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Pagán AJ, Lee LJ, Edwards-Hicks J, Moens CB, Tobin DM, Busch-Nentwich EM, Pearce EL, Ramakrishnan L. mTOR-regulated mitochondrial metabolism limits mycobacterium-induced cytotoxicity. Cell 2022; 185:3720-3738.e13. [PMID: 36103894 PMCID: PMC9596383 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2022.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Necrosis of macrophages in the granuloma, the hallmark immunological structure of tuberculosis, is a major pathogenic event that increases host susceptibility. Through a zebrafish forward genetic screen, we identified the mTOR kinase, a master regulator of metabolism, as an early host resistance factor in tuberculosis. We found that mTOR complex 1 protects macrophages from mycobacterium-induced death by enabling infection-induced increases in mitochondrial energy metabolism fueled by glycolysis. These metabolic adaptations are required to prevent mitochondrial damage and death caused by the secreted mycobacterial virulence determinant ESAT-6. Thus, the host can effectively counter this early critical mycobacterial virulence mechanism simply by regulating energy metabolism, thereby allowing pathogen-specific immune mechanisms time to develop. Our findings may explain why Mycobacterium tuberculosis, albeit humanity's most lethal pathogen, is successful in only a minority of infected individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio J. Pagán
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0AW, UK,MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK,Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA,Corresponding author
| | - Lauren J. Lee
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0AW, UK,MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK
| | - Joy Edwards-Hicks
- Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Cecilia B. Moens
- Division of Basic Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - David M. Tobin
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Elisabeth M. Busch-Nentwich
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0AW, UK
| | - Erika L. Pearce
- Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Lalita Ramakrishnan
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0AW, UK,MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK,Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA,Corresponding author
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Pagán AJ, Lee LJ, Edwards-Hicks J, Moens CB, Tobin DM, Pearce EL, Busch-Nentwich E, Ramakrishnan L. mTOR-associated Mitochondrial Energy Metabolism Limits Mycobacterium ESX-1-induced Cytotoxicity. The Journal of Immunology 2022. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.208.supp.163.32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Necrosis of macrophages in the tuberculous granuloma represents a major pathogenic event in tuberculosis. Through a zebrafish forward genetic screen, we identified the mTOR kinase, a master regulator of metabolism, as an early host resistance factor in tuberculosis. We found that mTOR protects macrophages from mycobacterium-induced death by enabling infection-induced increases in mitochondrial energy metabolism fueled by glycolysis. These metabolic adaptations were required to prevent mitochondrial damage and death caused specifically by the mycobacterial ESX-1 secretion system. Our finding that the host can effectively counter this early critical mycobacterial virulence mechanism simply by regulating energy metabolism may help explain why Mycobacterium tuberculosis, albeit humanity’s most lethal pathogen, only causes disease in a minority of infected individuals.
This work was supported by a Wellcome Trust Principal Research Fellowship (103950/Z/14) and an NIH MERIT award (R37 AI054503) (L.R.).
