1
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Yang J, Zhuang H, Li J, Nunez-Nescolarde AB, Luo N, Chen H, Li A, Qu X, Wang Q, Fan J, Bai X, Ye Z, Gu B, Meng Y, Zhang X, Wu D, Sia Y, Jiang X, Chen W, Combes AN, Nikolic-Paterson DJ, Yu X. The secreted micropeptide C4orf48 enhances renal fibrosis via an RNA-binding mechanism. J Clin Invest 2024:e178392. [PMID: 38625739 DOI: 10.1172/jci178392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Renal interstitial fibrosis is an important mechanism in the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) to end-stage kidney disease. However, we lack specific treatments to slow or halt renal fibrosis. Ribosome profiling identified upregulation of a secreted micropeptide, C4orf48 (Cf48), in mouse diabetic nephropathy. Cf48 RNA and protein levels were upregulated in tubular epithelial cells in human and experimental CKD. Serum Cf48 levels were increased in human CKD and correlated with loss of kidney function, increasing CKD stage, and the degree of active interstitial fibrosis. Cf48 overexpression in mice accelerated renal fibrosis, while Cf48 gene deletion or knockdown by antisense oligonucleotides significantly reduced renal fibrosis in CKD models. In vitro, recombinant Cf48 (rCf48) enhanced TGF-β1-induced fibrotic responses in renal fibroblasts and epithelial cells independent of Smad3 phosphorylation. Cellular uptake of Cf48 and its pro-fibrotic response in fibroblasts operated via the transferrin receptor. RNA immunoprecipitation-sequencing identified Cf48 binding to mRNA of genes involved in the fibrotic response, including Serpine1, Acta2, Ccn2, and Col4a1. rCf48 binds to the 3'-untranslated region of Serpine1 and increases mRNA half-life. We identify the secreted Cf48 micropeptide as a potential enhancer of renal fibrosis which operates as an RNA-binding peptide to promote the production of extracellular matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayi Yang
- Department of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hongjie Zhuang
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jinhua Li
- Department of Nephrology, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital and Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ana B Nunez-Nescolarde
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discove, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
| | - Ning Luo
- Department of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Huiting Chen
- The Second Clinical College, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, China
| | - Andy Li
- Department of Nephrology, Monash Health and Monash University Department of Medicine, Clayton, Australia
| | - Xinli Qu
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
| | - Qing Wang
- Department of Nephrology, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital and Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jinjin Fan
- Department of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoyan Bai
- Department of Nephrology, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital and Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhiming Ye
- Department of Nephrology, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital and Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Bing Gu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital and Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yue Meng
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital and Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xingyuan Zhang
- Department of Biostatistics, UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States of America
| | - Di Wu
- Department of Biostatistics, UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States of America
| | - Youyang Sia
- School of Life Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoyun Jiang
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wei Chen
- Department of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Alexander N Combes
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
| | - David J Nikolic-Paterson
- Department of Nephrology, Monash Health and Monash University Department of Medicine, Clayton, Australia
| | - Xueqing Yu
- Department of Nephrology, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital and Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
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2
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Raghubar AM, Pham DT, Tan X, Grice LF, Crawford J, Lam PY, Andersen SB, Yoon S, Teoh SM, Matigian NA, Stewart A, Francis L, Ng MSY, Healy HG, Combes AN, Kassianos AJ, Nguyen Q, Mallett AJ. Spatially Resolved Transcriptomes of Mammalian Kidneys Illustrate the Molecular Complexity and Interactions of Functional Nephron Segments. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 9:873923. [PMID: 35872784 PMCID: PMC9300864 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.873923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Available transcriptomes of the mammalian kidney provide limited information on the spatial interplay between different functional nephron structures due to the required dissociation of tissue with traditional transcriptome-based methodologies. A deeper understanding of the complexity of functional nephron structures requires a non-dissociative transcriptomics approach, such as spatial transcriptomics sequencing (ST-seq). We hypothesize that the application of ST-seq in normal mammalian kidneys will give transcriptomic insights within and across species of physiology at the functional structure level and cellular communication at the cell level. Here, we applied ST-seq in six mice and four human kidneys that were histologically absent of any overt pathology. We defined the location of specific nephron structures in the captured ST-seq datasets using three lines of evidence: pathologist's annotation, marker gene expression, and integration with public single-cell and/or single-nucleus RNA-sequencing datasets. We compared the mouse and human cortical kidney regions. In the human ST-seq datasets, we further investigated the cellular communication within glomeruli and regions of proximal tubules–peritubular capillaries by screening for co-expression of ligand–receptor gene pairs. Gene expression signatures of distinct nephron structures and microvascular regions were spatially resolved within the mouse and human ST-seq datasets. We identified 7,370 differentially expressed genes (padj < 0.05) distinguishing species, suggesting changes in energy production and metabolism in mouse cortical regions relative to human kidneys. Hundreds of potential ligand–receptor interactions were identified within glomeruli and regions of proximal tubules–peritubular capillaries, including known and novel interactions relevant to kidney physiology. Our application of ST-seq to normal human and murine kidneys confirms current knowledge and localization of transcripts within the kidney. Furthermore, the generated ST-seq datasets provide a valuable resource for the kidney community that can be used to inform future research into this complex organ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arti M. Raghubar
- Kidney Health Service, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Herston, QLD, Australia
- Conjoint Internal Medicine Laboratory, Chemical Pathology, Pathology Queensland, Health Support Queensland, Herston, QLD, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Anatomical Pathology, Pathology Queensland, Health Support Queensland, Herston, QLD, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Duy T. Pham
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Xiao Tan
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Laura F. Grice
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Joanna Crawford
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Pui Yeng Lam
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Stacey B. Andersen
- Genome Innovation Hub, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- UQ Sequencing Facility, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Sohye Yoon
- Genome Innovation Hub, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Siok Min Teoh
- UQ Diamantina Institute, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD, Australia
| | - Nicholas A. Matigian
- QCIF Facility for Advanced Bioinformatics, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Anne Stewart
- Anatomical Pathology, Pathology Queensland, Health Support Queensland, Herston, QLD, Australia
| | - Leo Francis
- Anatomical Pathology, Pathology Queensland, Health Support Queensland, Herston, QLD, Australia
| | - Monica S. Y. Ng
- Kidney Health Service, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Herston, QLD, Australia
- Conjoint Internal Medicine Laboratory, Chemical Pathology, Pathology Queensland, Health Support Queensland, Herston, QLD, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Nephrology Department, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Woolloongabba, QLD, Australia
| | - Helen G. Healy
- Kidney Health Service, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Herston, QLD, Australia
- Conjoint Internal Medicine Laboratory, Chemical Pathology, Pathology Queensland, Health Support Queensland, Herston, QLD, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Alexander N. Combes
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Stem Cells and Development Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Andrew J. Kassianos
- Kidney Health Service, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Herston, QLD, Australia
- Conjoint Internal Medicine Laboratory, Chemical Pathology, Pathology Queensland, Health Support Queensland, Herston, QLD, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Quan Nguyen
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- *Correspondence: Andrew J. Mallett
| | - Andrew J. Mallett
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- College of Medicine & Dentistry, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, QLD, Australia
- Department of Renal Medicine, Townsville University Hospital, Townsville, Queensland, QLD, Australia
- Quan Nguyen
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3
