Understanding nitrogen dynamics in the Brazilian beef industry: A comprehensive decadal analysis

Brazil stands as a prominent beef producer and exporter, witnessing major transformations and expansions in its production chain over the past 20 years. These changes have prompted concerns regarding waste generation and environmental pressure. This study employs material flow analysis (MFA) to quantify nitrogen flows throughout the cattle slaughter process and subsequent beef consumption in Brazil, spanning from 2011 to 2021. The analysis encompasses co-production streams like leather, tallow, viscera, and blood. Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and the nitrogen cascade indicator (NCI) were used to evaluate efficiency and nitrogen accumulation in the production chain. Nitrogen inputs in the system increased by 8.47 %, while beef production rose by 7.29 %. In contrast, per capita beef consumption decreased by 1.29 kg, despite an overall consumption increase of 2.84 %, attributed to population growth in Brazil. Beef exports witnessed a notable surge of 86.03 %. Conversely, human excreta and food waste losses experienced increments of 10.88 % and 2.84 %, respectively. Examining NUE reveals the highest values during the slaughter phase (90 %), followed by processing, transportation, and storage stages (79-88 %). The consumption phase exhibited the lowest NUE values (29-34 %). Regarding the cumulative nitrogen effect, the NCI varied between 77 % and 82 % throughout the study period. This highlights opportunities for enhancing nitrogen use efficiency, particularly by addressing food waste at the consumer level. Notably, the study observes nitrogen accumulation across the Brazilian beef production chain, potentially contributing to the nitrogen cascade effect and heightening environmental pressure. Recognizing these dynamics provides avenues for targeted improvements, emphasizing the need to address nitrogen-related challenges and enhance sustainability in the beef production and consumption landscape.

Brazilian soybeans as feed for livestock in Europe: an insight into the nitrogen flows

Given the agricultural demand to supply animals with food, the scope of today's soybean production and international trade can influence the nitrogen cycle. Rather than using soybeans from within the region of animal production, animal producers import nutritional supplements from distant growers. This widely opens the biogeochemical cycle of nitrogen, which reduces local recycling and increases carriage of reactive nitrogen via the supply chain. Ultimately, this potentiates the effects of a "nitrogen cascade" process. This study estimates nitrogen flows for Brazilian soybean transported to feed European livestock and attempts to quantify the understanding of how this flow can impact the nitrogen cascade effect. The hypothesis is that the growing trade of Brazilian soybean products is sufficient to spike reactive nitrogen production that can potentially cause distant environmental impacts of the nitrogen cascade. In this respect, the estimation of the nitrogen flows was evaluated using material flow analysis, and the cascade effect was quantified by means of a nitrogen cascade indicator (NCI). Notably, NCI can calculate the released amount of nitrogen in the environment along the entire supply chain of livestock products. NCI-based evaluation of Brazilian soybean products consumed by European livestock indicated the accumulation of nitrogen levels. There was also an increase in nitrogen flows in the Brazilian phase (0.058 Gg in 2007 to 139.86 Gg in 2019 for soybean meal; 584.28 Gg in 2007 to 309.78 Gg in 2019 for soybeans) accompanying a stability in European livestock production. This highlights the necessity for adjustments in nitrogen circularity between all levels of food production and improved strategies of more localised feed autonomy for sustainable global development.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10113-023-02034-1.

Development of a Swine Production Cost Calculation Model

Simple Summary

Swine production is a for-profit activity; however, most farms have deficient internal controls and empirical management and do not even know the cost of the market hog produced. Knowing the production cost of what will be commercialized is crucial for any process that involves business management, and in pig production, it is no different. However, the lack of a standard method and simple and easily accessible tools make it difficult for producers to organize the economic management of their businesses. In this sense, the present work aimed to develop a free and easy-to-use tool that calculates swine production costs and serves as a management tool in commercial properties.

Abstract

This paper aims to present a tool that offers pig producers a standard method to calculate and control their production costs and, consequently, provides the necessary information to guide strategic decision-making. Following these premises, a mathematical model to estimate swine production costs were developed using Microsoft Excel^® software (version 2207). Case studies were used to assist in the characterization and construction of the model. Through the panel method, the tool was validated by professionals in the sector. Costs were considered according to the Neoclassical Economic Theory of Costs and allocated in the order of variable costs, fixed operating costs, and opportunity costs of capital and land. These costs together create the total cost. The model provides the total cost per batch, per market pig, per arroba, and per kilogram, which facilitates the interpretation of the results and economic evaluations of the system. The model is adaptable to different types of swine farming, as well as the consideration of all costs involved in the production system, whether explicit or implicit. The model developed has the potential to be used as a management tool in commercial swine production systems, assisting the producer in the decision-making process through the management and control of production costs.