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio J Pagán
- 1Dept. of Medicine, MRC LMB Molecular Immunity Unit, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
- 2Cambridge Institute for Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Disease, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Lauren J Lee
- 1Dept. of Medicine, MRC LMB Molecular Immunity Unit, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
- 2Cambridge Institute for Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Disease, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Joy Edwards-Hicks
- 2Cambridge Institute for Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Disease, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | - Lalita Ramakrishnan
- 1Dept. of Medicine, MRC LMB Molecular Immunity Unit, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
- 2Cambridge Institute for Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Disease, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Osman MM, Shanahan JK, Chu F, Takaki KK, Pinckert ML, Pagán AJ, Brosch R, Conrad WH, Ramakrishnan L. The C terminus of the mycobacterium ESX-1 secretion system substrate ESAT-6 is required for phagosomal membrane damage and virulence. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2122161119. [PMID: 35271388 PMCID: PMC8931374 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2122161119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
SignificanceTuberculosis (TB), an ancient disease of humanity, continues to be a major cause of worldwide death. The causative agent of TB, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and its close pathogenic relative Mycobacterium marinum, initially infect, evade, and exploit macrophages, a major host defense against invading pathogens. Within macrophages, mycobacteria reside within host membrane-bound compartments called phagosomes. Mycobacterium-induced damage of the phagosomal membranes is integral to pathogenesis, and this activity has been attributed to the specialized mycobacterial secretion system ESX-1, and particularly to ESAT-6, its major secreted protein. Here, we show that the integrity of the unstructured ESAT-6 C terminus is required for macrophage phagosomal damage, granuloma formation, and virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morwan M. Osman
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, CB2 OQH Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Cell Biology Division, Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan K. Shanahan
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, CB2 OQH Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Cell Biology Division, Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Frances Chu
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105
| | - Kevin K. Takaki
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, CB2 OQH Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Cell Biology Division, Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Malte L. Pinckert
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, CB2 OQH Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Cell Biology Division, Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Antonio J. Pagán
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, CB2 OQH Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Cell Biology Division, Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Roland Brosch
- Institut Pasteur, Université de Paris, CNRS UMR 3525, Unit for Integrated Mycobacterial Pathogenomics, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - William H. Conrad
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, CB2 OQH Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Cell Biology Division, Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Lalita Ramakrishnan
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, CB2 OQH Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Cell Biology Division, Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105
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Whitworth LJ, Troll R, Pagán AJ, Roca FJ, Edelstein PH, Troll M, Tobin DM, Phu NH, Bang ND, Thwaites GE, Thuong NTT, Sewell RF, Ramakrishnan L. Elevated cerebrospinal fluid cytokine levels in tuberculous meningitis predict survival in response to dexamethasone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2024852118. [PMID: 33658385 PMCID: PMC7958233 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2024852118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Adjunctive treatment with antiinflammatory corticosteroids like dexamethasone increases survival in tuberculosis meningitis. Dexamethasone responsiveness associates with a C/T variant in Leukotriene A4 Hydrolase (LTA4H), which regulates expression of the proinflammatory mediator leukotriene B4 (LTB4). TT homozygotes, with increased expression of LTA4H, have the highest survival when treated with dexamethasone and the lowest survival without. While the T allele is present in only a minority of the world's population, corticosteroids confer modest survival benefit worldwide. Using Bayesian methods, we examined how pretreatment levels of cerebrospinal fluid proinflammatory cytokines affect survival in dexamethasone-treated tuberculous meningitis. LTA4H TT homozygosity was associated with global cytokine increases, including tumor necrosis factor. Association between higher cytokine levels and survival extended to non-TT patients, suggesting that other genetic variants may also induce dexamethasone-responsive pathological inflammation. These findings warrant studies that tailor dexamethasone therapy to pretreatment cerebrospinal fluid cytokine concentrations, while searching for additional genetic loci shaping the inflammatory milieu.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura J Whitworth
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Rajan Troll
- Trinity College, CB2 1TQ Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Antonio J Pagán
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Francisco J Roca
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Paul H Edelstein
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Mark Troll
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - David M Tobin
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710
- Department of Immunology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710
| | - Nguyen Hoan Phu
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Nguyen Duc Bang
- Pham Ngoc Thach Hospital for Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Guy E Thwaites
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, OX3 7BN Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Nguyen Thuy Thuong Thuong
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, OX3 7BN Oxford, United Kingdom
| | | | - Lalita Ramakrishnan
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom;
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Takaki KK, Rinaldi G, Berriman M, Pagán AJ, Ramakrishnan L. Schistosoma mansoni Eggs Modulate the Timing of Granuloma Formation to Promote Transmission. Cell Host Microbe 2020; 29:58-67.e5. [PMID: 33120115 PMCID: PMC7815046 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2020.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Schistosome eggs provoke the formation of granulomas, organized immune aggregates, around them. For the host, the granulomatous response can be both protective and pathological. Granulomas are also postulated to facilitate egg extrusion through the gut lumen, a necessary step for parasite transmission. We used zebrafish larvae to visualize the granulomatous response to Schistosomamansoni eggs and inert egg-sized beads. Mature eggs rapidly recruit macrophages, which form granulomas within days. Beads also induce granulomas rapidly, through a foreign body response. Strikingly, immature eggs do not recruit macrophages, revealing that the eggshell is immunologically inert. Our findings suggest that the eggshell inhibits foreign body granuloma formation long enough for the miracidium to mature. Then parasite antigens secreted through the eggshell trigger granulomas that facilitate egg extrusion into the environment. In support of this model, we find that only mature S. mansoni eggs are shed into the feces of mice and humans. Foreign bodies are walled off by immune structures called granulomas Schistosoma mansoni eggshells prevent the formation of granulomas around immature parasites Secreted antigens from mature parasites induce granulomas that promote egg shedding S. mansoni modulates granuloma formation to selectively shed mature eggs into feces
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin K Takaki
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK
| | - Gabriel Rinaldi
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Matthew Berriman
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Antonio J Pagán
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK.
