Efficient Removal of Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Drugs from Sewage Treatment Plant Effluents Using Magnetite Nanoparticles Synthesized Red Mud

Due to the COVID-19 epidemic, the consumption of pharmaceuticals, especially paracetamol, has sharply increased on a global scale. The increasing concentration of analgesic and anti-inflammatory drugs (AAIDs) in the aquatic medium is a global problem for human and aquatic life. Therefore, simple and effective treatment options for removing AAIDs from wastewater after the COVID-19 pandemic are needed. The removal of AAIDs (acetaminophen, acetylsalicylic acid, codeine, diclofenac, ibuprofen, indomethacin, ketoprofen, mefenamic acid, naproxen, and phenylbutazone) from sewage treatment plant (STP) effluents by the prepared magnetite nanoparticles synthesized from red mud (mNPs-RM) is presented for the first time in this study. The removal efficiencies of AAIDs onto mNPs-RM were determined to be between 90% (diclofenac) and 100% (naproxen, codeine, and indomethacin). Acetaminophen (paracetamol) was used as a model compound in kinetic and isotherm model studies. The adsorption of acetaminophen was matched well with the pseudo second order kinetic model. Film diffusion governed its rate mechanism. The Freundlich isotherm model preferably fitted the adsorption data with an adsorption capacity of 370 mg/g at 120 min contact time at pH 7.0 at 25 °C. Furthermore, the regenerated mNPs-RM were used four times without affecting the adsorption capacity and the magnetic separability. mNPs-RM can be used as a simple, inexpensive and effective adsorbent for removing AAIDs from STP effluents. Also, low cost adsorbent obtained from industrial waste could be employed to replace the high cost activated carbons for the adsorption of other micro pollutants in STP effluents.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11270-023-06404-7.

Fate of selected pharmaceuticals in hospital and municipal wastewater effluent: occurrence, removal, and environmental risk assessment

The concentrations and distribution of β-blockers, lipid regulators, and psychiatric and cancer drugs in the influent and effluent of the municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) and the effluent of 16 hospitals that discharge into the wastewater treatment plant mentioned in this study at two sampling dates in summer and winter were examined. The pharmaceutical contribution of hospitals to municipal wastewater was determined. The removal of target pharmaceuticals was evaluated in a WWTP consisting of conventional biological treatment using activated sludge. Additionally, the potential environmental risk for the aquatic receiving environments (salt lake) was assessed. Beta-blockers and psychiatric drugs were detected in high concentrations in the wastewater samples. Atenolol (919 ng/L) from β-blockers and carbamazepine (7008 ng/L) from psychiatric pharmaceuticals were detected at the highest concentrations in hospital wastewater. The total pharmaceutical concentration determined at the WWTP influent and effluent was between 335 and 737 ng/L in summer and between 174 and 226 ng/L in winter. The concentrations detected in hospital effluents are higher than the concentrations detected in WWTP. The total pharmaceutical contributions from hospitals to the WWTP in summer and winter were determined to be 2% and 4%, respectively. Total pharmaceutical removal in the WWTP ranged from 23 to 54%. According to the risk ratios, atenolol could pose a high risk (risk quotient > 10) for fish in summer and winter. There are different reasons for the increase in pharmaceutical consumption in recent years. One of these reasons is the COVID-19 pandemic, which has been going on for 2 years. In particular, hospitals were operated at full capacity during the pandemic, and the occurrence and concentration of pharmaceuticals used for the therapy of COVID-19 patients has increased in hospital effluent. Pandemic conditions have increased the tendency of people to use psychiatric drugs. It is thought that beta-blocker consumption has increased due to cardiovascular diseases caused by COVID-19. Therefore, the environmental risk of pharmaceuticals for aquatic organisms in hospital effluent should be monitored and evaluated.

Pharmaceutical residues in digested sewage sludge: Occurrence, seasonal variation and risk assessment for soil

The occurrences, temporal variations and ecotoxicological risks of 38 selected pharmaceuticals from 7 therapeutic classes (i.e. antibiotics, analgesics, anti-inflammatories, beta-blockers, lipid regulators, anticancer agents, and psychiatric drugs) have been observed in the anaerobically treated sludge of the urban wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in Konya, Turkey. Sampling was carried out to assess the seasonal variations in one year. The total daily wastewater flow rate of the WWTP was approximately 200,000 m³/day, and 140 tons/day of treated sludge were produced. The total concentrations of all pharmaceutical compounds ranged from 280 to 4898 μg/kg of dry matter (dm). The dominant therapeutic class was analgesics and anti-inflammatories (49%), which was followed by antibiotics (31%). Clarithromycin and azithromycin were the most abundant compounds, with concentrations of 1496 μg/kg dm. The total daily pharmaceutical load in the treated sludge was as high as 1.002 kg/day in the winter season, while the annual pharmaceutical mass load that was discharged into the environment was estimated to be approximately 71.6 kg. The use of treated sludge as fertilizer in agricultural lands causes continuous contamination of the terrestrial environment by pharmaceuticals. Five antibiotics (i.e., azithromycin, clarithromycin, erythromycin, sulfamethoxazole, and doxycycline), one analgesic (acetylsalicylic acid) and one beta-blocker (atenolol) in the digested sludge pose acute and short chronic high risks to environment. The highest short chronic risk in the digested sludge-amended soils was determined for azithromycin (RQ: 54.9). To reduce the potential environmental impact of pharmaceuticals, digested sludge should be monitored in terms of the pharmaceutical contents before being applied to soil.