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Nunez-Nescolarde AB, Nikolic-Paterson DJ, Combes AN. Human Kidney Organoids and Tubuloids as Models of Complex Kidney Disease. Am J Pathol 2022; 192:738-749. [PMID: 35181335 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2022.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Kidney organoids derived from pluripotent stem cells and epithelial organoids derived from adult tissue (tubuloids) have been used to study various kidney disorders with a strong genetic component, such as polycystic kidney disease, Wilms tumor, and congenital nephrotic syndrome. However, complex disorders without clear genetic associations, such as acute kidney injury and many forms of chronic kidney disease, are only just beginning to be investigated using these in vitro approaches. Although organoids are a reductionist model, they contain clinically relevant cell populations that may help to elucidate human-specific pathogenic mechanisms. Thus, organoids may complement animal disease models to accelerate the translation of laboratory proof-of-concept research into clinical practice. This review discusses whether kidney organoids and tubuloids are suitable models for the study of complex human kidney disease and highlights their advantages and limitations compared with monolayer cell culture and animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana B Nunez-Nescolarde
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; Development and Stem Cells Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - David J Nikolic-Paterson
- Department of Nephrology, Monash Health and Monash University Centre for Inflammatory Diseases, Monash Medical Centre, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Alexander N Combes
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; Development and Stem Cells Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
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4
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Estermann MA, Mariette MM, Moreau JLM, Combes AN, Smith CA. PAX 2 + Mesenchymal Origin of Gonadal Supporting Cells Is Conserved in Birds. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:735203. [PMID: 34513849 PMCID: PMC8429852 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.735203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
During embryonic gonadal development, the supporting cell lineage is the first cell type to differentiate, giving rise to Sertoli cells in the testis and pre-granulosa cells in the ovary. These cells are thought to direct other gonadal cell lineages down the testis or ovarian pathways, including the germline. Recent research has shown that, in contrast to mouse, chicken gonadal supporting cells derive from a PAX2/OSR1/DMRT1/WNT4 positive mesenchymal cell population. These cells colonize the undifferentiated genital ridge during early gonadogenesis, around the time that germ cells migrate into the gonad. During the process of somatic gonadal sex differentiation, PAX2 expression is down-regulated in embryonic chicken gonads just prior to up-regulation of testis- and ovary-specific markers and prior to germ cell differentiation. Most research on avian gonadal development has focused on the chicken model, and related species from the Galloanserae clade. There is a lack of knowledge on gonadal sex differentiation in other avian lineages. Comparative analysis in birds is required to fully understand the mechanisms of avian sex determination and gonadal differentiation. Here we report the first comparative molecular characterization of gonadal supporting cell differentiation in birds from each of the three main clades, Galloanserae (chicken and quail), Neoaves (zebra finch) and Palaeognathe (emu). Our analysis reveals conservation of PAX2+ expression and a mesenchymal origin of supporting cells in each clade. Moreover, down-regulation of PAX2 expression precisely defines the onset of gonadal sex differentiation in each species. Altogether, these results indicate that gonadal morphogenesis is conserved among the major bird clades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin A. Estermann
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Mylene M. Mariette
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Julie L. M. Moreau
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Alexander N. Combes
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Craig A. Smith
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
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5
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Abstract
For decades, measurements of kidney microanatomy using 2-dimensional sections has provided us with a detailed knowledge of kidney morphology under physiological and pathological conditions. However, the rapid development of tissue clearing methods in recent years, in combination with the development of novel 3-dimensional imaging modalities have provided new insights into kidney structure and function. This review article describes a range of novel insights into kidney development and disease obtained recently using these new methodological approaches. For example, in the developing kidney these approaches have provided new understandings of ureteric branching morphogenesis, nephron progenitor cell proliferation and commitment, interactions between ureteric tip cells and nephron progenitor cells, and the establishment of nephron segmentation. In whole adult mouse kidneys, tissue clearing combined with light sheet microscopy can image and quantify the total number of glomeruli, a major breakthrough in the field. Similar approaches have provided new insights into the structure of the renal vasculature and innervation, tubulointerstitial remodeling, podocyte loss and hypertrophy, cyst formation, the evolution of cellular crescents, and the structure of the glomerular filtration barrier. Many more advances in the understanding of kidney biology and pathology can be expected as additional clearing and imaging techniques are developed and adopted by more investigators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor G Puelles
- III. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany; Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, and Stem Cells and Development Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Alexander N Combes
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, and Stem Cells and Development Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - John F Bertram
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, and Stem Cells and Development Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.
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6
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Bagheri-Fam S, Combes AN, Ling CK, Wilhelm D. Heterozygous deletion of Sox9 in mouse mimics the gonadal sex reversal phenotype associated with campomelic dysplasia in humans. Hum Mol Genet 2020; 29:3781-3792. [PMID: 33305798 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddaa259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Revised: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Heterozygous mutations in the human SOX9 gene cause the skeletal malformation syndrome campomelic dysplasia which in 75% of 46, XY individuals is associated with male-to-female sex reversal. Although studies in homozygous Sox9 knockout mouse models confirmed that SOX9 is critical for testis development, mice heterozygous for the Sox9-null allele were reported to develop normal testes. This led to the belief that the SOX9 dosage requirement for testis differentiation is different between humans, which often require both alleles, and mice, in which one allele is sufficient. However, in prior studies, gonadal phenotypes in heterozygous Sox9 XY mice were assessed only by either gross morphology, histological staining or analyzed on a mixed genetic background. In this study, we conditionally inactivated Sox9 in somatic cells of developing gonads using the Nr5a1-Cre mouse line on a pure C57BL/6 genetic background. Section and whole-mount immunofluorescence for testicular and ovarian markers showed that XY Sox9 heterozygous gonads developed as ovotestes. Quantitative droplet digital PCR confirmed a 50% reduction of Sox9 mRNA as well as partial sex reversal shown by an upregulation of ovarian genes. Our data show that haploinsufficiency of Sox9 can perturb testis development in mice, suggesting that mice may provide a more accurate model of human disorders/differences of sex development than previously thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Bagheri-Fam
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Alexander N Combes
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia.,Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Cheuk K Ling
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Dagmar Wilhelm
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
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7
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Yermalovich AV, Osborne JK, Sousa P, Han A, Kinney MA, Chen MJ, Robinton DA, Montie H, Pearson DS, Wilson SB, Combes AN, Little MH, Daley GQ. Author Correction: Lin28 and let-7 regulate the timing of cessation of murine nephrogenesis. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1327. [PMID: 32152305 PMCID: PMC7062780 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-14944-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Alena V Yermalovich
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Jihan K Osborne
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Patricia Sousa
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Areum Han
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Melissa A Kinney
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Michael J Chen
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Daisy A Robinton
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Helen Montie
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Dan S Pearson
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Sean B Wilson
- Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital, 50 Flemington Rd, Parkville, Melbourne, 3052, Australia
| | - Alexander N Combes
- Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital, 50 Flemington Rd, Parkville, Melbourne, 3052, Australia.,Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, Faculty of Science, Building 181, Corner of Grattan Street and Royal Parade, University of Melbourne, Parkville, 3010, Australia
| | - Melissa H Little
- Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital, 50 Flemington Rd, Parkville, Melbourne, 3052, Australia. .,Department of Pediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Level 2 West, The Royal Children's Hospital, 50 Flemington Road, Parkville, 3010, Australia.