| | - Lalita Ramakrishnan
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK.
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6
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Osman MM, Pagán AJ, Shanahan JK, Ramakrishnan L. Mycobacterium marinum phthiocerol dimycocerosates enhance macrophage phagosomal permeabilization and membrane damage. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0233252. [PMID: 32701962 PMCID: PMC7377490 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0233252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Phthiocerol dimycocerosates (PDIMs) are a class of mycobacterial lipids that promote virulence in Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium marinum. It has recently been shown that PDIMs work in concert with the M. tuberculosis Type VII secretion system ESX-1 to permeabilize the phagosomal membranes of infected macrophages. As the zebrafish-M. marinum model of infection has revealed the critical role of PDIM at the host-pathogen interface, we set to determine if PDIMs contributed to phagosomal permeabilization in M. marinum. Using an ΔmmpL7 mutant defective in PDIM transport, we find the PDIM-ESX-1 interaction to be conserved in an M. marinum macrophage infection model. However, we find PDIM and ESX-1 mutants differ in their degree of defect, with the PDIM mutant retaining more membrane damaging activity. Using an in vitro hemolysis assay-a common surrogate for cytolytic activity, we find that PDIM and ESX-1 differ in their contributions: the ESX-1 mutant loses hemolytic activity while PDIM retains it. Our observations confirm the involvement of PDIMs in phagosomal permeabilization in M. marinum infection and suggest that PDIM enhances the membrane disrupting activity of pathogenic mycobacteria and indicates that the role they play in damaging phagosomal and red blood cell membranes may differ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morwan M. Osman
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Antonio J. Pagán
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan K. Shanahan
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Lalita Ramakrishnan
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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7
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio J Pagán
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK
| | - Lalita Ramakrishnan
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK
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8
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Abstract
Granulomas are organized aggregates of macrophages, often with characteristic morphological changes, and other immune cells. These evolutionarily ancient structures form in response to persistent particulate stimuli-infectious or noninfectious-that individual macrophages cannot eradicate. Granulomas evolved as protective responses to destroy or sequester particles but are frequently pathological in the context of foreign bodies, infections, and inflammatory diseases. We summarize recent findings that suggest that the granulomatous response unfolds in a stepwise program characterized by a series of macrophage activations and transformations that in turn recruit additional cells and produce structural changes. We explore why different granulomas vary and the reasons that granulomas are protective and pathogenic. Understanding the mechanisms and role of granuloma formation may uncover new therapies for the multitude of granulomatous diseases that constitute serious medical problems while enhancing the protective function of granulomas in infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio J Pagán
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, United Kingdom; , .,MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge CB2 0QH, United Kingdom
| | - Lalita Ramakrishnan
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, United Kingdom; , .,MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge CB2 0QH, United Kingdom
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9
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Pagán AJ, Yang CT, Cameron J, Swaim LE, Ellett F, Lieschke GJ, Ramakrishnan L. Myeloid Growth Factors Promote Resistance to Mycobacterial Infection by Curtailing Granuloma Necrosis through Macrophage Replenishment. Cell Host Microbe 2016; 18:15-26. [PMID: 26159717 PMCID: PMC4509513 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2015.