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Dossi E, Zonca L, Pivonkova H, Milior G, Moulard J, Vargova L, Chever O, Holcman D, Rouach N. Astroglial gap junctions strengthen hippocampal network activity by sustaining afterhyperpolarization via KCNQ channels. Cell Rep 2024; 43:114158. [PMID: 38722742 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Throughout the brain, astrocytes form networks mediated by gap junction channels that promote the activity of neuronal ensembles. Although their inputs on neuronal information processing are well established, how molecular gap junction channels shape neuronal network patterns remains unclear. Here, using astroglial connexin-deficient mice, in which astrocytes are disconnected and neuronal bursting patterns are abnormal, we show that astrocyte networks strengthen bursting activity via dynamic regulation of extracellular potassium levels, independently of glutamate homeostasis or metabolic support. Using a facilitation-depression model, we identify neuronal afterhyperpolarization as the key parameter underlying bursting pattern regulation by extracellular potassium in mice with disconnected astrocytes. We confirm this prediction experimentally and reveal that astroglial network control of extracellular potassium sustains neuronal afterhyperpolarization via KCNQ voltage-gated K+ channels. Altogether, these data delineate how astroglial gap junctions mechanistically strengthen neuronal population bursts and point to approaches for controlling aberrant activity in neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Dossi
- Neuroglial Interactions in Cerebral Physiology and Pathologies, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, Collège de France, CNRS, INSERM, Labex Memolife, Université PSL, Paris, France
| | - Lou Zonca
- Group of Data Modeling and Computational Biology, Institute of Biology, Ecole Normale Superieure, CNRS, INSERM, Université PSL, Paris, France; ED386, Ecole Doctorale de Sciences Mathématiques Paris Centre, Paris, France
| | - Helena Pivonkova
- Neuroglial Interactions in Cerebral Physiology and Pathologies, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, Collège de France, CNRS, INSERM, Labex Memolife, Université PSL, Paris, France; Department of Cellular Neurophysiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic; 2(nd) Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Giampaolo Milior
- Neuroglial Interactions in Cerebral Physiology and Pathologies, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, Collège de France, CNRS, INSERM, Labex Memolife, Université PSL, Paris, France
| | - Julien Moulard
- Neuroglial Interactions in Cerebral Physiology and Pathologies, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, Collège de France, CNRS, INSERM, Labex Memolife, Université PSL, Paris, France
| | - Lydia Vargova
- Department of Cellular Neurophysiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic; 2(nd) Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Oana Chever
- Neuroglial Interactions in Cerebral Physiology and Pathologies, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, Collège de France, CNRS, INSERM, Labex Memolife, Université PSL, Paris, France
| | - David Holcman
- Group of Data Modeling and Computational Biology, Institute of Biology, Ecole Normale Superieure, CNRS, INSERM, Université PSL, Paris, France.
| | - Nathalie Rouach
- Neuroglial Interactions in Cerebral Physiology and Pathologies, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, Collège de France, CNRS, INSERM, Labex Memolife, Université PSL, Paris, France.