| | - George Q Daley
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, MA, 02115, USA. .,Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA. .,Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
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8
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Abstract
There are now many reports of human kidney organoids generated via the directed differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) based on an existing understanding of mammalian kidney organogenesis. Such kidney organoids potentially represent tractable tools for the study of normal human development and disease with improvements in scale, structure, and functional maturation potentially providing future options for renal regeneration. The utility of such organotypic models, however, will ultimately be determined by their developmental accuracy. While initially inferred from mouse models, recent transcriptional analyses of human fetal kidney have provided greater insight into nephrogenesis. In this review, we discuss how well human kidney organoids model the human fetal kidney and how the remaining differences challenge their utility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa H Little
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3052, Australia
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Alexander N Combes
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3052, Australia
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9
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Combes AN, Phipson B, Lawlor KT, Dorison A, Patrick R, Zappia L, Harvey RP, Oshlack A, Little MH. Correction: Single cell analysis of the developing mouse kidney provides deeper insight into marker gene expression and ligand-receptor crosstalk (doi:10.1242/dev.178673). Development 2019; 146:146/13/dev182162. [PMID: 31296520 DOI: 10.1242/dev.182162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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10
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Combes AN, Phipson B, Lawlor KT, Dorison A, Patrick R, Zappia L, Harvey RP, Oshlack A, Little MH. Single cell analysis of the developing mouse kidney provides deeper insight into marker gene expression and ligand-receptor crosstalk. Development 2019; 146:dev.178673. [PMID: 31118232 DOI: 10.1242/dev.178673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in the generation of kidney organoids and the culture of primary nephron progenitors from mouse and human have been based on knowledge of the molecular basis of kidney development in mice. Although gene expression during kidney development has been intensely investigated, single cell profiling provides new opportunities to further subsect component cell types and the signalling networks at play. Here, we describe the generation and analysis of 6732 single cell transcriptomes from the fetal mouse kidney [embryonic day (E)18.5] and 7853 sorted nephron progenitor cells (E14.5). These datasets provide improved resolution of cell types and specific markers, including subdivision of the renal stroma and heterogeneity within the nephron progenitor population. Ligand-receptor interaction and pathway analysis reveals novel crosstalk between cellular compartments and associates new pathways with differentiation of nephron and ureteric epithelium cell types. We identify transcriptional congruence between the distal nephron and ureteric epithelium, showing that most markers previously used to identify ureteric epithelium are not specific. Together, this work improves our understanding of metanephric kidney development and provides a template to guide the regeneration of renal tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander N Combes
- Department of Anatomy & Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia .,Cell Biology, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Belinda Phipson
- Cell Biology, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.,Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Kynan T Lawlor
- Cell Biology, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Aude Dorison
- Developmental and Stem Cell Biology Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, Darlinghurst, New South Wales 2010, Australia
| | - Ralph Patrick
- Developmental and Stem Cell Biology Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, Darlinghurst, New South Wales 2010, Australia.,St. Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Kensington, New South Wales 2033, Australia
| | - Luke Zappia
- Cell Biology, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.,School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Richard P Harvey
- Developmental and Stem Cell Biology Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, Darlinghurst, New South Wales 2010, Australia.,St. Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Kensington, New South Wales 2033, Australia.,School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Science, University of New South Wales, Kensington, New South Wales 2010, Australia
| | - Alicia Oshlack
- Department of Anatomy & Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia.,School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Melissa H Little
- Department of Anatomy & Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia .,Cell Biology, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.,Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
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11
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Kumar SV, Er PX, Lawlor KT, Motazedian A, Scurr M, Ghobrial I, Combes AN, Zappia L, Oshlack A, Stanley EG, Little MH. Kidney micro-organoids in suspension culture as a scalable source of human pluripotent stem cell-derived kidney cells. Development 2019; 146:dev172361. [PMID: 30846463 PMCID: PMC6432662 DOI: 10.1242/dev.172361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Kidney organoids have potential uses in disease modelling, drug screening and regenerative medicine. However, novel cost-effective techniques are needed to enable scaled-up production of kidney cell types in vitro We describe here a modified suspension culture method for the generation of kidney micro-organoids from human pluripotent stem cells. Optimisation of differentiation conditions allowed the formation of micro-organoids, each containing six to ten nephrons that were surrounded by endothelial and stromal populations. Single cell transcriptional profiling confirmed the presence and transcriptional equivalence of all anticipated renal cell types consistent with a previous organoid culture method. This suspension culture micro-organoid methodology resulted in a three- to fourfold increase in final cell yield compared with static culture, thereby representing an economical approach to the production of kidney cells for various biological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santhosh V Kumar
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Pei X Er
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Kynan T Lawlor
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Ali Motazedian
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Michelle Scurr
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Irene Ghobrial
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Alexander N Combes
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Luke Zappia
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
- School of Biosciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Alicia Oshlack
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
- School of Biosciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Edouard G Stanley
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Melissa H Little
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
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12
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Lawlor KT, Zappia L, Lefevre J, Park JS, Hamilton NA, Oshlack A, Little MH, Combes AN. Nephron progenitor commitment is a stochastic process influenced by cell migration. eLife 2019; 8:41156. [PMID: 30676318 PMCID: PMC6363379 DOI: 10.7554/elife.41156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 01/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Progenitor self-renewal and differentiation is often regulated by spatially restricted cues within a tissue microenvironment. Here, we examine how progenitor cell migration impacts regionally induced commitment within the nephrogenic niche in mice. We identify a subset of cells that express Wnt4, an early marker of nephron commitment, but migrate back into the progenitor population where they accumulate over time. Single cell RNA-seq and computational modelling of returning cells reveals that nephron progenitors can traverse the transcriptional hierarchy between self-renewal and commitment in either direction. This plasticity may enable robust regulation of nephrogenesis as niches remodel and grow during organogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kynan T Lawlor
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Australia
| | - Luke Zappia
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Australia.,School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - James Lefevre
- Division of Genomics of Development and Disease, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Joo-Seop Park
- Division of Pediatric Urology and Division of Developmental Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, United States
| | - Nicholas A Hamilton
- Division of Genomics of Development and Disease, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Alicia Oshlack
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Australia.,School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Melissa H Little
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Australia.,Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Alexander N Combes
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Australia.,Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
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13
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Combes AN, Zappia L, Er PX, Oshlack A, Little MH. Single-cell analysis reveals congruence between kidney organoids and human fetal kidney. Genome Med 2019; 11:3. [PMID: 30674341 DOI: 10.0.4.162/s13073-019-0615-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 05/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human kidney organoids hold promise for studying development, disease modelling and drug screening. However, the utility of stem cell-derived kidney tissues will depend on how faithfully these replicate normal fetal development at the level of cellular identity and complexity. METHODS Here, we present an integrated analysis of single cell datasets from human kidney organoids and human fetal kidney to assess similarities and differences between the component cell types. RESULTS Clusters in the combined dataset contained cells from both organoid and fetal kidney with transcriptional congruence for key stromal, endothelial and nephron cell type-specific markers. Organoid enriched neural, glial and muscle progenitor populations were also evident. Major transcriptional differences between organoid and human tissue were likely related to technical artefacts. Cell type-specific comparisons revealed differences in stromal, endothelial and nephron progenitor cell types including expression of WNT2B in the human fetal kidney stroma. CONCLUSIONS This study supports the fidelity of kidney organoids as models of the developing kidney and affirms their potential in disease modelling and drug screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander N Combes
- Department of Anatomy & Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
| | - Luke Zappia
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- School of Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Pei Xuan Er
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Alicia Oshlack
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- School of Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Melissa H Little
- Department of Anatomy & Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
- School of Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
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14
