Simplex Virus-1 (HSV-1). Among the 233 women, a high prevalence of STIs was found (89%), 63% of the women were positive for HPV and 24% were HIV positive. Treponema pallidum (TP), Trichomonas vaginalis (TV), Herpes Simplex Virus-2 (HSV-2), and Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) were detected in 17%, 14%, 8%, and 8% of the women, respectively. As a common phenomenon, vaginal discharge (90%) was the lower genital tract symptom reported by the majority of the women. Co-infection with any STI and HPV was detected in 56% (130/233) while 45% (59/130) of the co-infections were with high-risk HPV (hrHPV) genotypes. Among the HPV-positive participants, infection by TP was the most prevalent (27%). In total, 28% (66/233) of the participants were positive for any hrHPV genotypes. Co-infection with any STI and HIV was found in 15% (34/233) of the study participants. There was a significant association between HPV infection and TP (p = 0.039) and HSV-2 (p = 0.005). TV, TP, and CT-S1-CT-S2 positivity were significantly more prevalent in HIV-positive participants. Pathobionts Ureaplasma urealyticum/parvum and Mycoplasma hominis were detected in 84.0% (195/233) and 45% (105/233), respectively. This present study describes a high prevalence of STIs. Co-infection between HPV and STIs was found in the majority of the study subjects. The high prevalence of HPV emphasizes the need for HPV vaccination to prevent cervical cancer in this population. Management of STIs is also important in women presenting with gynecological symptoms.

Understanding the HPV associated cancers: A comprehensive review

Human papillomavirus (HPV), a common cause of sexually transmitted diseases, may cause warts and lead to various types of cancers, which makes it important to understand the risk factors associated with it. HPV is the leading risk factor and plays a crucial role in the progression of cervical cancer. Viral oncoproteins E6 and E7 play a pivotal role in this process. Beyond cervical cancer, HPV-associated cancers of the mouth and throat are also increasing. HPV can also contribute to other malignancies like penile, vulvar, and vaginal cancers. Emerging evidence links HPV to these cancers. Research on the oncogenic effect of HPV is still ongoing and explorations of screening techniques, vaccination, immunotherapy and targeted therapeutics are all in progress. The present review offers valuable insight into the current understanding of the role of HPV in cancer and its potential implications for treatment and prevention in the future.

Human papillomavirus infection: Epidemiology, biology, host interactions, cancer development, prevention, and therapeutics

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections worldwide. It is caused by the HPV, a DNA virus that infects epithelial cells in various mucous membranes and skin surfaces. HPV can be categorised into high-risk and low-risk types based on their association with the development of certain cancers. High-risk HPV types, such as HPV-16 and HPV-18, are known to be oncogenic and are strongly associated with the development of cervical, anal, vaginal, vulvar, penile, and oropharyngeal cancers. These types of HPV can persist in the body for an extended period and, in some cases, lead to the formation of precancerous lesions that may progress to cancer if left untreated. Low-risk HPV types, such as HPV-6 and HPV-11, are not typically associated with cancer but can cause benign conditions like genital warts. Genital warts are characterised by the growth of small, cauliflower-like bumps on the genital and anal areas. Although not life-threatening, they can cause discomfort and psychological distress. HPV is primarily transmitted through sexual contact, including vaginal, anal, and oral sex. It can also be transmitted through non-penetrative sexual activities that involve skin-to-skin contact. In addition to sexual transmission, vertical transmission from mother to child during childbirth is possible but relatively rare. Prevention of HPV infection includes vaccination and safe sexual practices. HPV vaccines, such as Gardasil and Cervarix, are highly effective in preventing infection with the most common high-risk HPV types. These vaccines are typically administered to adolescents and young adults before they become sexually active. Safe sexual practices, such as consistent and correct condom use and limiting the number of sexual partners, can also reduce the risk of HPV transmission. Diagnosis of HPV infection can be challenging because the infection is often asymptomatic, especially in men. In women, HPV testing can be done through cervical screening programs, which involve the collection of cervical cells for analysis. Abnormal results may lead to further diagnostic procedures, such as colposcopy or biopsy, to detect precancerous or cancerous changes. Overall, HPV infection is a prevalent sexually transmitted infection with significant implications for public health. Vaccination, regular screening, and early treatment of precancerous lesions are key strategies to reduce the burden of HPV-related diseases and their associated complications. Education and awareness about HPV and its prevention are crucial in promoting optimal sexual health. This study aimed to carry out a literature review considering several aspects involving HPV infection: Global distribution, prevalence, biology, host interactions, cancer development, prevention, therapeutics, coinfection with other viruses, coinfection with bacteria, association with head and neck squamous cell carcinomas, and association with anal cancer.