Monitoring and ecological risk of illegal drugs before and after sewage treatment in an area

In this study, the occurrence of illicit drugs and their metabolites in the sewerage systems and in the influent and effluent of wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in Konya, Turkey, was presented. The drug removal efficiencies of the central WWTP were investigated. Potential ecotoxicological risks for algae, fish, and Daphnia magna in the receiving environments were also evaluated. The highest estimated mean illicit drug use was obtained for cannabis (marijuana) at 280 ± 12 mg/day/1000 inhabitants and 430 ± 20 g/day/1000 inhabitants (15-64 years). Amphetamine was found to be the second most consumed drug of abuse. While cannabis and ecstasy consumption values were higher during the weekend, cocaine use dominated on weekdays. The removal efficiencies for THC-COOH and THC-OH were 100% in the WWTP. The average removal of cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA, MDA, and methadone varied between 46 ± 7 and 87 ± 3%. The maximum concentration level of MDMA found can pose some low risk for Daphnia magna. The rest of the compounds detected in effluents did not show any toxic effects on fish, Daphnia magna, or algae. However, when the cumulative estimated risk quotient values were evaluated, there might be a low risk for Daphnia magna and algae in the receiving environment.

Simple and effective removal of psychiatric pharmaceuticals from wastewater treatment plant effluents by magnetite red mud nanoparticles

Psychological disorders due to the COVID-19 pandemic have increased the consumption of psychiatric pharmaceuticals on a global scale in last year. These compounds reach wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) through sewerage system and are not sufficiently removed by using conventional treatment process. Psychiatric drugs released with WWTP effluent may cause possible risks to the receiving aquatic environment. Also, two antidepressants have been included in the "watch list" in 2020. Therefore, simple and relatively cost effective removal of psychiatric drugs from wastewaters becomes important. Magnetite red mud nanoparticles (RM-NPs) synthesized was applied for the removal of psychiatric drugs (fluoxetine, paroxetine, carbamazepine, diazepam, and lorazepam) in WWTP effluent first time in this study. The adsorption of carbamazepine as a model compound was fitted well with pseudo-second-order kinetic model. The Freundlich isotherm model better represented the sorption data than the Langmuir model. High adsorption capacity (90.5 mg/g) was reached at 30 min contact time at pH 6.5-7.0 at 25 °C. The adsorption rate was described by the pseudo second order model and its rate control mechanism was controlled by film diffusion. The magnetite RM-NPs were efficiently used for the removal of carbamazepine from real WWTP effluents. The adsorption capacity and the magnetic separability of the regenerated magnetite RM-NPs were unaffected five cycles. Due to its simple application, low cost and high adsorption capacity, magnetite RM-NPs can be recommended as a better adsorbent comparing to commercial adsorbents to remove psychiatric drugs from WWTP effluents.

Monitoring the release of anti-inflammatory and analgesic pharmaceuticals in the receiving environment

The occurrence of anti-inflammatory and analgesic pharmaceuticals (AIAPs) in the effluents of 16 hospitals, influent and effluent of wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), the contribution and mass load of each hospital to WWTP influent, and the removal efficiencies in WWTP were investigated. Environmental risk was also evaluated by toxicity tests using organisms from three different trophic levels. Acetaminophen had the highest concentration in summer and winter samples, followed by ketoprofen, ibuprofen, and naproxen. The total daily load of AIAPs detected in influent of WWTP was 1677 mg/day/1000 inhabitants in summer and 5074 mg/day/1000 inhabitants in winter. The contribution of 16 hospitals to the total AIAP load in influent of WWTP was 11.30% in summer and 7.09% in winter. The highest mass loads were calculated as 203 mg/bed.day in general hospital in summer and 300 mg/bed.day in pediatric hospital in winter. The removal efficiencies of AIAPs in WWTP ranged between 13% and 100% in summer and 0.88% and 99% in winter. WWTP is not sufficient to remove all the AIAPs. Diclofenac (in summer), mefenamic acid, indomethacin, and phenylbutazone exhibited poor removal below 50%. The effluents of the WWTP exhibited a low risk for fish and Daphnia magna and an insignificant risk for algae.