Nitrogen balance and efficiency as indicators for monitoring the proper use of fertilizers in agricultural and livestock systems

The rational use of nutrients is a key factor for the sustainability of agricultural systems. This study aimed to analyze the nitrogen balance and use efficiency, and the valorization of organic residues within integrated systems, in comparison to conventional agricultural and livestock systems. The experiment was assembled in a randomized blocks design with three replicates. Six production systems were compared, grain maize production (CROP) and pasture for beef cattle production (LS), and four ICLS (Integrated Crop-Livestock System) for grain maize and pastures for beef cattle, in 2 years. In order to estimate the nutrients balance, inputs, and outputs at farm levels were considered, and with the results obtained for nutrient balance, the use efficiency was calculated. The CROP presented higher nutrient use efficiency (1.43 kg/ha⁻¹), but at the same time, it resulted in negative contributions for the nutrient balance (−97 kg/ha⁻¹) because of lower amounts of nitrogen in the organic residues (188 kg/ha⁻¹) and lower valuation. The LS and ICLS provided a higher amount of nitrogen (983 kg/ha⁻¹; mean ± 921 kg/ha⁻¹) and valuation of organic residues. The presence of components such as pastures and the animal contribute to a positive production system, while reducing the needs for chemical fertilizers.

Egg pricing and labeling on supermarkets in São Paulo

Brazil is a big table egg producer and consumer. Although battery cages are still the main production system in the country, growth in demand for specialty eggs can be identified from the growing availability of free-range and organic eggs in the market. The goal for this study was to report the prices of different table egg categories, varying in features such as eggshell color, package size or farming system, and to characterize the information available on labels. We investigated fifteen supermarket units, randomly distributed along the west side of the city of São Paulo, state of São Paulo, Brazil. Four data collections were performed throughout one year, in each unit. Our results indicate that organic eggs were the most expensive among different farming system categories. Furthermore, brown shell eggs were more expensive compared to white shell eggs, regardless of the farming system. Eggs sold in small packages were more expensive than eggs sold in large packages. Cage-free and organic eggs had labels with more informative content and, lastly, eggs with more detailed labels were related to higher prices.

Homemade versus extruded and wet commercial diets for dogs: Cost comparison

The present study aimed to verify and compare the costs of homemade diets with extruded and wet commercial diets for dogs in maintenance and consuming therapeutic diets (obesity, congestive heart failure, diabetes, hepatic encephalopathy, chronic kidney disease, and food hypersensitivity), which is important information that impacts in the choice of food by the owners. The maintenance energy requirements (MER) were estimated for adult dogs of different sizes (3 kg, 15 kg, 30 kg, and 50 kg) and the daily amounts of food intake were estimated for each type of food. The costs were calculated per day, per 1000 kcal of metabolizable energy of product and per kg of metabolic weight of the animal. Fourteen complete and balanced homemade diets were formulated, and in each proposed group, two diets with different protein sources were used. Under the conditions of the present study, it was possible to conclude that homemade diets were more expensive than dry maintenance diets and dry therapeutic diets, while commercial wet diets were more expensive in all of the scenarios.

Economic feasibility of a complete diet industrial production project for horses

This study evaluated the economic viability of industrial production of complete diets for equine species, using threesources of fiber (dehydrated whole corn plant, dehydrated elephant grass, or Tifton 85 hay) submitted to two typesof thermal processing (pelleting or extrusion). A survey and elaboration of costs from the agricultural production ofroughage to the commercialization of the final product was conducted. Three scenarios were compared: S1 – basalprice of complete diet (ingredients supplied together, but purchased separately); S2 – price of S1 plus 10%; S3 – priceof S1 plus 20%. Profitability indicators applied were internal rate of return (IRR) and net present value (NPV). Simplepayback was used to verify return on investment time. Sensitivity analysis was performed to identify the items thatmost influence the economic results. Simple payback ranged from one to six years. The highest values of IRR (>100%per year) and NPV were obtained for the extruded diets in scenario 3. Only the pelletized diet containing Tifton 85 hayin scenario 1 was not economically feasible, presenting negative IRR. The inputs make up the item with the greatestburden on the production process (mean 89%). Except for pelletized diet containing Tifton 85 hay in scenario 1, theother projects present IRR above the minimum attractiveness rate (MAR) and were considered economically feasible.