Implementation preferences for the management of sexually transmitted infections in the South African health system: a discrete choice experiment

OBJECTIVES

Despite strengthening HIV prevention with the introduction of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), STI services have remained relatively unchanged and the standard of care remains syndromic management. We used a discrete choice experiment to investigate service users' preferences for the diagnosis and treatment of STIs in South Africa.

METHODS

Between 1 March 2021 and 20 April 2021, a cross-sectional online questionnaire hosted on REDCap was administered through access links sent to WhatsApp support groups for HIV PrEP users and attendees of two primary healthcare clinics and two mobile facilities in the Eastern Cape and Gauteng provinces aged between 18 and 49 years. Participants either self-completed the questionnaire or received support from a research assistant. We used a conditional logit model for the initial analysis and latent class model (LCM) to establish class memberships, with results displayed as ORs and probabilities.

RESULTS

We enrolled 496 individuals; the majority were female (69%) and <30 years (74%). The LCM showed two distinct groups. The first group, comprising 68% of the participants, showed a strong preference for self-sampling compared with no sampling (OR 2.16, 95% CI 1.62 to 2.88). A clinic follow-up appointment for treatment was less preferable to same-day treatment (OR 0.78, 95% CI 0.63 to 0.95). Contact slip from index patient (OR 0.86, 95% CI 0.76 to 0.96) and healthcare professional (HCP)-initiated partner notification (OR 0.63, 95% CI 0.55 to 0.73) were both less preferable than expedited partner treatment (EPT). The second group included 32% of participants with a lower preference for self-sampling compared with no sampling (OR 0.65, 95% CI 0.41 to 1.04). There was no treatment option that was significantly different from the others; however, there was a strong preference for HCP-initiated partner notification to EPT (OR 1.53, 95% CI 1.10 to 2.12).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that service users preferred STI testing prior to treatment, with the majority preferring self-taken samples and receiving aetiology-based treatment on the same day.

Prevalence of human papilloma virus and Chlamydia trachomatis in endometrial and cervical carcinoma: a comparative study in North Indian women

Cervical cancer (Cacx) is the second and endometrial cancer (Ec) is the third most common gynecological cancer worldwide. The present study aims to understand the complex and unexplored conditions occurring in cervix and endometrium of the female genital tract caused due to the infection of the human papilloma viruses (HPVs) and Chlamydia trachomatis (CT). A total of 300 tissue biopsy samples of cervix and endometrium were included in the present study and tested for the presence of HPV and CT deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) by using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. The odds ratios and 95% confidence interval were considered for the calculation of the association of HPV and CT infection with the risk of cervical or Ec. Among endometrial patients, samples were 5% positive for HPV and 5% positive for CT infection. Among endometrial control group, no sample was found positive for either HPV or CT infection. Among cervical patients, 72% samples were positive for only HPV infection and 1% samples were positive for only CT infection. Among control group, 7% of samples were positive for only HPV infection and 3% were positive for only CT infection. The co-infection of CT with HPV in 9% of Cacx cases and in 2% of cervical control samples was also observed. This is the first study in Indian women to detect the prevalence of HPV and CT infections in endometrium cases and control. An updated estimate regarding the HPV and CT prevalence in cervix cases and control samples was also provided.

Characteristics of common pathogens of urogenital tract among outpatients in Shanghai, China from 2016 to 2021

Background

Ureaplasma urealyticum, Chlamydia trachomatis, and Neisseria gonorrhoeae are the prevalent causes of several genital diseases worldwide; however, their characteristics in different genders have not been well documented in Shanghai. The aim of this study is to describe the prevalence of common pathogens among outpatients, considering variations by gender and age.

Methods

From January 1, 2016, to December 31, 2021, the urogenital swabs of 16216 outpatients aged 3-95 years from two general hospitals in Shanghai were collected. All participants' swabs were investigated for U. urealyticum, C. trachomatis, and N. gonorrhoeae by isothermal RNA-based simultaneous amplification and testing. The basic information of all participants was also recorded, including age and gender. The chi-square test was used to compare the prevalence between different genders, age groups, and infection patterns.

