Completing the picture of field-grown cereal crops: a new method for detailed leaf surface models in wheat

BACKGROUND

The leaf angle distribution (LAD) is an important structural parameter of agricultural crops that influences light interception, radiation fluxes and consequently plant performance. Therefore, LAD and its parametrized form, the Beta distribution, is used in many photosynthesis models. However, in field cultivations, these parameters are difficult to assess and cereal crops in particular pose challenges since their leaves are thin, flexible, and often bent and twisted around their own axis. To our knowledge, there is only a very limited set of methods currently available to calculate LADs of field-grown cereal crops that explicitly takes these special morphological properties into account.

RESULTS

In this study, a new processing pipeline is introduced that allows for the generation of realistic leaf surface models and the analysis of LADs of field-grown cereal crops from 3D point clouds. The data acquisition is based on a convenient stereo imaging setup. The approach was validated with different artificial targets and results on the accuracy of the 3D reconstruction, leaf surface modeling and calculated LAD are given. The mean error of the 3D reconstruction was below 1 mm for an inclination angle range between 0° and 75° and the leaf surface could be quantified with an average accuracy of 90%. The concordance correlation coefficient (CCC) of 99.6% (p-value = [Formula: see text]) indicated a high correlation between the reconstructed inclination angle and the identity line. The LADs for bent leaves were reconstructed with a mean error of 0.21° and a standard deviation of 1.55°. As an additional parameter, the insertion angle was reconstructed for the artificial leaf model with an average error < 5°. Finally, the method was tested with images of field-grown cereal crops and Beta functions were approximated from the calculated LADs. The mean CCC between reconstructed LAD and calculated Beta function was 0.66. According to Cohen, this indicates a high correlation.

CONCLUSION

This study shows that our image processing pipeline can reconstruct the complex leaf shape of cereal crops from stereo images. The high accuracy of the approach was demonstrated with several validation experiments including artificial leaf targets. The derived leaf models were used to calculate LADs for artificial leaves and naturally grown cereal crops. This helps to better understand the influence of the canopy structure on light absorption and plant performance and allows for a more precise parametrization of photosynthesis models via the derived Beta distributions.

Linking photosynthesis and yield reveals a strategy to improve light use efficiency in a climbing bean breeding population

Photosynthesis drives plant physiology, biomass accumulation, and yield. Photosynthetic efficiency, specifically the operating efficiency of PSII (Fq'/Fm'), is highly responsive to actual growth conditions, especially to fluctuating photosynthetic photon fluence rate (PPFR). Under field conditions, plants constantly balance energy uptake to optimize growth. The dynamic regulation complicates the quantification of cumulative photochemical energy uptake based on the intercepted solar energy, its transduction into biomass, and the identification of efficient breeding lines. Here, we show significant effects on biomass related to genetic variation in photosynthetic efficiency of 178 climbing bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) lines. Under fluctuating conditions, the Fq'/Fm' was monitored throughout the growing period using hand-held and automated chlorophyll fluorescence phenotyping. The seasonal response of Fq'/Fm' to PPFR (ResponseG:PPFR) achieved significant correlations with biomass and yield, ranging from 0.33 to 0.35 and from 0.22 to 0.31 in two glasshouse and three field trials, respectively. Phenomic yield prediction outperformed genomic predictions for new environments in four trials under different growing conditions. Investigating genetic control over photosynthesis, one single nucleotide polymorphism (Chr09_37766289_13052) on chromosome 9 was significantly associated with ResponseG:PPFR in proximity to a candidate gene controlling chloroplast thylakoid formation. In conclusion, photosynthetic screening facilitates and accelerates selection for high yield potential.

Toward predicting photosynthetic efficiency and biomass gain in crop genotypes over a field season

Photosynthesis acclimates quickly to the fluctuating environment in order to optimize the absorption of sunlight energy, specifically the photosynthetic photon fluence rate (PPFR), to fuel plant growth. The conversion efficiency of intercepted PPFR to photochemical energy (ɛe) and to biomass (ɛc) are critical parameters to describe plant productivity over time. However, they mask the link of instantaneous photochemical energy uptake under specific conditions, that is, the operating efficiency of photosystem II (Fq'/Fm'), and biomass accumulation. Therefore, the identification of energy- and thus resource-efficient genotypes under changing environmental conditions is impeded. We long-term monitored Fq'/Fm' at the canopy level for 21 soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) and maize (Zea mays) genotypes under greenhouse and field conditions using automated chlorophyll fluorescence and spectral scans. Fq'/Fm' derived under incident sunlight during the entire growing season was modeled based on genotypic interactions with different environmental variables. This allowed us to cumulate the photochemical energy uptake and thus estimate ɛe noninvasively. ɛe ranged from 48% to 62%, depending on the genotype, and up to 9% of photochemical energy was transduced into biomass in the most efficient C4 maize genotype. Most strikingly, ɛe correlated with shoot biomass in seven independent experiments under varying conditions with up to r = 0.68. Thus, we estimated biomass production by integrating photosynthetic response to environmental stresses over the growing season and identified energy-efficient genotypes. This has great potential to improve crop growth models and to estimate the productivity of breeding lines or whole ecosystems at any time point using autonomous measuring systems.