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Combes AN, Zappia L, Er PX, Oshlack A, Little MH. Single-cell analysis reveals congruence between kidney organoids and human fetal kidney. Genome Med 2019; 11:3. [PMID: 30674341 PMCID: PMC6345028 DOI: 10.1186/s13073-019-0615-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Human kidney organoids hold promise for studying development, disease modelling and drug screening. However, the utility of stem cell-derived kidney tissues will depend on how faithfully these replicate normal fetal development at the level of cellular identity and complexity. Methods Here, we present an integrated analysis of single cell datasets from human kidney organoids and human fetal kidney to assess similarities and differences between the component cell types. Results Clusters in the combined dataset contained cells from both organoid and fetal kidney with transcriptional congruence for key stromal, endothelial and nephron cell type-specific markers. Organoid enriched neural, glial and muscle progenitor populations were also evident. Major transcriptional differences between organoid and human tissue were likely related to technical artefacts. Cell type-specific comparisons revealed differences in stromal, endothelial and nephron progenitor cell types including expression of WNT2B in the human fetal kidney stroma. Conclusions This study supports the fidelity of kidney organoids as models of the developing kidney and affirms their potential in disease modelling and drug screening. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13073-019-0615-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander N Combes
- Department of Anatomy & Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. .,Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
| | - Luke Zappia
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,School of Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Pei Xuan Er
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Alicia Oshlack
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,School of Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Melissa H Little
- Department of Anatomy & Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. .,Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. .,School of Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. .,Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
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15
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O'Brien LL, Combes AN, Short KM, Lindström NO, Whitney PH, Cullen-McEwen LA, Ju A, Abdelhalim A, Michos O, Bertram JF, Smyth IM, Little MH, McMahon AP. Wnt11 directs nephron progenitor polarity and motile behavior ultimately determining nephron endowment. eLife 2018; 7:e40392. [PMID: 30516471 PMCID: PMC6281319 DOI: 10.7554/elife.40392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
A normal endowment of nephrons in the mammalian kidney requires a balance of nephron progenitor self-renewal and differentiation throughout development. Here, we provide evidence for a novel action of ureteric branch tip-derived Wnt11 in progenitor cell organization and interactions within the nephrogenic niche, ultimately determining nephron endowment. In Wnt11 mutants, nephron progenitors dispersed from their restricted niche, intermixing with interstitial progenitors. Nephron progenitor differentiation was accelerated, kidneys were significantly smaller, and the nephron progenitor pool was prematurely exhausted, halving the final nephron count. Interestingly, RNA-seq revealed no significant differences in gene expression. Live imaging of nephron progenitors showed that in the absence of Wnt11 they lose stable attachments to the ureteric branch tips, continuously detaching and reattaching. Further, the polarized distribution of several markers within nephron progenitors is disrupted. Together these data highlight the importance of Wnt11 signaling in directing nephron progenitor behavior which determines a normal nephrogenic program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori L O'Brien
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Eli and Edythe Broad CIRM Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell ResearchKeck School of Medicine, University of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesUnited States
| | - Alexander N Combes
- Institute for Molecular BioscienceThe University of QueenslandBrisbaneAustralia
- Department of Anatomy and NeuroscienceThe University of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
- Murdoch Children’s Research InstituteRoyal Children's HospitalMelbourneAustralia
| | - Kieran M Short
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, Monash Biomedicine Discovery InstituteMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
- Development and Stem Cells Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery InstituteMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Nils O Lindström
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Eli and Edythe Broad CIRM Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell ResearchKeck School of Medicine, University of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesUnited States
| | - Peter H Whitney
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Eli and Edythe Broad CIRM Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell ResearchKeck School of Medicine, University of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesUnited States
| | - Luise A Cullen-McEwen
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, Monash Biomedicine Discovery InstituteMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Adler Ju
- Institute for Molecular BioscienceThe University of QueenslandBrisbaneAustralia
| | - Ahmed Abdelhalim
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Eli and Edythe Broad CIRM Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell ResearchKeck School of Medicine, University of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesUnited States
| | - Odyssé Michos
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Eli and Edythe Broad CIRM Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell ResearchKeck School of Medicine, University of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesUnited States
| | - John F Bertram
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, Monash Biomedicine Discovery InstituteMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Ian M Smyth
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, Monash Biomedicine Discovery InstituteMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
- Development and Stem Cells Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery InstituteMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Melissa H Little
- Institute for Molecular BioscienceThe University of QueenslandBrisbaneAustralia
- Department of Anatomy and NeuroscienceThe University of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
- Murdoch Children’s Research InstituteRoyal Children's HospitalMelbourneAustralia
- Department of PediatricsUniversity of MelbourneParkvilleAustralia
| | - Andrew P McMahon
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Eli and Edythe Broad CIRM Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell ResearchKeck School of Medicine, University of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesUnited States
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16
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Short KM, Combes AN, Lisnyak V, Lefevre JG, Jones LK, Little MH, Hamilton NA, Smyth IM. Branching morphogenesis in the developing kidney is not impacted by nephron formation or integration. eLife 2018; 7:38992. [PMID: 30063208 PMCID: PMC6115188 DOI: 10.7554/elife.38992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Branching morphogenesis of the ureteric bud is integral to kidney development; establishing the collecting ducts of the adult organ and driving organ expansion via peripheral interactions with nephron progenitor cells. A recent study suggested that termination of tip branching within the developing kidney involved stochastic exhaustion in response to nephron formation, with such a termination event representing a unifying developmental process evident in many organs. To examine this possibility, we have profiled the impact of nephron formation and maturation on elaboration of the ureteric bud during mouse kidney development. We find a distinct absence of random branch termination events within the kidney or evidence that nephrogenesis impacts the branching program or cell proliferation in either tip or progenitor cell niches. Instead, organogenesis proceeds in a manner indifferent to the development of these structures. Hence, stochastic cessation of branching is not a unifying developmental feature in all branching organs. During development and before birth, many organs develop from branched tubes. Whether forming the airways of the lungs, the collecting ducts of the kidneys or the milk ducts of the breast, there are many similarities between these structures. Given their shared tree-like structures, one possibility is that these tissues all form through the same general process. A key challenge is understanding why branched networks develop and pattern in such a way as to assume their functional roles in the adult organ. A unifying theory, which proposes that certain tips stop growing in a random manner, has been proposed to solve this problem. In this theory, the branched mammary gland structures stop growing when the tips of the structure impinge on neighbouring branches. In the kidney, this cessation has been proposed to occur when nephrons – the structures that filter urine from blood – form near the end of the collecting ducts. By growing kidneys in the laboratory and studying developing kidneys in mice, Short et al. investigated whether nephrons do affect collecting duct growth and branch development. The results of these experiments instead suggest that nephron formation has no effect on duct growth or branching. The nephrons also do not appear to affect how quickly the duct cells grow and divide. Moreover, there is no evidence that the cell proliferation in individual branch tips ceases randomly by any other mechanism. Overall, the experiments Short et al. performed suggest that a unifying theory of branching in developing organs may not hold true, at least not in the way that has been envisioned previously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kieran M Short
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Alexander N Combes
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Australia.,Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Valerie Lisnyak
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - James G Lefevre
- Division of Genomics of Development and Disease, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Lynelle K Jones
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Melissa H Little
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Australia.,Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia.,Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Nicholas A Hamilton
- Division of Genomics of Development and Disease, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Ian M Smyth
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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17
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Lambert B, MacLean AL, Fletcher AG, Combes AN, Little MH, Byrne HM. Bayesian inference of agent-based models: a tool for studying kidney branching morphogenesis. J Math Biol 2018; 76:1673-1697. [PMID: 29392399 PMCID: PMC5906521 DOI: 10.1007/s00285-018-1208-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2017] [Revised: 01/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The adult mammalian kidney has a complex, highly-branched collecting duct epithelium that arises as a ureteric bud sidebranch from an epithelial tube known as the nephric duct. Subsequent branching of the ureteric bud to form the collecting duct tree is regulated by subcellular interactions between the epithelium and a population of mesenchymal cells that surround the tips of outgrowing branches. The mesenchymal cells produce glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), that binds with RET receptors on the surface of the epithelial cells to stimulate several subcellular pathways in the epithelium. Such interactions are known to be a prerequisite for normal branching development, although competing theories exist for their role in morphogenesis. Here we introduce the first agent-based model of ex vivo kidney uretic branching. Through comparison with experimental data, we show that growth factor-regulated growth mechanisms can explain early epithelial cell branching, but only if epithelial cell division depends in a switch-like way on the local growth factor concentration; cell division occurring only if the driving growth factor level exceeds a threshold. We also show how a recently-developed method, "Approximate Approximate Bayesian Computation", can be used to infer key model parameters, and reveal the dependency between the parameters controlling a growth factor-dependent growth switch. These results are consistent with a requirement for signals controlling proliferation and chemotaxis, both of which are previously identified roles for GDNF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Lambert
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Adam L MacLean
- Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, Andrew Wiles Building, Woodstock Road, Oxford, UK
- Department of Mathematics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Alexander G Fletcher