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2015] [Revised: 06/01/2015] [Accepted: 06/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The mycobacterial ESX-1 virulence locus accelerates macrophage recruitment to the forming tuberculous granuloma. Newly recruited macrophages phagocytose previously infected apoptotic macrophages to become new bacterial growth niches. Granuloma macrophages can then necrose, releasing mycobacteria into the extracellular milieu, which potentiates their growth even further. Using zebrafish with genetic or pharmacologically induced macrophage deficiencies, we find that global macrophage deficits increase susceptibility to mycobacterial infection by accelerating granuloma necrosis. This is because reduction in the macrophage supply below a critical threshold decreases granuloma macrophage replenishment to the point where apoptotic infected macrophages, failing to get engulfed, necrose. Reducing macrophage demand by removing bacterial ESX-1 offsets the susceptibility of macrophage deficits. Conversely, increasing macrophage supply in wild-type fish by overexpressing myeloid growth factors induces resistance by curtailing necrosis. These findings may explain the susceptibility of humans with mononuclear cytopenias to mycobacterial infections and highlight the therapeutic potential of myeloid growth factors in tuberculosis. Myeloid deficiencies increase innate immune susceptibility to mycobacterial infection Depletion of macrophage supply below a critical threshold hastens granuloma necrosis Increasing macrophage supply to the granuloma delays granuloma necrosis
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio J Pagán
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK; Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Chao-Tsung Yang
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - James Cameron
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Laura E Swaim
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Felix Ellett
- Cancer and Haematology Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Graham J Lieschke
- Cancer and Haematology Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Lalita Ramakrishnan
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK; Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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10
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Abstract
Granulomas, organized aggregates of immune cells, are a defining feature of tuberculosis (TB). Granuloma formation is implicated in the pathogenesis of a variety of inflammatory disorders. However, the tuberculous granuloma has been assigned the role of a host protective structure which "walls-off" mycobacteria. Work conducted over the past decade has provided a more nuanced view of its role in pathogenesis. On the one hand, pathogenic mycobacteria accelerate and exploit granuloma formation for their expansion and dissemination by manipulating host immune responses to turn leukocyte recruitment and cell death pathways in their favor. On the other hand, granuloma macrophages can preserve granuloma integrity by exerting a microbicidal immune response, thus preventing an even more rampant expansion of infection in the extracellular milieu. Even this host-beneficial immune response required to maintain the bacteria intracellular must be tempered, as an overly vigorous immune response can also cause granuloma breakdown, thereby directly supporting bacterial growth extracellularly. This review will discuss how mycobacteria manipulate inflammatory responses to drive granuloma formation and will consider the roles of the granuloma in pathogenesis and protective immunity, drawing from clinical studies of TB in humans and from animal models--rodents, zebrafish, and nonhuman primates. A deeper understanding of TB pathogenesis and immunity in the granuloma could suggest therapeutic approaches to abrogate the host-detrimental aspects of granuloma formation to convert it into the host-beneficial structure that it has been thought to be for nearly a century.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio J Pagán
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Lalita Ramakrishnan
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195 Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195 Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
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Tubo NJ, Pagán AJ, Taylor JJ, Nelson RW, Linehan JL, Ertelt JM, Huseby ES, Way SS, Jenkins MK. Single naive CD4+ T cells from a diverse repertoire produce different effector cell types during infection. Cell 2013; 153:785-96. [PMID: 23663778 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2013.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 344] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2012] [Revised: 11/05/2012] [Accepted: 04/04/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
A naive CD4(+) T cell population specific for a microbial peptide:major histocompatibility complex II ligand (p:MHCII) typically consists of about 100 cells, each with a different T cell receptor (TCR). Following infection, this population produces a consistent ratio of effector cells that activate microbicidal functions of macrophages or help B cells make antibodies. We studied the mechanism that underlies this division of labor by tracking the progeny of single naive T cells. Different naive cells produced distinct ratios of macrophage and B cell helpers but yielded the characteristic ratio when averaged together. The effector cell pattern produced by a given naive cell correlated with the TCR-p:MHCII dwell time or the amount of p:MHCII. Thus, the consistent production of effector cell subsets by a polyclonal population of naive cells results from averaging the diverse behaviors of individual clones, which are instructed in part by the strength of TCR signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah J Tubo