Results

There were 5,744 patients (35.42%) with positive samples whose ages ranged from 7 to 80 years (33.23 ± 8.63 years), and 62.14% of them were women. The most common pathogen detected was U. urealyticum (85.08%). The highest prevalence rate of all three pathogens was found in patients aged ≤ 20 years (40.53%, 95% confidence intervals [CI]: 33.80%-47.63%). The prevalent rate of U. urealyticum was higher in men (33.36%, 95% CI: 32.19%-34.55%). The overall prevalence rates of U. urealyticum, C. trachomatis, and N. gonorrhoeae were 30.14% (95% CI: 29.44%-30.85%), 6.00% (95% CI: 5.64%-6.38%), and 2.10% (95% CI: 1.89%-2.33%).

Conclusions

Ureaplasma urealyticum was the most prevalent pathogen in the population, and its prevalence decreased with age. Young men aged ≤ 20 years were more frequently infected. Regular screening for sexually transmitted pathogens in different genders and age groups are warranted, particularly in young men.

Trichomonas vaginalis infection is associated with increased risk of cervical carcinogenesis: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 470 000 patients

BACKGROUND

Trichomonas vaginalis infection is the most prevalent non-viral sexually transmitted infection (STI) in women and has been suggested as a risk factor for developing cervical cancer.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to investigate the associations between T. vaginalis infection and cervical carcinogenesis.

SEARCH STRATEGY

A comprehensive systematic search was conducted in five databases on 21 October 2021.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Studies assessing the relationship between T. vaginalis infection, HPV co-infections, cervical dysplasia, and cervical cancer were found eligible.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Summary estimates for pooled odds ratios (ORs) and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated with a random-effects model. Statistical heterogeneity was measured with I2 and Cochran's Q tests.

MAIN RESULTS

The 29 articles included 473 740 women, of whom 8518 were T. vaginalis-positive. Our results showed that T. vaginalis-infected women had 1.79 times higher odds of being diagnosed with HPV co-infection (95% CI 1.27-2.53; I2 95%). We also found that T. vaginalis infection was associated with high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion diagnosis (OR 2.34, 95% CI 1.10-4.95; I2 75%) and cervical cancer (OR 5.23, 95% CI 3.03-9.04; I2 3%).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results showed an association between T. vaginalis and cervical carcinogenesis in sexually active women.

Herpes Simplex Virus, Human Papillomavirus, and Cervical Cancer: Overview, Relationship, and Treatment Implications

There is a significant body of research examining the role of human papillomavirus (HPV) in the pathogenesis of cervical cancer, with a particular emphasis on the oncogenic proteins E5, E6, and E7. What is less well explored, however, is the relationship between cervical cancer and herpes simplex virus (HSV). To date, studies examining the role of HSV in cervical cancer pathogenesis have yielded mixed results. While several experiments have determined that HPV/HSV-2 coinfection results in a higher risk of developing cervical cancer, others have questioned the validity of this association. However, clarifying the potential role of HSV in the pathogenesis of cervical cancer may have significant implications for both the prevention and treatment of this disease. Should this relationship be clarified, treating and preventing HSV could open another avenue with which to prevent cervical cancer. The importance of this is highlighted by the fact that, despite the creation of an effective vaccine against HPV, cervical cancer still impacts 604,000 women and is responsible for 342,000 deaths annually. This review provides an overview of HSV and HPV infections and then delves into the possible links between HPV, HSV, and cervical cancer. It concludes with a summary of preventive measures against and recent treatment advances in cervical cancer.

Prevalence of coinfections in a cross-sectional cohort of women screened for multiple pathogens in Peru

Objective

To determine the prevalence and risk factors of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including Chlamydia trachomatis, Ureaplasma urealyticum and Mycoplasma genitalium among asymptomatic women with human papillomavirus (HPV) infection.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was performed in 842 asymptomatic women from Cajamarca, Peru. The pathogens were detected using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the results were analyzed according to the HPV status: high-risk HPV, low-risk HPV and negative for HPV. Demographical and gyneco-obstetric data was analyzed to identify risk factors.

Results

We found that 23.99% (202/842) women were positive for HPV, of whom 79.21% (160/202) were infected with a high-risk genotype. Co-infections were evaluated and 14.38% (23/160) were positive for Ureaplasma urealyticum, 9.38% (15/160) for Chlamydia trachomatis and 1.25% (2/160) for Mycoplasma genitalium. We found a significant association between HPV genotype and the number of children, partners, and history of sexual abuse. The co-infection between high-risk HPV and Chlamydia trachomatis was associated with number of abortions, number of sexual partners and no use of condom. Finally, co-infection between high-risk HPV and Ureaplasma urealyticum was associated with no use of condom and history of STIs.