Economic feasibility of hay enriched extruded production as a complete diet for equine

O presente estudo objetivou avaliar a viabilidade econômica de um projeto de produção e comercialização do Feno Enriquecido Extrusado (FEE) como dieta completa para equinos. O estudo baseou-se em levantamento de dados e cotação de preços de atividades que envolvem desde o preparo da terra (correção, plantio e adubação) até o beneficiamento do produto na fábrica (extrusão) e comercialização. Foram considerados também os custos com transporte e tributações. Para o cálculo dos indicadores de rentabilidade utilizou-se o método do Fluxo de Caixa Descontado (período de 30 anos) e da Demonstração de Resultados do Exercício (DRE). Os cálculos foram desenvolvidos utilizando planilhas eletrônicas do pacote Microsoft Office Excel®. Foram simulados três cenários de produção com diferentes preços ao consumidor: Cenário 1) equivalente à dieta completa, onde os ingredientes são fornecidos em conjunto, mas adquiridos separadamente; Cenário 2) considerando um valor 10% maior que o da dieta completa; Cenário 3) considerando um valor 20% maior que o da dieta completa. Pôde-se observar que o projeto foi viável economicamente nos três cenários sugeridos com Valor Presente Líquido (VPL) positivo, Taxa Interna de Retorno (TIR) maior que 9,4% aa e payback de 11 a 2 anos. A produção de FEE pode ser um investimento promissor tanto pela qualidade do produto e facilidade de uso quanto pelo rápido retorno do capital investido.

Lamb Production Costs: Analyses of Composition and Elasticities Analysis of Lamb Production Costs

Since lamb is a commodity, producers cannot control the price of the product they sell. Therefore, managing production costs is a necessity. We explored the study of elasticities as a tool for basing decision-making in sheep production, and aimed at investigating the composition and elasticities of lamb production costs, and their influence on the performance of the activity. A representative sheep production farm, designed in a panel meeting, was the base for calculation of lamb production cost. We then performed studies of: i) costs composition, and ii) cost elasticities for prices of inputs and for zootechnical indicators. Variable costs represented 64.15% of total cost, while 21.66% were represented by operational fixed costs, and 14.19% by the income of the factors. As for elasticities to input prices, the opportunity cost of land was the item to which production cost was more sensitive: a 1% increase in its price would cause a 0.2666% increase in lamb cost. Meanwhile, the impact of increasing any technical indicator was significantly higher than the impact of rising input prices. A 1% increase in weight at slaughter, for example, would reduce total cost in 0.91%. The greatest obstacle to economic viability of sheep production under the observed conditions is low technical efficiency. Increased production costs are more related to deficient zootechnical indexes than to high expenses.

Technological characterization of sheep production systems in Brazil

Sheep production has expanded in Brazil focusing on lamb meat, mostly to meet demanding internal markets in the state of São Paulo. Such markets present a demand which internal production is insufficient to meet. However, sheep farmers face many technical difficulties to produce quality lambs at viable costs. This study aimed at investigating the main characteristics of sheep production systems of the state of São Paulo, Brazil, in order to provide resources for the development of technologies, policies and other initiatives focused on the activity. We designed in panel meetings the characteristics of representative sheep farms in five regions of the state, concerning: (i) property and manpower profile; (ii) flock; (iii) handling techniques; (iv) facilities and equipment; (v) food production; and (vi) technical indicators. Results demonstrate that the predominant sheep farming in the state employs low technology, presenting low productivity despite its evolution in recent years. We verified great technical deficiency regarding farmers, who are new in this business and usually do not have access to technologies. Producers' unawareness about basic handling procedures and techniques as well as their lack of flock records can contribute to the activity's unsustainability. There is need for improving rural extension and diffusion of technologies.

Viabilidade econômico-financeira de sistemas de produção de cordeiros não desmamados em pastagem com suplementação em cocho ou pasto privativo

Objetivou-se analisar os custos e a rentabilidade de sistemas de produção de ovinos em pastagem sob três estratégias de suplementação de cordeiros lactentes: (1) creep grazing de trevo branco; (2) creep feeding; e (3) sem suplementação. Utilizaram-se dois métodos de análise financeira: análise anual (de curto prazo) e de fluxo de caixa (de longo prazo). Os custos foram segmentados em variáveis, fixos, operacionais e totais. O fator de produção que exerceu maior influência no custo variável da produção foi a alimentação, e no custo total foi o custo de oportunidade do capital imobilizado. O sistema com creep grazing não apresentou resultados econômico-financeiros superiores aos com creep feeding.