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Sheffield, Hicks Building, Hounsfield Road, Sheffield, S3 7RH, UK
- Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Firth Court, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - Alexander N Combes
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3010, Australia
- Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Melissa H Little
- Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Helen M Byrne
- Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, Andrew Wiles Building, Woodstock Road, Oxford, UK
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18
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Combes AN, Wilson S, Phipson B, Binnie BB, Ju A, Lawlor KT, Cebrian C, Walton SL, Smyth IM, Moritz KM, Kopan R, Oshlack A, Little MH. Haploinsufficiency for the Six2 gene increases nephron progenitor proliferation promoting branching and nephron number. Kidney Int 2017; 93:589-598. [PMID: 29217079 DOI: 10.1016/j.kint.2017.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2017] [Revised: 09/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The regulation of final nephron number in the kidney is poorly understood. Cessation of nephron formation occurs when the self-renewing nephron progenitor population commits to differentiation. Transcription factors within this progenitor population, such as SIX2, are assumed to control expression of genes promoting self-renewal such that homozygous Six2 deletion results in premature commitment and an early halt to kidney development. In contrast, Six2 heterozygotes were assumed to be unaffected. Using quantitative morphometry, we found a paradoxical 18% increase in ureteric branching and final nephron number in Six2 heterozygotes, despite evidence for reduced levels of SIX2 protein and transcript. This was accompanied by a clear shift in nephron progenitor identity with a distinct subset of downregulated progenitor genes such as Cited1 and Meox1 while other genes were unaffected. The net result was an increase in nephron progenitor proliferation, as assessed by elevated EdU (5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine) labeling, an increase in MYC protein, and transcriptional upregulation of MYC target genes. Heterozygosity for Six2 on an Fgf20-/- background resulted in premature differentiation of the progenitor population, confirming that progenitor regulation is compromised in Six2 heterozygotes. Overall, our studies reveal a unique dose response of nephron progenitors to the level of SIX2 protein in which the role of SIX2 in progenitor proliferation versus self-renewal is separable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander N Combes
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Sean Wilson
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Belinda Phipson
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Brandon B Binnie
- Division of Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Adler Ju
- Division of Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Kynan T Lawlor
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Cristina Cebrian
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Sarah L Walton
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Centre for Children's Health Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Ian M Smyth
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, Australia; Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Karen M Moritz
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Centre for Children's Health Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Raphael Kopan
- Division of Developmental Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Alicia Oshlack
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Melissa H Little
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
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19
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Lefevre JG, Chiu HS, Combes AN, Vanslambrouck JM, Ju A, Hamilton NA, Little MH. Self-organisation after embryonic kidney dissociation is driven via selective adhesion of ureteric epithelial cells. Development 2017; 144:1087-1096. [PMID: 28174247 DOI: 10.1242/dev.140228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Human pluripotent stem cells, after directed differentiation in vitro, can spontaneously generate complex tissues via self-organisation of the component cells. Self-organisation can also reform embryonic organ structure after tissue disruption. It has previously been demonstrated that dissociated embryonic kidneys can recreate component epithelial and mesenchymal relationships sufficient to allow continued kidney morphogenesis. Here, we investigate the timing and underlying mechanisms driving self-organisation after dissociation of the embryonic kidney using time-lapse imaging, high-resolution confocal analyses and mathematical modelling. Organotypic self-organisation sufficient for nephron initiation was observed within a 24 h period. This involved cell movement, with structure emerging after the clustering of ureteric epithelial cells, a process consistent with models of random cell movement with preferential cell adhesion. Ureteric epithelialisation rapidly followed the formation of ureteric cell clusters with the reformation of nephron-forming niches representing a later event. Disruption of P-cadherin interactions was seen to impair this ureteric epithelial cell clustering without affecting epithelial maturation. This understanding could facilitate improved regulation of patterning within organoids and facilitate kidney engineering approaches guided by cell-cell self-organisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- James G Lefevre
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane 4072, Australia
| | - Han S Chiu
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane 4072, Australia
| | - Alexander N Combes
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane 4072, Australia.,Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, Faculty of Science, University of Melbourne, Parkville 3052, Australia.,Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Melbourne 3052, Australia
| | - Jessica M Vanslambrouck
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane 4072, Australia.,Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Melbourne 3052, Australia
| | - Ali Ju
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane 4072, Australia.,Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Brisbane 4102, Australia
| | - Nicholas A Hamilton
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane 4072, Australia
| | - Melissa H Little
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane 4072, Australia.,Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Melbourne 3052, Australia.,Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville 3052, Australia
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20
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Combes AN, Lefevre JG, Wilson S, Hamilton NA, Little MH. Cap mesenchyme cell swarming during kidney development is influenced by attraction, repulsion, and adhesion to the ureteric tip. Dev Biol 2016; 418:297-306. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2016.06.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Revised: 06/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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21
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Lefevre JG, Combes AN, Little MH, Hamilton NA. Analysed cap mesenchyme track data from live imaging of mouse kidney development. Data Brief 2016; 9:149-54. [PMID: 27642621 PMCID: PMC5018081 DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2016.08.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2016] [Revised: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 08/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
This article provides detailed information on manually tracked cap mesenchyme cells from timelapse imaging of multiple ex vivo embryonic mouse kidneys. Cells were imaged for up to 18 h at 15 or 20 min intervals, and multiple cell divisions were tracked. Positional data is supplemented with a range of information including the relative location of the closest ureteric tip and a correction for drift due to bulk movement and tip growth. A subset of tracks were annotated to indicate the presence of processes attached to the ureteric epithelium. The calculations used for drift correction are described, as are the main methods used in the analysis of this data for the purpose of describing cap cell motility. The outcomes of this analysis are discussed in “Cap mesenchyme cell swarming during kidney development is influenced by attraction, repulsion, and adhesion to the ureteric tip” (A.N. Combes, J.G. Lefevre, S. Wilson, N.A. Hamilton, M.H. Little, 2016) [1].
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Affiliation(s)
- James G Lefevre
- Division of Genomics of Development and Disease, Institute for Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Alexander N Combes
- Department of Anatomy & Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3010 VIC, Australia; Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Melbourne, 3052 VIC, Australia
| | - Melissa H Little
- Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Flemington Rd, Parkville, Melbourne, 3052 VIC, Australia; Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3010 VIC, Australia
| | - Nicholas A Hamilton
- Division of Genomics of Development and Disease, Institute for Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; Division of Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
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Abstract
Kidney growth is dependent on functional interactions between mesenchymal nephron progenitors, the ureteric epithelium and surrounding stroma, which together make up the nephrogenic niche. Signalling between these populations regulates nephron progenitor maintenance, branching morphogenesis and nephron induction. Nephron endowment is sensitive to changes in the size of the nephron progenitor pool and to decreases in factors that promote branching morphogenesis. However, determining the morphogenic consequences of these disruptions in vivo has been challenging as quantitating kidney morphogenesis is hampered by the size, opacity and three-dimensional complexity of the tissue. The recent application of whole mount immunofluorescence and tissue clearing, coupled with multiscale imaging and quantitative analysis, has begun to give insights into the dynamics of kidney formation. This review focuses on how the quantitative nature of this approach has enabled mathematical modelling of cell cycle lengths, growth rates, cell number and branching rates and is advancing our understanding of kidney organogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander N Combes
- Department of Anatomy & Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Wainwright EN, Wilhelm D, Combes AN, Little MH, Koopman P. ROBO2 restricts the nephrogenic field and regulates Wolffian duct-nephrogenic cord separation. Dev Biol 2015; 404:88-102. [PMID: 26116176 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2015.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2015] [Revised: 05/28/2015] [Accepted: 05/30/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
ROBO2 plays a key role in regulating ureteric bud (UB) formation in the embryo, with mutations in humans and mice leading to supernumerary kidneys. Previous studies have established that the number and position of UB outgrowths is determined by the domain of metanephric mesenchymal Gdnf expression, which is expanded anteriorly in Robo2 mouse mutants. To clarify how this phenotype arises, we used high-resolution 3D imaging to reveal an increase in the number of nephrogenic cord cells, leading to extension of the metanephric mesenchyme field in Robo2-null mouse embryos. Ex vivo experiments suggested a dependence of this effect on proliferative signals from the Wolffian duct. Loss of Robo2 resulted in a failure of the normal separation of the mesenchyme from the Wolffian duct/ureteric epithelium, suggesting that aberrant juxtaposition of these two compartments in Robo2-null mice exposes the mesenchyme to abnormally high levels of proliferative stimuli. Our data suggest a new model in which SLIT-ROBO signalling acts not by attenuating Gdnf expression or activity, but instead by limiting epithelial/mesenchymal interactions in the nascent metanephros and restricting the extent of the nephrogenic field. These insights illuminate the aetiology of multiplex kidney formation in human individuals with ROBO2 mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elanor N Wainwright
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Dagmar Wilhelm
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Alexander N Combes
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Melissa H Little
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Peter Koopman
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia.