Conclusion

HPV infection continues to be a highly relevant problem in Peru, particularly due to the high prevalence of high-risk genotypes. In addition, we report high rates of co-infections with other STIs, such as U. urealyticum and C. trachomatis. We highlight the importance of active surveillance to promptly diagnose these infections, since they may lead to persistent HPV infections.

Tracking HPV Infection, Associated Cancer Development, and Recent Treatment Efforts-A Comprehensive Review

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are high-risk causative factors for HPV infection. This infection does not come alone; it is often seen with co-infection with other viruses and acts as a causative agent for several malignancies. The major purpose of this comprehensive study was to highlight some recent advances in biotechnology associated with HPV infection, including understanding its host interactions and cancerous progression. A systematic research strategy was used to gather data from recent, and the most advanced published electronic sources. The compiled data explain the recent understanding of biology, host-viral interaction cycles, co-infection with other viral diseases, and cellular transformation toward malignancies associated with HPV. In recent years, some vaccination protocols have been introduced in the form of live attenuated, subunit, and DNA-based vaccines. Moreover, some strategies of nanotechnology are being employed to synthesize drugs and vaccines with a whole new approach of plant-based products. The data are immense for the proposed research question, yet the need is to implement modern follow-up screening and modern therapeutics at the clinical level and to conduct wide-scale public awareness to lessen the HPV-related disease burden.

Microbiological and behavioral determinants of genital HPV infections among adolescent girls and young women warrant the need for targeted policy interventions to reduce HPV risk

BACKGROUND

Genital human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common sexually transmitted virus in most populations globally. Adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) remain a key population group at risk for HPV infection. However, the risk factors of HPV infection among AGYW, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, are a subject of little investigation in published literature. Here, we investigated the factors associated with HPV infection among unvaccinated South African AGYW with a high HPV burden (prevalence: 76.1%).

METHODS

We retrospectively recruited 213 AGYW learners (aged 15-25 years) from a previous cross-sectional study, the HPV Education Intervention Study, conducted in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), bacterial pathobionts, genital ulcers (due to infectious causes), candidiasis, and bacterial vaginosis (BV) in the self-collected vaginal specimens were determined using the Allplex™ Panel Assays. Statistical analyses were performed using STATA v16.1. Continuous and categorical variables were computed by t-test /Wilcoxon rank-sum test and Chi-square/Fisher's exact tests, respectively. Logistic regression was used to determine the univariable predictors of HPV infection.

RESULTS

The overall detection rate of any viral STI, bacterial STI, pathobiont, genital ulcer, candidiasis, and BV among the AGYW was 75.0, 34.4, 90.7, 14.4, 26.9, and 43.6%, respectively. The main factors associated with HPV infection were alcohol consumption (p = 0.005), infection with any and multiple Candida species (p = 0.011 and 0.006, respectively), Candida albicans infection (p = 0.010), Ureaplasma urealyticum pathobiont infection (p = 0.044), BV-associated bacteria (specifically Atopobium vaginae: p = 0.039, BV-associated bacteria 2: p = 0.021, Gardnerella vaginalis: p = 0.021, Megasphaera type 1: p = 0.037), and BV (p = 0.011).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study, albeit not necessarily generalizable, found social behavior as well as specific vaginal microbes as correlates of HPV infection among AGYW in South Africa. There is a need to investigate HPV epidemiology in other AGYW populations. The factors associated with genital HPV infection among AGYW burdened with HPV infection necessitate the need to formulate and implement population-specific public health strategies for creating HPV awareness and reducing its risk.