- Department of Microbiology, Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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12
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Pagán AJ, Peters NC, Debrabant A, Ribeiro-Gomes F, Pepper M, Karp CL, Jenkins MK, Sacks DL. Tracking antigen-specific CD4+ T cells throughout the course of chronic Leishmania major infection in resistant mice. Eur J Immunol 2013; 43:427-38. [PMID: 23109292 PMCID: PMC4086308 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201242715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2012] [Revised: 09/20/2012] [Accepted: 10/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Primary Leishmania major infection typically produces cutaneous lesions that not only heal but also harbor persistent parasites. While the opposing roles of CD4(+) T-cell-derived IFN-γ and IL-10 in promoting parasite killing and persistence have been well established, how these responses develop from naïve precursors has not been directly monitored throughout the course of infection. We used peptide:Major Histocompatibility Complex class II (pMHCII) tetramers to investigate the endogenous, parasite-specific primary CD4(+) T-cell response to L. major in mice resistant to infection. Maximal frequencies of IFN-γ(+) CD4(+) T cells were observed in the spleen and infected ears within a month after infection and were maintained into the chronic phase. In contrast, peak frequencies of IL-10(+) CD4(+) T cells emerged within 2 weeks of infection, persisted into the chronic phase, and accumulated in the infected ears but not the spleen, via a process that depended on local antigen presentation. T helper type-1 (Th1) cells, not Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells, were the chief producers of IL-10 and were not exhausted. Therefore, tracking antigen-specific CD4(+) T cells revealed that IL-10 production by Th1 cells is not due to persistent T-cell antigen receptor stimulation, but rather driven by early antigen encounter at the site of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio J Pagán
- Department of Microbiology, Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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13
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Hand TW, Dos Santos LM, Bouladoux N, Molloy MJ, Pagán AJ, Pepper M, Maynard CL, Elson CO, Belkaid Y. Acute gastrointestinal infection induces long-lived microbiota-specific T cell responses. Science 2012; 337:1553-6. [PMID: 22923434 DOI: 10.1126/science.1220961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 301] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The mammalian gastrointestinal tract contains a large and diverse population of commensal bacteria and is also one of the primary sites of exposure to pathogens. How the immune system perceives commensals in the context of mucosal infection is unclear. Here, we show that during a gastrointestinal infection, tolerance to commensals is lost, and microbiota-specific T cells are activated and differentiate to inflammatory effector cells. Furthermore, these T cells go on to form memory cells that are phenotypically and functionally consistent with pathogen-specific T cells. Our results suggest that during a gastrointestinal infection, the immune response to commensals parallels the immune response against pathogenic microbes and that adaptive responses against commensals are an integral component of mucosal immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy W Hand
- Mucosal Immunology Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Pagán AJ, Pepper M, Chu HH, Green JM, Jenkins MK. CD28 promotes CD4+ T cell clonal expansion during infection independently of its YMNM and PYAP motifs. J Immunol 2012; 189:2909-17. [PMID: 22896637 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1103231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
CD28 is required for maximal proliferation of CD4+ T cells stimulated through their TCRs. Two sites within the cytoplasmic tail of CD28, a YMNM sequence that recruits PI3K and activates NF-κB and a PYAP sequence that recruits Lck, are candidates as transducers of the signals responsible for these biological effects. We tested this proposition by tracking polyclonal peptide:MHCII-specific CD4+ T cells in vivo in mice with mutations in these sites. Mice lacking CD28 or its cytoplasmic tail had the same number of naive T cells specific for a peptide:MHCII ligand as wild-type mice. However, the mutant cells produced one tenth as many effector and memory cells as wild-type T cells after infection with bacteria expressing the antigenic peptide. Remarkably, T cells with a mutated PI3K binding site, a mutated PYAP site, or both mutations proliferated to the same extent as wild-type T cells. The only observed defect was that T cells with a mutated PYAP or Y170F site proliferated even more weakly in response to peptide without adjuvant than wild-type T cells. These results show that CD28 enhances T cell proliferation during bacterial infection by signals emanating from undiscovered sites in the cytoplasmic tail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio J Pagán