Removal of antibiotics from aqueous solution by using magnetic Fe3O4/red mud-nanoparticles

In this study, the availability of magnetically separable Fe₃O₄-red mud nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄-RM-NPs) for the removal of antibiotics from wastewater was investigated. Disadvantages of red mud and Fe₃O₄ because of difficult separation from aqueous media, agglomeration, and iron leaching were overcome by combining these two materials. After examinating adsorption capability of magnetic Fe₃O₄-RM-NPs for all studied antibiotic compounds, the experiments were performed by using Ciprofloxacin (CIPRO) as a model compound. Batch experiments were performed to determine the effect of red mud content of synthesized Fe₃O₄-RM-NPs, pH, reaction time and temperature on the proposed method. The surface morphology, magnetic properties, crystalline structure, thermal stability and Brunauer-Emmet-Teller surface area of the synthesized Fe₃O₄-RM-NPs were determined. The saturation magnetization of Fe₃O₄-RM-NPs was determined to be 12.2 emu/g, which is efficient to separate adsorbent from water by using a conventional magnet. For the efficient removal of CIPRO from aqueous media optimum conditions were determined to be 1.5 g red mud for Fe₃O₄-RM-NPs synthesize, pH 6.0, reaction time 60 min, 3 g/L Fe₃O₄-RM-NPs dosage at 25 °C. Adsorption was fitted well with pseudo-second-order kinetic model. Equilibrium data were found to be better represented by Freundlich isotherm. n value was 4.32, and K_F value was 110.15 mg/g for Freundlich isotherm. No important matrix effect was determined for removal of CIPRO from wastewater sample. Film diffusion mechanism controlled adsorption. Magnetically separable Fe₃O₄-RM-NPs are proposed to be used as efficient adsorbent to remove antibiotics from wastewater sources. Since red mud is a process waste, proposed nanomaterial is a good alternative to commercial adsorbents.

Organohalogenated pollutants in raw and UHT cow's milk from Turkey: a risk assessment of dietary intake

In this study, health risk of human exposure to organohalogenated pollutants (OHPs) through milk consumption was determined. Conventionally produced, unprocessed cow's milk samples taken from Konya District, in Turkey, and 15 different brand ultra-high-temperature (UHT) processed cow's milk samples taken from supermarkets of Turkey were analyzed for organochlorine pesticides (OCPs, α-, β-, γ-, and δ-HCHs, p,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDD, and p,p'-DDT, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, endosulfan I, endosulfan II, endosulfan sulfate, endrin, endrin aldehyde, endrin ketone, aldrin + dieldrin, methoxychlor), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs, PCB 28, 52, 101, 153, 138, and 180), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs, PBDE 47, 99, 100, 153, and 154 congeners). Estimated daily intake (EDI) values calculated for both adults and children consuming raw or UHT milk were determined to exceed maximum residue limits (MRLs) set for γ-HCH, ∑Heptachlor, and endrin. EDI values also exceeded admissible daily intake (ADI) values given for ∑HCH, ∑Heptachlor, ∑Endrin aldrin + dieldrin, and ∑PCBs. p,p'-DDT/p,p'-DDE ratio was 1 or higher for 66% of the milk samples, which is an indication of sustaining illegal use of DDT. A health risk is determined for dietary intake of OHPs via consumption of milk.

Antibiotics in hospital effluents: occurrence, contribution to urban wastewater, removal in a wastewater treatment plant, and environmental risk assessment

The study presented the occurrence of antibiotics in 16 different hospital effluents, the removal of antibiotics in urban wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), and the potential ecotoxicological risks of the effluent discharge on the aquatic ecosystem. The total concentration of antibiotics in hospital effluents was ranged from 21.2 ± 0.13 to 4886 ± 3.80 ng/L in summer and from 497 ± 3.66 to 322,735 ± 4.58 ng/L in winter. Azithromycin, clarithromycin, and ciprofloxacin were detected the highest concentrations among the investigated antibiotics. The total antibiotic load to the influent of the WWTP from hospitals was 3.46 g/day in summer and 303.2 g/day in winter. The total antibiotic contribution of hospitals to the influent of the WWTP was determined as 13% in summer and 28% in winter. The remaining 87% in summer and 72% in winter stems from the households. The total antibiotic removal by conventional physical and biological treatment processes was determined as 79% in summer, whereas it decreased to 36% in winter. When the environmental risk assessment was performed, azithromycin and clarithromycin in the effluent from the treatment plant in winter posed a high risk (RQ > 10) for the aquatic organisms (algae and fish) in the receiving environment. According to these results, the removal efficiency of antibiotics at the WWTP is inadequate and plant should be improved to remove antibiotics by advanced treatment processes.