Significant Associations between Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae Infections in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Pregnant Women

There is a lack of data on the burden of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae among human immunodeficiency virus- (HIV-) infected pregnant women in South Africa. We conducted a cross-sectional study which included 385 HIV-infected pregnant women attending antenatal clinic at the King Edward VIII Hospital in Durban, South Africa. The women provided vaginal swabs which were tested for C. trachomatis and N. gonorrhoeae. The prevalence of the individual STIs was as follows: C. trachomatis (47/385, 12.2%) and N. gonorrhoeae (16/385, 4.1%). Having a circumcised partner, testing positive for N. gonorrhoeae, and perceiving themselves of being at risk for infection were shown to increase the risk for C. trachomatis infection. Without controlling for the other factors, testing positive for N. gonorrhoeae increased the risk for C. trachomatis infection by 10-fold (OR: 10.17, 95% CI: 3.39-29.66, p < 0.001). Similarly, adjusting for the other factors, the risk for C. trachomatis infection in women who tested positive for N. gonorrhoeae was 9-fold (OR: 9.16, 95% CI: 2.19-40.18, p = 0.003). The following factors were associated with the increased risk of N. gonorrhoeae infection: not knowing their partner's HIV status, partner having other partners, and C. trachomatis infection status. Without controlling for the other factors, testing positive for C. trachomatis increased the risk for N. gonorrhoeae infection by 6-fold (OR: 6.52, 95% CI: 2.22-18.49, p < 0.001). Similarly, adjusting for the other factors, the risk for N. gonorrhoeae infection in women who tested positive for C. trachomatis was 6-fold (OR: 6.09, 95% CI: 1.73-22.03, p = 0.005). We found a significant association between C. trachomatis and N. gonorrhoeae in the pregnant women and the risk factors associated with these pathogens. Future studies are urgently required to investigate the impact of C. trachomatis/N. gonorrhoeae coinfections in HIV pregnant women since this data is lacking in our setting. In addition, etiological screening of C. trachomatis and N. gonorrhoeae during antenatal clinic is urgently required to prevent adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes associated with these infections.

Molecular Identification of Cervical Microbes in HIV-Negative and HIV-Positive Women in an African Setting Using a Customized Bacterial Vaginosis Microbial DNA Quantitative PCR (qPCR) Array

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is a common polymicrobial vaginal disorder that is associated with sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including HIV. Several studies have utilized broad-range 16S rRNA gene PCR assays with sequence analysis to characterize cervicovaginal bacterial communities of women with healthy and diseased conditions. With the high burden of BV and STIs among African women, there is a need for targeted PCR assays that can rapidly determine the true epidemiological profile of key cervical microbes, including BV-associated bacteria, and a need to explore the utility of such assays for microbiological diagnosis of BV. Here, we used a taxon-directed 16S rRNA gene quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay to examine the prevalences and determinants of specific cervical microbes among African women with and without HIV infection. Cervical samples were collected using a cytobrush from 162 women (aged ≥30 years) attending a community-based clinic in Eastern Cape, South Africa. The samples were screened for specific microbes (i.e., STIs, emerging sexually transmitted pathogens [pathobionts], and BV-associated bacteria) using a customized bacterial vaginosis microbial DNA qPCR array. Statistical analyses were performed using GraphPad Prism v6.01. Chi-square/Fisher's exact tests were used to evaluate the determinants associated with specific cervical microbes. Only 145 women had any detectable microbes and were included in the analysis. Lactobacillus iners (62.8%) and specific BV-associated bacteria, namely, Gardnerella vaginalis (58.6%), Atopobium vaginae (40.7%), and the pathobiont Ureaplasma parvum (37.9%), were the most prevalent microbes. Hierarchical clustering analysis revealed that 42.8% of the women (62/145) had a diverse array of heterogeneously distributed bacteria typically linked to BV. Women with detectable Lactobacillus species, specifically Lactobacillus crispatus and Lactobacillus jensenii, and to a lesser extent L. iners, had very low prevalence of BV-associated bacteria. Although the cumulative burden of STIs/pathobionts was 62.8%, Chlamydia trachomatis (3.4%), Neisseria gonorrhoeae (4.8%), and Trichomonas vaginalis (4.8%) were detected at low rates. HIV infection was associated with the presence of STIs/pathobionts (P = 0.022) and L. iners (P = 0.003). Prevalent STIs/pathobionts were associated with having multiple partners in the past 12 months (n ≥ 2, P = 0.015), high number of lifetime sexual partners (n ≥ 3, P = 0.007), vaginal sex in the past month (P = 0.010), and decreasing age of women (P = 0.005). C. trachomatis was associated with increasing age among HIV-positive women (P = 0.016). The pathobiont Ureaplasma urealyticum was inversely associated with age of women in the whole cohort (P = 0.018). The overall prevalence of STIs/pathobionts was high and was associated with HIV infection and sexual behavior. Our study helps us to understand the epidemiological trend of STIs and pathobionts and highlights the need to understand the impact of sexual networks on STI and pathobiont transmission and prevention among women in an African setting. IMPORTANCE Bacterial vaginosis (BV), whose etiology remains a matter of controversy, is a common vaginal disorder among reproductive-age women and can increase the risk for sexually transmitted infections (STIs). African women bear a disproportionately high burden of STIs and BV. Using a targeted quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay, a customized bacterial vaginosis microbial DNA qPCR array, we examined the prevalences and determinants of key cervical microbes, including BV-associated bacteria and emerging sexually transmitted pathogens (pathobionts) among women of African descent aged between 30 and 75 years. High-risk behaviors were associated with a higher prevalence of STIs/pathobionts, suggesting the need to better understand the influence of sexual networks on STI and pathobiont transmission and prevention among women. Our molecular assay is important in the surveillance of BV-associated bacteria, pathobionts, and STIs as well as diagnostic microbiology of BV. Furthermore, our research contributes to a better understanding of the epidemiology of STIs and pathobionts in Africa.