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2
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Mucignat-Caretta C, Caretta A. Estimation of cAMP binding in hippocampus CA1 field by a fluorescent probe. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1267956. [PMID: 37842083 PMCID: PMC10570460 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1267956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The hippocampus is an allocortex structure involved in many complex processes, from memory formation to spatial navigation. It starts developing during prenatal life but acquires its adult functional properties around the peripubertal age, in both humans and mice. Such prolonged maturation is accompanied by structural changes in microcircuitry and functional changes involving biochemical and electrophysiological events. Moreover, hippocampus undergoes plasticity phenomena throughout life. In murine rodents, the most relevant maturation steps in Cornu Ammonis 1 (CA1) hippocampal subfield occur during the third-fourth weeks of life. During this period, also the expression and localization of cAMP-dependent protein kinases (PKA) refines: many regulatory (R1A) PKA clusters appear, bound to the cytoskeleton. Here the binding characteristics of R1A are determined in CA1 by using confocal microscopy. Apparently, two binding sites are present with no evidence of cooperativity. Equilibrium dissociation constant is estimated around 22.9 nM. This value is lower from that estimated for R1A in soluble form, suggesting a different binding site conformation or accessibility in the tissue. The method described here may be useful to track the developmental changes in binding activity, which affects cAMP availability at selected intracellular microzones. Possible relations with functional consequences are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Antonio Caretta
- Department of Food and Drug Science, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
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3
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Granger SJ, Colon-Perez L, Larson MS, Phelan M, Keator DB, Janecek JT, Sathishkumar MT, Smith AP, McMillan L, Greenia D, Corrada MM, Kawas CH, Yassa MA. Hippocampal dentate gyrus integrity revealed with ultrahigh resolution diffusion imaging predicts memory performance in older adults. Hippocampus 2022; 32:627-638. [PMID: 35838075 PMCID: PMC10510739 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.23456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Medial temporal lobe (MTL) atrophy is a core feature of age-related cognitive decline and Alzheimer's disease (AD). While regional volumes and thickness are often used as a proxy for neurodegeneration, they lack the sensitivity to serve as an accurate diagnostic test and indicate advanced neurodegeneration. Here, we used a submillimeter resolution diffusion weighted MRI sequence (ZOOMit) to quantify microstructural properties of hippocampal subfields in older adults (63-98 years old) using tensor derived measures: fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity (MD). We demonstrate that the high-resolution sequence, and not a standard resolution sequence, identifies dissociable profiles for CA1, dentate gyrus (DG), and the collateral sulcus. Using ZOOMit, we show that advanced age is associated with increased MD of the CA1 and DG as well as decreased FA of the DG. Increased MD of the DG, reflecting decreased cellular density, mediated the relationship between age and word list recall. Further, increased MD in the DG, but not DG volume, was linked to worse spatial pattern separation. Our results demonstrate that ultrahigh-resolution diffusion imaging enables the detection of microstructural differences in hippocampal subfield integrity and will lead to novel insights into the mechanisms of age-related memory loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J. Granger
- Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California, Irvine 92697
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine 92697
| | - Luis Colon-Perez
- Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California, Irvine 92697
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine 92697
| | - Myra Saraí Larson
- Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California, Irvine 92697
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine 92697
| | - Michael Phelan
- UC Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine 92697
| | - David B. Keator
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697
| | - John T. Janecek
- Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California, Irvine 92697
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine 92697
| | - Mithra T. Sathishkumar
- Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California, Irvine 92697
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine 92697
| | - Anna P. Smith
- Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California, Irvine 92697
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine 92697
| | - Liv McMillan
- Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California, Irvine 92697
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine 92697
| | - Dana Greenia
- Department of Neurology, University of California, Irvine 92697
| | | | - Claudia H. Kawas
- Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California, Irvine 92697
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine 92697
- Department of Neurology, University of California, Irvine 92697
| | - Michael A. Yassa
- Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California, Irvine 92697
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine 92697
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697
- Department of Neurology, University of California, Irvine 92697
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4
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Zhang Y, Yang Y, Hu Z, Zhu M, Qin S, Yu P, Li B, Xu J, Ondrejcak T, Klyubin I, Rowan MJ, Hu NW. Long-Term Depression-Inducing Low Frequency Stimulation Enhances p-Tau181 and p-Tau217 in an Age-Dependent Manner in Live Rats. J Alzheimers Dis 2022; 89:335-350. [PMID: 35871344 PMCID: PMC9484260 DOI: 10.3233/jad-220351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Background: Cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) correlates with the extent of tau pathology, in particular tau hyperphosphorylation, which is strongly age-associated. Although elevation of cerebrospinal fluid or blood levels of phosphorylated tau (p-Tau) at residues Thr181 (p-Tau181), Thr217 (p-Tau217), and Thr231 (p-Tau231) are proposed to be particularly sensitive markers of preclinical AD, the generation of p-Tau during brain activity is poorly understood. Objective: To study whether the expression levels of p-Tau181, p-Tau217, and p-Tau231 can be enhanced by physiological synaptic long-term depression (LTD) which has been linked to the enhancement of p-Tau in hippocampus. Methods: In vivo electrophysiology was performed in urethane anesthetized young adult and aged male rats. Low frequency electrical stimulation (LFS) was used to induce LTD at CA3 to CA1 synapses. The expression level of p-Tau and total tau was measured in dorsal hippocampus using immunofluorescent staining and/or western blotting. Results: We found that LFS enhanced p-Tau181 and p-Tau217 in an age-dependent manner in the hippocampus of live rats. In contrast, phosphorylation at residues Thr231, Ser202/Thr205, and Ser396 appeared less sensitive to LFS. Pharmacological antagonism of either N-methyl-D-aspartate or metabotropic glutamate 5 receptors inhibited the elevation of both p-Tau181 and p-Tau217. Targeting the integrated stress response, which increases with aging, using a small molecule inhibitor ISRIB, prevented the enhancement of p-Tau by LFS in aged rats. Conclusion: Together, our data provide a novel in vivo means to uncover brain plasticity-related cellular and molecular processes of tau phosphorylation at key sites in health and aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangyang Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yin Yang