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24
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Cerruti B, Puliafito A, Shewan AM, Yu W, Combes AN, Little MH, Chianale F, Primo L, Serini G, Mostov KE, Celani A, Gamba A. Polarity, cell division, and out-of-equilibrium dynamics control the growth of epithelial structures. J Gen Physiol 2013. [DOI: 10.1085/jgp.1425oia43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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25
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Packard A, Georgas K, Michos O, Riccio P, Cebrian C, Combes AN, Ju A, Ferrer-Vaquer A, Hadjantonakis AK, Zong H, Little MH, Costantini F. Luminal mitosis drives epithelial cell dispersal within the branching ureteric bud. Dev Cell 2013; 27:319-30. [PMID: 24183650 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2013.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2013] [Revised: 08/26/2013] [Accepted: 09/03/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The ureteric bud is an epithelial tube that undergoes branching morphogenesis to form the renal collecting system. Although development of a normal kidney depends on proper ureteric bud morphogenesis, the cellular events underlying this process remain obscure. Here, we used time-lapse microscopy together with several genetic labeling methods to observe ureteric bud cell behaviors in developing mouse kidneys. We observed an unexpected cell behavior in the branching tips of the ureteric bud, which we term "mitosis-associated cell dispersal." Premitotic ureteric tip cells delaminate from the epithelium and divide within the lumen; although one daughter cell retains a basal process, allowing it to reinsert into the epithelium at the site of origin, the other daughter cell reinserts at a position one to three cell diameters away. Given the high rate of cell division in ureteric tips, this cellular behavior causes extensive epithelial cell rearrangements that may contribute to renal branching morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Packard
- Department of Genetics and Development, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
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26
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Cerruti B, Puliafito A, Shewan AM, Yu W, Combes AN, Little MH, Chianale F, Primo L, Serini G, Mostov KE, Celani A, Gamba A. Polarity, cell division, and out-of-equilibrium dynamics control the growth of epithelial structures. J Cell Biol 2013; 203:359-72. [PMID: 24145168 PMCID: PMC3812962 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201305044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The growth of a well-formed epithelial structure is governed by mechanical constraints, cellular apico-basal polarity, and spatially controlled cell division. Here we compared the predictions of a mathematical model of epithelial growth with the morphological analysis of 3D epithelial structures. In both in vitro cyst models and in developing epithelial structures in vivo, epithelial growth could take place close to or far from mechanical equilibrium, and was determined by the hierarchy of time-scales of cell division, cell-cell rearrangements, and lumen dynamics. Equilibrium properties could be inferred by the analysis of cell-cell contact topologies, and the nonequilibrium phenotype was altered by inhibiting ROCK activity. The occurrence of an aberrant multilumen phenotype was linked to fast nonequilibrium growth, even when geometric control of cell division was correctly enforced. We predicted and verified experimentally that slowing down cell division partially rescued a multilumen phenotype induced by altered polarity. These results improve our understanding of the development of epithelial organs and, ultimately, of carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedetta Cerruti
- Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment (IRCC), Candiolo 10060, Italy
- Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Roma “La Sapienza,” Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Alberto Puliafito
- Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment (IRCC), Candiolo 10060, Italy
| | - Annette M. Shewan
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Wei Yu
- Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143
| | - Alexander N. Combes
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Melissa H. Little
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Federica Chianale
- Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment (IRCC), Candiolo 10060, Italy
| | - Luca Primo
- Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment (IRCC), Candiolo 10060, Italy
- University of Torino, Torino 10124, Italy
| | - Guido Serini
- Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment (IRCC), Candiolo 10060, Italy
- University of Torino, Torino 10124, Italy
| | - Keith E. Mostov
- Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143
| | - Antonio Celani
- Unit “Physics of Biological Systems,” Institut Pasteur, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique URA 2171, Paris F-75015, France
| | - Andrea Gamba
- Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment (IRCC), Candiolo 10060, Italy
- Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Torino 10129, Italy
- Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Torino 10125, Italy
- Human Genetics Foundation, Torino 10126, Italy
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27
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Lefevre J, Marshall DJ, Combes AN, Ju AL, Little MH, Hamilton NA. Modelling cell turnover in a complex tissue during development. J Theor Biol 2013; 338:66-79. [PMID: 24018201 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2013.08.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2012] [Revised: 08/26/2013] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The growth of organs results from proliferation within distinct cellular compartments. Organ development also involves transitions between cell types and variations in cell cycle duration as development progresses, and is regulated by a balance between entry into the compartment, proliferation of cells within the compartment, acquisition of quiescence and exit from that cell state via differentiation or death. While it is important to understand how environmental or genetic alterations can perturb such development, most approaches employed to date are descriptive rather than quantitative. This is because the identification and quantification of such parameters, while tractable in vitro, is challenging in the context of a complex tissue in vivo. Here we present a new framework for determining cell turnover in developing organs in vivo that combines cumulative cell-labelling and quantification of distinct cell-cycle phases without assuming homogeneity of behaviour within that compartment. A mathematical model is given that allows the calculation of cell cycle length in the context of a specific biological example and assesses the uncertainty of this calculation due to incomplete knowledge of cell cycle dynamics. This includes the development of a two population model to quantify possible heterogeneity of cell cycle length within a compartment and estimate the aggregate proliferation rate. These models are demonstrated on data collected from a progenitor cell compartment within the developing mouse kidney, the cap mesenchyme. This tissue was labelled by cumulative infusion, volumetrically quantified across time, and temporally analysed for the proportion of cells undergoing proliferation. By combining the cell cycle length predicted by the model with measurements of total cell population and mitotic rate, this approach facilitates the quantification of exit from this compartment without the need for a direct marker of that event. As a method specifically designed with assumptions appropriate to developing organs we believe this approach will be applicable to a range of developmental systems, facilitating estimations of cell cycle length and compartment behaviour that extend beyond simple comparisons of mitotic rates between normal and perturbed states.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Lefevre
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
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28
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Rakoczy J, Fernandez-Valverde SL, Glazov EA, Wainwright EN, Sato T, Takada S, Combes AN, Korbie DJ, Miller D, Grimmond SM, Little MH, Asahara H, Mattick JS, Taft RJ, Wilhelm D. MicroRNAs-140-5p/140-3p modulate Leydig cell numbers in the developing mouse testis. Biol Reprod 2013; 88:143. [PMID: 23616593 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.113.107607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have been shown to play key regulatory roles in a range of biological processes, including cell differentiation and development. To identify miRNAs that participate in gonad differentiation, a fundamental and tightly regulated developmental process, we examined miRNA expression profiles at the time of sex determination and during the early fetal differentiation of mouse testes and ovaries using high-throughput sequencing. We identified several miRNAs that were expressed in a sexually dimorphic pattern, including several members of the let-7 family, miR-378, and miR-140-3p. We focused our analysis on the most highly expressed, sexually dimorphic miRNA, miR-140-3p, and found that both miR-140-3p and its more lowly expressed counterpart, the previously annotated guide strand, miR-140-5p, are testis enriched and expressed in testis cords. Analysis of the miR-140-5p/miR-140-3p-null mouse revealed a significant increase in the number of Leydig cells in the developing XY gonad, strongly suggesting an important role for miR-140-5p/miR-140-3p in testis differentiation in mouse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Rakoczy