Prevalence and distribution of selected cervical human papillomavirus types in HIV infected and HIV uninfected women in South Africa, 1989-2021: A narrative review

Background

Human papillomavirus infection, a causative agent of cervical cancer, is of great concern, more so in populations with high HIV prevalence, such as South Africa.

Aim

This review aimed to examine the prevalence and distribution of selected cervical human papillomavirus (HPV) types in HIV infected and HIV uninfected women in South Africa.

Methods

PubMed and Web of Science databases were searched using key words. For data integrity, data was assessed by two authors independently. The study inclusion criteria comprised records on cervical HPV, HPV genotyping and HPV type distribution among South African women. Statistical analysis was performed using Social Science Statistics.

Results

Sixty-nine articles met the inclusion criteria for analysis. Data on cervical HPV prevalence and type distribution was available only for five of the nine provinces of South Africa. Only 4/69 studies used sequencing as an approach to identify HPV types. In a general population, HPV type 16 was the most frequent (8.80%), followed by types 35 (4.86%), 18 (4.14%), 58 and 52 with the frequency of 3.65% and 3.62%, respectively. Furthermore, the least frequent type was HPV 70 (0.74%). Both HIV infected and HIV uninfected populations had a higher prevalence of high-risk human papillomavirus (hrHPV) types 16, 18 and 35 than other HPV types; while HPV types 6, 11 and 70 were the least frequent types from these populations. Lastly, HPV 16 was the most predominant type among women with normal (2.03%) and abnormal cervical cytology (6.60%).

Conclusion

Expanding on HPV genotyping will improve the knowledge in patterns of HPV type distribution in South Africa that will further help in decision making to improve current diagnostics, and future vaccine development and assessment.

Genital Human Papillomavirus Prevalence and Genotyping Among Males in Putuo District of Shanghai, China 2015-2019

BACKGROUND Reports of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and genotype distribution in Chinese men are limited, and HPV vaccination has not yet been recommended for men in China. MATERIAL AND METHODS We retrospectively reviewed the prevalence and genotyping of male genital HPV. A total of 1227 male patients (aged 17 to 81 years) attending the dermatology and sexually transmitted disease clinics at Putuo District Center Hospital in Shanghai from 2015 to 2019 were included. Genital exfoliated specimens were obtained for detection and genotyping of 27 HPV types by Luminex-based multiplex assay. RESULTS The prevalence of any HPV was 65.5% (804/1227). The rate of multiple infection was 25.8% (317/1227). The 5 main HPV types were 6 (32.0%), 11 (23.2%), 16 (5.6%), 43 (4.3%), and 59 (4.0%). Among all detected HPV genotypes, 65.5% (875/1336) were 9-valent HPV genotypes. No significant differences were observed in the detection rate of HPV infection over 5 years (P>0.05). Age groups ≤24 years (70.7%) and ≥55 years (72.9%) showed higher infection rates, and significant differences were detected in rates of low-risk HPV infection in different age-stratified groups (P<0.05). Prevalence of HPV infection among patients with warts (74.4%) was significantly higher than that of patients with other clinical characteristics (40.4%) and physical examination (63.6%). CONCLUSIONS Our study suggested that more than half of Chinese male patients have detectable HPV infections, and penis-genital and anogenital warts were the most common clinical manifestations. Moreover, the available 9-valent HPV vaccine covers the most frequently observed HPV types among men.