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Zhengtao Hu
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Department of Gerontology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Wuhu, China
| | - Manyi Zhu
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Shuangying Qin
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Pengpeng Yu
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics and Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Bo Li
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jitian Xu
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Tomas Ondrejcak
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics and Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Igor Klyubin
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics and Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Michael J. Rowan
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics and Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Neng-Wei Hu
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics and Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
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Krukowski K, Nolan A, Frias ES, Boone M, Ureta G, Grue K, Paladini MS, Elizarraras E, Delgado L, Bernales S, Walter P, Rosi S. Small molecule cognitive enhancer reverses age-related memory decline in mice. eLife 2020; 9:62048. [PMID: 33258451 PMCID: PMC7721440 DOI: 10.7554/elife.62048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
With increased life expectancy, age-associated cognitive decline becomes a growing concern, even in the absence of recognizable neurodegenerative disease. The integrated stress response (ISR) is activated during aging and contributes to age-related brain phenotypes. We demonstrate that treatment with the drug-like small-molecule ISR inhibitor ISRIB reverses ISR activation in the brain, as indicated by decreased levels of activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) and phosphorylated eukaryotic translation initiation factor eIF2. Furthermore, ISRIB treatment reverses spatial memory deficits and ameliorates working memory in old mice. At the cellular level in the hippocampus, ISR inhibition (i) rescues intrinsic neuronal electrophysiological properties, (ii) restores spine density and (iii) reduces immune profiles, specifically interferon and T cell-mediated responses. Thus, pharmacological interference with the ISR emerges as a promising intervention strategy for combating age-related cognitive decline in otherwise healthy individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Krukowski
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Brain and Spinal Injury Center, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Amber Nolan
- Brain and Spinal Injury Center, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Department of Pathology, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Elma S Frias
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Brain and Spinal Injury Center, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Morgane Boone
- Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | | | - Katherine Grue
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Brain and Spinal Injury Center, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Maria-Serena Paladini
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Brain and Spinal Injury Center, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Edward Elizarraras
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Brain and Spinal Injury Center, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | | | | | - Peter Walter
- Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Susanna Rosi
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Brain and Spinal Injury Center, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Weill Institute for Neuroscience, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Kavli Institute of Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
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6
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Siwiec M, Kusek M, Sowa JE, Tokarski K, Hess G. 5-HT 7 receptors increase the excitability of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons by inhibiting the A-type potassium current. Neuropharmacology 2020; 177:108248. [PMID: 32736087 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2020.108248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Revised: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests a widespread role of serotonin 5-HT7 receptors (5-HT7Rs) in the physiology of cognitive and affective processing. However, we still lack insights into 5-HT7R electrophysiology. Studies analyzing the 5-HT7R-mediated changes in CA1 pyramidal neuron activity revealed that 5-HT7R activation leads to the opening of hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated cation channels (HCNs). However, our group and others have shown that CA1 pyramidal cells increase their excitability following 5-HT7R activation, an effect which cannot be explained by HCN channel opening. This suggests a different ionic mechanism might be responsible. To investigate this, we performed whole-cell patch clamp recordings of CA1 pyramidal cells in rat brain slices. It was found that acute 5-HT7R activation increased membrane excitability and decreased spiking latency. Both effects were blocked by a selective 5-HT7R antagonist. Spike latency in CA1 pyramidal cells is known to be regulated by transient outward voltage-dependent A-type potassium channels. Subsequent voltage clamp recordings revealed that acute 5-HT7R activation inhibited A-type potassium currents. Pharmacological block of Kv4.2/4.3 potassium channel subunits prevented the 5-HT7R agonist-induced changes in excitability and spiking latency, whereas blocking HCN channels had no influence on these effects. Taken together, the results reveal an ionic mechanism previously not known to be associated with 5-HT7R activation. Inhibition of A-type potassium channels can fully account for increased CA1 pyramidal cell excitability after 5-HT7R activation. These results can help explain a number of behavioral and physiological findings and will hopefully lead to a better understanding of 5-HT7 receptor signaling in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Siwiec
- Department of Physiology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343, Krakow, Poland.