- Department of Microbiology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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Pepper M, Pagán AJ, Igyártó BZ, Taylor JJ, Jenkins MK. Opposing signals from the Bcl6 transcription factor and the interleukin-2 receptor generate T helper 1 central and effector memory cells. Immunity 2011; 35:583-95. [PMID: 22018468 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2011.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 345] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2011] [Revised: 08/19/2011] [Accepted: 09/20/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes infection generates T helper 1 (Th1) effector memory cells and CC chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7)(+) cells resembling central memory cells. We tracked endogenous L. monocytogenes-specific CD4(+) T cells to determine how these memory cells are formed. Two effector cell populations were already present several days after infection. One highly expressed the T-bet transcription factor and produced Th1 memory cells in an interleukin-2 (IL-2) receptor-dependent fashion. The other resided in the T cell areas, expressed CCR7 and CXC chemokine receptor 5 (CXCR5), and like follicular helper cells depended on the Bcl6 transcription factor and inducible costimulator ligand on B cells. The CCR7(+)CXCR5(+) effector cells produced similar memory cells that generated diverse effector cell populations in a secondary response. Thus, Th1 effector memory and follicular helper-like central memory cells are produced from early effector cell populations that diverge in response to signals from the IL-2 receptor, Bcl6, and B cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Pepper
- Department of Microbiology, Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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Vang KB, Yang J, Pagán AJ, Li LX, Wang J, Green JM, Beg AA, Farrar MA. Cutting edge: CD28 and c-Rel-dependent pathways initiate regulatory T cell development. J Immunol 2010; 184:4074-7. [PMID: 20228198 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0903933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Regulatory T cell (Treg) development proceeds via a two-step process in which naive CD4(+) thymocytes are first converted into CD4(+)CD25(+)CD122(+)GITR(+)Foxp3(-) Treg progenitors, followed by a second step in which IL-2 converts these Treg progenitors into CD4(+)Foxp3(+) Tregs. The costimulatory molecule CD28 is required for efficient Treg development. However, the stage at which CD28 affects Treg development remains undefined. In this article, we demonstrate that Cd28(-/-) mice lack Treg progenitors. Furthermore, the P(187)YAP motif in the cytoplasmic tail of CD28, which links CD28 to Lck activation, is required for this process. In contrast, the Y(170)MNM motif, which links CD28 to PI3K activation, is not required for Treg progenitor development. Finally, the CD28/Lck pathway was shown to activate the NF-kappaB family of transcription factors. We demonstrate that c-Rel, but not NF-kappaB1, promotes the development of Treg progenitors. Thus, a CD28/c-Rel-dependent pathway is involved in initiating Treg development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kieng B Vang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, The Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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DeNucci CC, Pagán AJ, Mitchell JS, Shimizu Y. Control of alpha4beta7 integrin expression and CD4 T cell homing by the beta1 integrin subunit. J Immunol 2010; 184:2458-67. [PMID: 20118278 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0902407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The alpha4beta7 integrin promotes homing of T cells to intestinal sites. The alpha4 integrin subunit that pairs with beta7 integrin can also pair with beta1 integrin. In this paper, we show that the preferential pairing of beta1 integrin with alpha4 integrin regulates the expression of alpha4beta7 on T cells. In the absence of beta1 integrin, naive mouse CD4 T cells have increased alpha4beta7 expression, resulting in increased adhesion to mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 and enhanced homing to Peyer's patches (PP). In a reciprocal manner, overexpression of beta1 integrin causes the loss of alpha4beta7 expression and decreased