- Division of Molecular Genetics and Development, Institute for Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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29
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O'Sullivan L, Combes AN, Moritz KM. Epigenetics and developmental programming of adult onset diseases. Pediatr Nephrol 2012; 27:2175-82. [PMID: 22302599 DOI: 10.1007/s00467-012-2108-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2011] [Revised: 12/15/2011] [Accepted: 12/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Maternal perturbations or sub-optimal conditions during development are now recognized as contributing to the onset of many diseases manifesting in adulthood. This "developmental programming" of disease has been explored using animal models allowing insights into the potential mechanisms involved. Impaired renal development, resulting in a low nephron number, has been identified as a common outcome that is likely to contribute to the development of hypertension in the offspring as adults. Changes in other organs and systems, including the heart and the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, have also been found. Evidence has recently emerged suggesting that epigenetic changes may occur as a result of developmental programming and result in permanent changes in the expression patterns of particular genes. Such epigenetic modifications may be responsible not only for an increased susceptibility to disease for an individual, but indirectly for the establishment of a disease state in a subsequent generation. Further research in this field, particularly examination as to whether epigenetic changes to genes affecting kidney development do occur, are essential to understanding the underlying mechanisms of developmental programming of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee O'Sullivan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, 4067, Australia
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30
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Combes AN, Bowles J, Feng CW, Chiu HS, Khoo PL, Jackson A, Little MH, Tam PPL, Koopman P. Expression and functional analysis of Dkk1 during early gonadal development. Sex Dev 2011; 5:124-30. [PMID: 21654186 DOI: 10.1159/000327709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/28/2011] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
WNT signalling plays a central role in mammalian sex determination by promoting ovarian development and repressing aspects of testis development in the early gonad. Dickkopf homolog 1 (DKK1) is a WNT signalling antagonist that plays critical roles in multiple developmental systems by modulating WNT activity. Here, we examined the role of DKK1 in mouse sex determination and early gonadal development. Dkk1 mRNA was upregulated sex-specifically during testis differentiation, suggesting that DKK1 could repress WNT signalling in the developing testis. However, we observed overtly normal testis development in Dkk1-null XY gonads, and found no significant upregulation of Axin2 or Sp5 that would indicate increased canonical WNT signalling. Nor did we find significant differences in expression of key markers of testis and ovarian development. We propose that DKK1 may play a protective role that is not unmasked by loss-of-function in the absence of other stressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- A N Combes
- Division of Molecular Genetics and Development, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld., Australia
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31
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Bagheri-Fam S, Argentaro A, Svingen T, Combes AN, Sinclair AH, Koopman P, Harley VR. Defective survival of proliferating Sertoli cells and androgen receptor function in a mouse model of the ATR-X syndrome. Hum Mol Genet 2011; 20:2213-24. [PMID: 21427128 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddr109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
X-linked ATR-X (alpha thalassemia, mental retardation, X-linked) syndrome in males is characterized by mental retardation, facial dysmorphism, alpha thalassemia and urogenital abnormalities, including small testes. It is unclear how mutations in the chromatin-remodeling protein ATRX cause these highly specific clinical features, since ATRX is widely expressed during organ development. To investigate the mechanisms underlying the testicular defects observed in ATR-X syndrome, we generated ScAtrxKO (Sertoli cell Atrx knockout) mice with Atrx specifically inactivated in the supporting cell lineage (Sertoli cells) of the mouse testis. ScAtrxKO mice developed small testes and discontinuous tubules, due to prolonged G2/M phase and apoptosis of proliferating Sertoli cells during fetal life. Apoptosis might be a consequence of the cell cycle defect. We also found that the onset of spermatogenesis was delayed in postnatal mice, with a range of spermatogenesis defects evident in adult ScAtrxKO mice. ATRX and the androgen receptor (AR) physically interact in the testis and in the Sertoli cell line TM4 and co-operatively activate the promoter of Rhox5, an important direct AR target. We also demonstrate that ATRX directly binds to the Rhox5 promoter in TM4 cells. Finally, gene expression of Rhox5 and of another AR-dependent gene, Spinlw1, was reduced in ScAtrxKO testes. These data suggest that ATRX can directly enhance the expression of androgen-dependent genes through physical interaction with AR. Recruitment of ATRX by DNA sequence-specific transcription factors could be a general mechanism by which ATRX achieves tissue-specific transcriptional regulation which could explain the highly specific clinical features of ATR-X syndrome when ATRX is mutated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Bagheri-Fam
- Molecular Genetics and Development Division, Prince Henry’s Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia
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33
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Combes AN, Spiller CM, Harley VR, Sinclair AH, Dunwoodie SL, Wilhelm D, Koopman P. Gonadal defects in Cited2 -mutant mice indicate a role for SF1 in both testis and ovary differentiation. Int J Dev Biol 2010; 54:683-9. [DOI: 10.1387/ijdb.092920ac] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Combes AN, Lesieur E, Harley VR, Sinclair AH, Little MH, Wilhelm D, Koopman P. Three-dimensional visualization of testis cord morphogenesis, a novel tubulogenic mechanism in development. Dev Dyn 2009; 238:1033-41. [PMID: 19334288 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.21925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Testis cords are specialized tubes essential for generation and export of sperm, yet the mechanisms directing their formation, and the regulation of their position, size, shape, and number remain unclear. Here, we use a novel fluorescence-based three-dimensional modeling approach to show that cords initially form as a network of irregular cell clusters that are subsequently remodeled to form regular parallel loops, joined by a flattened plexus at the mesonephric side. Variation in cord number and structure demonstrates that cord specification is not stereotypic, although cord alignment and diameter becomes relatively consistent, implicating compensatory growth mechanisms. Branched, fused, and internalized cords were commonly observed. We conclude that the tubule-like structure of testis cords arise through a novel form of morphogenesis consisting of coalescence, partitioning, and remodeling. The methods we describe are applicable to investigating defects in testis cord development in mouse models, and more broadly, studying morphogenesis of other tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander N Combes
- Division of Molecular Genetics and Development, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
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35
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Georgas K, Rumballe B, Valerius MT, Chiu HS, Thiagarajan RD, Lesieur E, Aronow BJ, Brunskill EW, Combes AN, Tang D, Taylor D, Grimmond SM, Potter SS, McMahon AP, Little MH. Analysis of early nephron patterning reveals a role for distal RV proliferation in fusion to the ureteric tip via a cap mesenchyme-derived connecting segment. Dev Biol 2009; 332:273-86. [PMID: 19501082 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2009.05.578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2009] [Revised: 05/28/2009] [Accepted: 05/29/2009] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
While nephron formation is known to be initiated by a mesenchyme-to-epithelial transition of the cap mesenchyme to form a renal vesicle (RV), the subsequent patterning of the nephron and fusion with the ureteric component of the kidney to form a patent contiguous uriniferous tubule has not been fully characterized. Using dual section in situ hybridization (SISH)/immunohistochemistry (IHC) we have revealed distinct distal/proximal patterning of Notch, BMP and Wnt pathway components within the RV stage nephron. Quantitation of mitoses and Cyclin D1 expression indicated that cell proliferation was higher in the distal RV, reflecting the differential developmental programs of the proximal and distal populations. A small number of RV genes were also expressed in the early connecting segment of the nephron. Dual ISH/IHC combined with serial section immunofluorescence and 3D reconstruction revealed that fusion occurs between the late RV and adjacent ureteric tip via a process that involves loss of the intervening ureteric epithelial basement membrane and insertion of cells expressing RV markers into the ureteric tip. Using Six2-eGFPCre x R26R-lacZ mice, we demonstrate that these cells are derived from the cap mesenchyme and not the ureteric epithelium. Hence, both nephron patterning and patency are evident at the late renal vesicle stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kylie Georgas