| | - Magdalena Kusek
- Department of Physiology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343, Krakow, Poland
| | - Joanna Ewa Sowa
- Department of Physiology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343, Krakow, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Tokarski
- Department of Physiology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343, Krakow, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Hess
- Department of Physiology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343, Krakow, Poland
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7
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Data-Driven Predictive Modeling of Neuronal Dynamics Using Long Short-Term Memory. ALGORITHMS 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/a12100203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Modeling brain dynamics to better understand and control complex behaviors underlying various cognitive brain functions have been of interest to engineers, mathematicians and physicists over the last several decades. With the motivation of developing computationally efficient models of brain dynamics to use in designing control-theoretic neurostimulation strategies, we have developed a novel data-driven approach in a long short-term memory (LSTM) neural network architecture to predict the temporal dynamics of complex systems over an extended long time-horizon in future. In contrast to recent LSTM-based dynamical modeling approaches that make use of multi-layer perceptrons or linear combination layers as output layers, our architecture uses a single fully connected output layer and reversed-order sequence-to-sequence mapping to improve short time-horizon prediction accuracy and to make multi-timestep predictions of dynamical behaviors. We demonstrate the efficacy of our approach in reconstructing the regular spiking to bursting dynamics exhibited by an experimentally-validated 9-dimensional Hodgkin-Huxley model of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. Through simulations, we show that our LSTM neural network can predict the multi-time scale temporal dynamics underlying various spiking patterns with reasonable accuracy. Moreover, our results show that the predictions improve with increasing predictive time-horizon in the multi-timestep deep LSTM neural network.
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8
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Naseri Kouzehgarani G, Bothwell MY, Gillette MU. Circadian rhythm of redox state regulates membrane excitability in hippocampal CA1 neurons. Eur J Neurosci 2019; 51:34-46. [PMID: 30614107 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Revised: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Behaviors, such as sleeping, foraging, and learning, are controlled by different regions of the rat brain, yet they occur rhythmically over the course of day and night. They are aligned adaptively with the day-night cycle by an endogenous circadian clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), but local mechanisms of rhythmic control are not established. The SCN expresses a ~24-hr oscillation in reduction-oxidation that modulates its own neuronal excitability. Could circadian redox oscillations control neuronal excitability elsewhere in the brain? We focused on the CA1 region of the rat hippocampus, which is known for integrating information as memories and where clock gene expression undergoes a circadian oscillation that is in anti-phase to the SCN. Evaluating long-term imaging of endogenous redox couples and biochemical determination of glutathiolation levels, we observed oscillations with a ~24 hr period that is 180° out-of-phase to the SCN. Excitability of CA1 pyramidal neurons, primary hippocampal projection neurons, also exhibits a rhythm in resting membrane potential that is circadian time-dependent and opposite from that of the SCN. The reducing reagent glutathione rapidly and reversibly depolarized the resting membrane potential of CA1 neurons; the magnitude is time-of-day-dependent and, again, opposite from the SCN. These findings extend circadian redox regulation of neuronal excitability from the SCN to the hippocampus. Insights into this system contribute to understanding hippocampal circadian processes, such as learning and memory, seizure susceptibility, and memory loss with aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghazal Naseri Kouzehgarani
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science & Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Mia Y Bothwell
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Martha U Gillette
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science & Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Department of Cell & Developmental Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
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