homing to PP. A similar upregulation of beta1 integrin and suppression of alpha4beta7 expression occurs rapidly after CD4 T cell activation. beta1 integrin thus dominates beta7 integrin for alpha4 integrin pairing, thereby controlling the abundance of unpaired alpha4 integrin. Increasing the abundance of alpha4 integrin relative to beta1 integrin is critical to retinoic acid-mediated expression of alpha4beta7 integrin during T cell activation. In the absence of beta1 integrin, endogenous Ag-specific CD4 T cells uniformly express high levels of alpha4beta7 after Listeria monocytogenes infection. The resulting beta1-deficient early memory T cells have decreased localization to the bone marrow and enhanced localization to PP after infection. Thus, the preferential association of beta1 integrin with alpha4 integrin suppresses alpha4beta7 integrin expression and regulates the localization of memory CD4 T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C DeNucci
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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Pepper M, Linehan JL, Pagán AJ, Zell T, Dileepan T, Cleary PP, Jenkins MK. Different routes of bacterial infection induce long-lived TH1 memory cells and short-lived TH17 cells. Nat Immunol 2009; 11:83-9. [PMID: 19935657 PMCID: PMC2795784 DOI: 10.1038/ni.1826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 230] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2009] [Accepted: 10/19/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
A sensitive peptide-major histocompatibility complex II (pMHCII) tetramer-based method was used to determine whether CD4+ memory T cells resemble the TH1 and TH-17 subsets described in vitro. Intravenous or intranasal Listeria monocytogenes infection induced pMHCII-specific CD4+ naïve T cells to proliferate and produce effector cells, about 10% of which resembled TH1 or TH-17 cells, respectively. TH1 cells were also present among the memory cells that survived three months post-infection whereas TH-17 cells disappeared. The short lifespan of TH-17 cells was associated with low amounts of Bcl-2, interleukin 15 receptor, CD27 and little homeostatic proliferation. These results suggest that TH1 cells induced by intravenous infection are more efficient at entering the memory pool than TH-17 cells induced by intranasal infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Pepper
- Department of Microbiology, Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
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Hondowicz BD, Batheja AO, Metzgar MH, Pagán AJ, Perng OA, Willms S, Caton AJ, Erikson J. Efficient help for autoreactive B-cell activation requires CD4+ T-cell recognition of an agonist peptide at the effector stage. Eur J Immunol 2009; 39:2377-82. [PMID: 19662636 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200939471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
T-cell recognition of peptide/MHC complexes is flexible and can lead to differential activation, but how interactions with agonist (full activation) or partial agonist (suboptimal activation) peptides can shape immune responses in vivo is not well characterized. We investigated the effect of stimulation by agonist or partial agonist ligands during initial CD4(+) T-cell priming, and subsequent T-B-cell cognate interactions, on antibody production by anti-chromatin B cells. We found that autoantibody production required TCR recognition of an agonist peptide at the effector stage of B-cell activation. However, interaction with a weak agonist ligand at this effector stage failed to promote efficient autoantibody production, even if the CD4(+) T cells were fully primed by an agonist peptide. These studies suggest that the reactivity of the TCR for a target self-peptide during CD4(+) T-B-cell interaction can be a critical determinant in restraining anti-chromatin autoantibody production.
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Abstract
The tracking of antigen-specific T cells in vivo is a useful approach for the study of the adaptive immune response. This protocol describes how populations of T cells specific for a given peptide-major histocompatibility complex (pMHC) epitope can be tracked based solely on T-cell receptor (TCR) specificity as opposed to other indirect methods based on function. The methodology involves the adoptive transfer of TCR transgenic T cells with defined epitope specificity into histocompatible mice and the subsequent detection of these cells through the use of congenic or clonotypic markers. Alternatively, endogenous epitope-specific T cells can be tracked directly through the use of pMHC tetramers. Using magnetic bead-based enrichment and advanced multiparameter flow cytometry, populations as small as five epitope-specific T cells can be detected from the peripheral lymphoid organs of a mouse. The adoptive transfer procedure can be completed within 3 h, whereas analysis of epitope-specific cells from mice can be completed within 6 h.