- NHMRC Principal Research Fellow, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
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36
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Svingen T, Wilhelm D, Combes AN, Hosking B, Harley VR, Sinclair AH, Koopman P. Ex vivo magnetofection: a novel strategy for the study of gene function in mouse organogenesis. Dev Dyn 2009; 238:956-64. [PMID: 19301396 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.21919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene function during mouse development is often studied through the production and analysis of transgenic and knockout models. However, these techniques are time- and resource-consuming, and require specialized equipment and expertise. We have established a new protocol for functional studies that combines organ culture of explanted fetal tissues with microinjection and magnetically induced transfection ("magnetofection") of gene expression constructs. As proof-of-principle, we magnetofected cDNA constructs into genital ridge tissue as a means of gain-of-function analysis, and shRNA constructs for loss-of-function analysis. Ectopic expression of Sry induced female-to-male sex-reversal, whereas knockdown of Sox9 expression caused male-to-female sex-reversal, consistent with the known functions of these genes. Furthermore, ectopic expression of Tmem184a, a gene of unknown function, in female genital ridges, resulted in failure of gonocytes to enter meiosis. This technique will likely be applicable to the study of gene function in a broader range of developing organs and tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terje Svingen
- Division of Molecular Genetics and Development, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
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37
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Combes AN, Wilhelm D, Davidson T, Dejana E, Harley V, Sinclair A, Koopman P. Endothelial cell migration directs testis cord formation. Dev Biol 2008; 326:112-20. [PMID: 19041858 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2008.10.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2008] [Revised: 10/07/2008] [Accepted: 10/27/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
While the molecular cues initiating testis determination have been identified in mammals, the cellular interactions involved in generating a functional testis with cord and interstitial compartments remain poorly understood. Previous studies have shown that testis cord formation relies on cell migration from the adjacent mesonephros, and have implicated immigrant peritubular myoid cells in this process. Here, we used recombinant organ culture experiments to show that immigrant cells are endothelial, not peritubular myoid or other interstitial cells. Inhibition of endothelial cell migration and vascular organisation using a blocking antibody to VE-cadherin, also disrupted the development of testis cords. Our data reveal that migration of endothelial cells is required for testis cord formation, consistent with increasing evidence of a broader role for endothelial cells in establishing tissue architecture during organogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander N Combes
- Division of Molecular Genetics and Development, Institute for Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
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38
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Wilhelm D, Hiramatsu R, Mizusaki H, Widjaja L, Combes AN, Kanai Y, Koopman P. SOX9 Regulates Prostaglandin D Synthase Gene Transcription in Vivo to Ensure Testis Development. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:10553-60. [PMID: 17277314 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m609578200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In mammals, male sex is determined by the Y-chromosomal gene Sry (sex-determining region of Y chromosome). The expression of Sry and subsequently Sox9 (SRY box containing gene 9) in precursors of the supporting cell lineage results in the differentiation of these cells into Sertoli cells. Sertoli cells in turn orchestrate the development of all other male-specific cell types. To ensure that Sertoli cells differentiate in sufficient numbers to induce normal testis development, the early testis produces prostaglandin D(2) (PGD(2)), which recruits cells of the supporting cell lineage to a Sertoli cell fate. Here we show that the gene encoding prostaglandin D synthase (Pgds), the enzyme that produces PGD(2), is expressed in Sertoli cells immediately after the onset of Sox9 expression. Promoter analysis in silico and in vitro identified a paired SOX/SRY binding site. Interestingly, only SOX9, and not SRY, was able to bind as a dimer to this site and transactivate the Pgds promoter. In line with this, a transgenic mouse model showed that Pgds expression is not affected by ectopic Sry expression. Finally, chromatin immunoprecipitation proved that SOX9 but not SRY binds to the Pgds promoter in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dagmar Wilhelm
- Division of Molecular Genetics and Development, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld 4072, Australia
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Wilhelm D, Martinson F, Bradford S, Wilson MJ, Combes AN, Beverdam A, Bowles J, Mizusaki H, Koopman P. Sertoli cell differentiation is induced both cell-autonomously and through prostaglandin signaling during mammalian sex determination. Dev Biol 2005; 287:111-24. [PMID: 16185683 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.08.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2005] [Revised: 08/18/2005] [Accepted: 08/22/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We have raised an antibody specifically recognizing endogenous mouse SRY protein and used it to investigate the molecular and cellular mode of action of SRY in testis determination. We find that expression of SRY protein closely mirrors the expression of Sry mRNA in mouse genital ridges and is detectable for 6 to 8 h after the mRNA ceases to be detectable. The subset of somatic cells that expresses SRY begins to express SOX9 almost immediately. Since these SOX9-positive cells go on to develop as Sertoli cells, it appears that SRY expression marks the pre-Sertoli cell lineage and leads to up-regulation of Sox9 expression cell-autonomously. However, a small proportion of SOX9-positive cells did not appear to express SRY, possibly reflecting the additional involvement of paracrine signaling in activating Sox9 transcription in these cells. We confirmed by ex vivo cell mixing experiments that SRY is able to engage receptor-mediated signaling to up-regulate Sox9 expression. Finally, we showed by employing specific inhibitors that the causative signaling molecule is prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) and that PGD2 can induce Sox9 transcription in cultured XX gonads. Our data indicate a mechanism whereby Sry uses both a cell-autonomous mechanism and a PGD2-mediated signaling mechanism to stimulate expression of Sox9 and induce the differentiation of Sertoli cells in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dagmar Wilhelm
- Division of Molecular Genetics and Development, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld 4072, Australia
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Loffler KA, Combes AN, Wilhelm D, Beverdam A, Bowles J, Koopman P. Pisrt1, a gene implicated in XX sex reversal, is expressed in gonads of both sexes during mouse development. Mol Genet Metab 2005; 86:286-92. [PMID: 16137905 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymgme.2005.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2005] [Accepted: 06/28/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
XX sex reversal syndromes not involving Sry provide an opportunity to identify and study genes important for sexual development. The polled intersex syndrome (PIS) in goats, which shares some features with blepharophimosis, ptosis, epicanthus inversus syndrome (BPES) in humans, exemplifies such syndromes. BPES is caused by defects in the forkhead transcription factor gene FOXL2, while PIS is caused by a large deletion of goat chromosome 1q43 that affects transcription of the genes Pisrt1 and Foxl2. Pisrt1 is a non-translated gene that has a sexually dimorphic expression pattern in goats. Here, we describe the structure and expression of the mouse Pisrt1 locus, to investigate its likely role in ovarian development more broadly in mammals. This gene showed some sequence similarity, and was found in a similar genomic context, to its goat and human orthologues. Expression analyses indicated that Pisrt1 is transcribed, and its mRNA polyadenylated and exported to the cytoplasm, but no significant open reading frames were found in a 1.5kb mouse genomic region corresponding to goat Pisrt1. Pisrt1 transcripts were expressed very broadly among tissues of the developing mouse embryo, and at similar levels in male and female gonads at each stage examined, as determined by in situ hybridisation and RT-PCR. This profile of expression suggests that Pisrt1 is unlikely to contribute to sex-specific events during gonadal development in mice and that divergent pathways of ovarian development operate among different mammalian species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly A Loffler
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld 4072, Australia
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