Genotype Specific Photosynthesis x Environment Interactions Captured by Automated Fluorescence Canopy Scans Over Two Fluctuating Growing Seasons

Photosynthesis reacts dynamic and in different time scales to changing conditions. Light and temperature acclimation balance photosynthetic processes in a complex interplay with the fluctuating environment. However, due to limitations in the measurements techniques, these acclimations are often described under steady-state conditions leading to inaccurate photosynthesis estimates in the field. Here we analyze the photosynthetic interaction with the fluctuating environment and canopy architecture over two seasons using a fully automated phenotyping system. We acquired over 700,000 chlorophyll fluorescence transients and spectral measurements under semi-field conditions in four crop species including 28 genotypes. As expected, the quantum efficiency of the photosystem II (Fv/Fm in the dark and Fq'/Fm' in the light) was determined by light intensity. It was further significantly affected by spectral indices representing canopy structure effects. In contrast, a newly established parameter, monitoring the efficiency of electron transport (Fr2/Fv in the dark respective Fr2'/Fq' in the light), was highly responsive to temperature (R2 up to 0.75). This parameter decreased with temperature and enabled the detection of cold tolerant species and genotypes. We demonstrated the ability to capture and model the dynamic photosynthesis response to the environment over entire growth seasons. The improved linkage of photosynthetic performance to canopy structure, temperature and cold tolerance offers great potential for plant breeding and crop growth modeling.

Quantitative assessment of disease severity and rating of barley cultivars based on hyperspectral imaging in a non-invasive, automated phenotyping platform

BACKGROUND

Phenotyping is a bottleneck for the development of new plant cultivars. This study introduces a new hyperspectral phenotyping system, which combines the high throughput of canopy scale measurements with the advantages of high spatial resolution and a controlled measurement environment. Furthermore, the measured barley canopies were grown in large containers (called Mini-Plots), which allow plants to develop field-like phenotypes in greenhouse experiments, without being hindered by pot size.

RESULTS

Six barley cultivars have been investigated via hyperspectral imaging up to 30 days after inoculation with powdery mildew. With a high spatial resolution and stable measurement conditions, it was possible to automatically quantify powdery mildew symptoms through a combination of Simplex Volume Maximization and Support Vector Machines. Detection was feasible as soon as the first symptoms were visible for the human eye during manual rating. An accurate assessment of the disease severity for all cultivars at each measurement day over the course of the experiment was realized. Furthermore, powdery mildew resistance based necrosis of one cultivar was detected as well.

CONCLUSION

The hyperspectral phenotyping system combines the advantages of field based canopy level measurement systems (high throughput, automatization, low manual workload) with those of laboratory based leaf level measurement systems (high spatial resolution, controlled environment, stable conditions for time series measurements). This allows an accurate and objective disease severity assessment without the need for trained experts, who perform visual rating, as well as detection of disease symptoms in early stages. Therefore, it is a promising tool for plant resistance breeding.

Maternal beliefs about children's attachments to soft objects

Maternal practices, attitudes, and beliefs about children's attachments to soft objects were investigated via questionnaires and interviews completed by mothers of 58 children with such attachments, present or previous, and of 24 children who had never been thus attached. Mothers in the former group were generally more accurate and positive about the attachments and the characteristics of children with them than were mothers in the latter group. The role of parents in the development of soft-object attachments is discussed.

[Pregnancy, births and infants after in-vitro-fertilization in Norway, 1988-1991]

We studied 1,165 pregnancies after in vitro fertilization in six public hospitals in Norway in the years 1988-91. The annual number of pregnancies increased from 158 in 1988 to 365 in 1991. The mean number of replaced embryos was reduced from 3.7 to 2.7. The rate of multiple births was not significantly altered in the same period, 24.3% were twin births and 5.7% triplet births. 19.3% of the pregnancies ended in abortion and 8.4% were ectopic. 782 births were registered in the Medical Birth Registry of Norway and compared with all other births during the period. Gestational hypertension, bleeding and preterm birth were observed more often in pregnancies after in vitro fertilization. The proportion of infants with very low birth weight (> 1,500 g) after in vitro fertilization was 9.7%, and nearly 50% of these were triplets. The relative risk of stillbirth and death during the first year of life, adjusted for maternal age and birth order, was 3.1 (95% CI 2.4-4.0) and 2.3 (95% CI 1.5-3.5) for singletons alone. The proportion of multiple births should be reduced.

[Failed induced abortion. Pregnancy continuing after induced abortion]

Operations classified as induced abortion fail, i.e. the pregnancy continues, in approximately 0.05% of the cases. Termination procedures before 7-8 weeks of gestation and wrong assessment of the size of the uterus imply significantly increased risk of failed abortion. The article describes current methods for early termination of pregnancy, as well as preoperative procedures and postoperative advice aimed at avoiding or detecting failed induced abortions.

Clinical experience with a triphasic oral contraceptive

A triphasic combined oral contraceptive containing fluctuating amounts of ethinylestradiol and levonorgestrel was tested clinically in a multicenter trial at six hospitals in Norway. 367 women were included in the study, 3 588 cycles were studied, and the follow up period was 12 months. The one year continuation rate was 67%. Five pregnancies occurred during the study period. All of them had to be considered as patient failures. The causes for stopping medication were side effects in about 50% and the rest for personal reasons. The cycle control taking into account duration of bleeding, amount of flow, and intermenstrual bleeding was good and comparable to the low-dose monophasic combined pills. The incidence of side effects was low. One woman had an increase in systolic blood pressure to more than 140 mmHg. Thrombophlebitis was not registered. In conclusion the triphasic oral contraceptive was effective and had a good cycle control and low incidence of side effects.