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Affiliation(s)
- James J Moon
- Department of Microbiology and Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA
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Hondowicz BD, Alexander ST, Quinn WJ, Pagán AJ, Metzgar MH, Cancro MP, Erikson J. The role of BLyS/BLyS receptors in anti-chromatin B cell regulation. Int Immunol 2007; 19:465-75. [PMID: 17369193 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxm011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
B lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS), also known as B cell-activating factor, is a key positive regulator of B cell homeostasis, and elevated levels of BLyS have been observed in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients. Given that anti-chromatin auto-antibodies are one of the hallmarks of SLE, we examined the role of BLyS and its receptors in the regulation of anti-chromatin B cells. We demonstrate that exogenous BLyS treatment leads to an increase in B cell numbers, particularly anti-chromatin B cells; yet, their localization in the spleen and auto-antibody production remain unaffected. We also examined transmembrane activator and CAML interactor (TACI), BLyS receptor 3 (BR3) and B cell maturation antigen expression on anti-chromatin B cells before and after receiving T cell help. Interestingly, in the absence of T cell help, TACI expression is greater on immature anti-chromatin B cells compared with immature Tg(-) B cells, whereas BR3 levels are comparable. After receiving T cell help, the anti-chromatin B cells that have differentiated into short-lived plasma cells no longer express BR3 but retain TACI. These data suggest a novel role for TACI in anti-chromatin B cell homeostasis and differentiation.
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MESH Headings
- Adoptive Transfer
- Animals
- Antibodies, Antinuclear/blood
- Antibodies, Antinuclear/immunology
- Antibody Formation/drug effects
- Antibody Formation/immunology
- B-Cell Activating Factor/pharmacology
- B-Cell Activation Factor Receptor/genetics
- B-Cell Activation Factor Receptor/metabolism
- B-Cell Maturation Antigen/genetics
- B-Cell Maturation Antigen/metabolism
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/drug effects
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
- B-Lymphocytes/drug effects
- B-Lymphocytes/immunology
- B-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Cell Differentiation/drug effects
- Cell Differentiation/immunology
- Female
- Gene Expression
- Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus/genetics
- Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus/metabolism
- Immunoglobulin Heavy Chains/genetics
- Immunoglobulin kappa-Chains/genetics
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Transgenic
- Receptors, CXCR5
- Receptors, Chemokine/genetics
- Receptors, Chemokine/metabolism
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/metabolism
- Spleen/cytology
- Spleen/drug effects
- Spleen/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/transplantation
- Transmembrane Activator and CAML Interactor Protein/genetics
- Transmembrane Activator and CAML Interactor Protein/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Hondowicz
- The Wistar Institute, Room 276, 3601 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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Pagán AJ, Ramón HE, Hondowicz BD, Erikson J. T cell-mediated activation and regulation of anti-chromatin B cells. Autoimmun Rev 2005; 5:373-6. [PMID: 16890889 DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2005.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2005] [Accepted: 10/06/2005] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We have taken an immunoglobulin transgenic approach to study how self-reactive B cells are held in check in healthy mice and what parameters contribute to their activation in autoimmunity. Using this strategy, we have documented that a population of anti-chromatin B cells migrate to the periphery. In a healthy background, these cells have a reduced lifespan, appear developmentally arrested, and localize primarily to the T/B cell interface in the spleen. Importantly, they are capable of differentiating into antibody-forming cells when provided with T cell help. T(H)1 and T(H)2 cells induce IgG2a and IgG1 autoantibodies, respectively. In the context of the autoimmune-prone lpr/lpr or gld/gld mutations, these autoreactive B cells populate the B cell follicle, and this is dependent upon CD4 T cells. However, after 10 weeks of age serum autoantibodies are produced. We hypothesize that control of autoantibody production in young autoimmune-prone mice is regulated by the counterbalancing influence of regulatory T cells. We show that while autoantibody production is blocked in the context of regulatory T cells, early events characterizing a productive T cell-B cell interaction are not disturbed, with the notable exceptions of T(H) ICOS levels and IFN-gamma and IL-10 production.
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