Associação de probióticos adicionados à dieta de leitões no aleitamento e na creche: índices zootécnicos e economicidade

O experimento foi realizado com o objetivo de investigar efeitos zootécnicos e econômicos da associação de probióticos adicionados à dieta de leitões no aleitamento e na creche. Foram utilizados 144 leitões do nascimento até os 62 dias de idade. No aleitamento o delineamento foi inteiramente casualizado com dois tratamentos: Controle e Probiótico A. Na creche, foram blocos casualizados com arranjo fatorial de tratamentos 2x3: Probiótico A e Probiótico B; Controle e Probiótico B; Probiótico A e Probiótico A; Controle e Controle; Probiótico A e animais desafiados; e Controle e animais desafiados. Aos 35 dias de idade 48 animais da creche foram inoculados com Salmonella Typhimurium via oral. Avaliou-se peso médio, consumo médio de ração, o ganho de peso médio e a conversão alimentar. Para a análise econômica, calcularam-se os custos das dietas durante a creche e o desempenho da receita de comercialização dos animais. O consumo de ração utilizado na análise corresponde àquele ocorrido no período total de 21 a 62 dias de idade. Na maternidade não foi observado efeito nos parâmetros avaliados. Na creche, a conversão alimentar foi favorável ao tratamento Probiótico A Probiótico A. Na avaliação econômica o tratamento Controle Probiótico B apresentou menor custo em relação aos demais, podendo, assim, representar uma alternativa satisfatória.

EFEITO DE ATRIBUTOS ASSOCIADOS AO TRABALHO SOBRE A EFICIÊNCIA DA INSENSIBILIZAÇÃO NO ABATE DE BOVINOS

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Viabilidade econômica de um sistema de produção de pecuária bovina sob alta lotação: uso na pesquisa e na pecuária comercial

Um estudo de viabilidade foi desenvolvido para verificação da economicidade de um sistema de produção de ciclo completo de pecuária de bovinos de corte, sob alta lotação, concebido para a utilização em pesquisas na FMVZ/USP. Foram utilizados nove cenários - definidos a partir da variação de preços dos produtos vendidos e utilização de capital próprio e de recursos de financiamento rural via Programas do BNDES. Adicionalmente, utilizouse um décimo cenário - considerando o arrendamento de área liberada a partir da intensificação do sistema de produção. O método de análise econômica utilizado foi o de Fluxo de Caixa e as técnicas aplicadas foram: Payback Simples, Payback Descontado, Valor Presente Líquido e Taxa Interna de Retorno. O sistema mostrouse economicamente viável estritamente para o cenário que considerou o nível máximo de projeção de preços da arroba da carne e para o cenário que considerou o arrendamento de área liberada a partir da intensificação do sistema de produção. A utilização de financiamento via Programa de Crédito Rural do BNDES proporcionou melhora expressiva nos resultados e índices utilizados na análise.

O ensino da "extensão rural" nos cursos superiores de medicina veterinária no Brasil

Esta pesquisa investigou como os Cursos Superiores de Medicina Veterinária no Brasil (CSMV) estão oferecendo conhecimentos relacionados à "Extensão Rural". Foram aplicados questionários aos 149 cursos de Medicina Veterinária em funcionamento. Deste universo, obteve-se uma amostra de 57 entrevistados que responderam à pesquisa (38,3%). Em que pesem as mudanças curriculares após o Parecer 105/2002, a disciplina ainda é oferecida na maioria (97%) dos cursos, evidenciando o reconhecimento de sua importância na formação dos alunos de graduação. Três aspectos observados merecem reflexão: a heterogeneidade na carga horária da disciplina, variando de 30 a 90 horas/semestre; certa heterogeneidade da inserção (semestre/período) na grade, podendo constar desde o segundo até o último período; e a ampla gama de temas que constam nos programas. Sugere-se que os programas da disciplina de Extensão Rural, a serem oferecidos nos CSMV, procurem inserir três pontos que se entende serem importantes, mas nem sempre abordados: i) a "extensão rural" com seus múltiplos enfoques (serviço público para o desenvolvimento holístico das famílias rurais, assistência técnica propriamente dita, difusão de tecnologia, prática pedagógica, processo de comunicação etc.); ii) temas relacionados diretamente à atuação do médico veterinário (tais como a relação da extensão com a sanidade animal e humana, a defesa agropecuária etc.); e iii) temas emergentes relacionados a áreas multidisciplinares, especialmente a sustentabilidade, o meio ambiente e o bem-estar animal.