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Becker J, Burik CAP, Goldman G, Wang N, Jayashankar H, Bennett M, Belsky DW, Karlsson Linnér R, Ahlskog R, Kleinman A, Hinds DA, Caspi A, Corcoran DL, Moffitt TE, Poulton R, Sugden K, Williams BS, Harris KM, Steptoe A, Ajnakina O, Milani L, Esko T, Iacono WG, McGue M, Magnusson PKE, Mallard TT, Harden KP, Tucker-Drob EM, Herd P, Freese J, Young A, Beauchamp JP, Koellinger PD, Oskarsson S, Johannesson M, Visscher PM, Meyer MN, Laibson D, Cesarini D, Benjamin DJ, Turley P, Okbay A. Resource profile and user guide of the Polygenic Index Repository. Nat Hum Behav 2021; 5:1744-1758. [PMID: 34140656 PMCID: PMC8678380 DOI: 10.1038/s41562-021-01119-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Polygenic indexes (PGIs) are DNA-based predictors. Their value for research in many scientific disciplines is growing rapidly. As a resource for researchers, we used a consistent methodology to construct PGIs for 47 phenotypes in 11 datasets. To maximize the PGIs' prediction accuracies, we constructed them using genome-wide association studies-some not previously published-from multiple data sources, including 23andMe and UK Biobank. We present a theoretical framework to help interpret analyses involving PGIs. A key insight is that a PGI can be understood as an unbiased but noisy measure of a latent variable we call the 'additive SNP factor'. Regressions in which the true regressor is this factor but the PGI is used as its proxy therefore suffer from errors-in-variables bias. We derive an estimator that corrects for the bias, illustrate the correction, and make a Python tool for implementing it publicly available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Becker
- Department of Economics, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Casper A P Burik
- Department of Economics, School of Business and Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Grant Goldman
- National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Nancy Wang
- National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | | | - Daniel W Belsky
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
- Robert N. Butler Columbia Aging Center, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Richard Karlsson Linnér
- Department of Economics, School of Business and Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Rafael Ahlskog
- Department of Government, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | | | - Avshalom Caspi
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
- Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
- Center for Genomic and Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - David L Corcoran
- Center for Genomic and Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Terrie E Moffitt
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
- Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
- Center for Genomic and Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Richie Poulton
- Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Research Unit, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Karen Sugden
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | | | - Kathleen Mullan Harris
- Department of Sociology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Andrew Steptoe
- Department of Behavioural Science and Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Olesya Ajnakina
- Department of Behavioural Science and Health, University College London, London, UK
- Department of Biostatistics and Health Informatics, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Lili Milani
- Institute of Genomics, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Tõnu Esko
- Institute of Genomics, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - William G Iacono
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Matt McGue
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Patrik K E Magnusson
- Swedish Twin Registry, Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Travis T Mallard
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - K Paige Harden
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
- Population Research Center, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Elliot M Tucker-Drob
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
- Population Research Center, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Pamela Herd
- McCourt School of Public Policy, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Jeremy Freese
- Department of Sociology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Alexander Young
- UCLA Anderson School of Management, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Human Genetics Department, UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Jonathan P Beauchamp
- Interdisciplinary Center for Economic Science and Department of Economics, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA
| | - Philipp D Koellinger
- Department of Economics, School of Business and Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Robert M. La Follette School of Public Affairs, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Sven Oskarsson
- Department of Government, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Magnus Johannesson
- Department of Economics, Stockholm School of Economics, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Peter M Visscher
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michelle N Meyer
- Center for Translational Bioethics and Health Care Policy, Geisinger Health System, Danville, PA, USA
| | - David Laibson
- National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Economics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - David Cesarini
- Department of Economics, New York University, New York, NY, USA.
- National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Daniel J Benjamin
- National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- UCLA Anderson School of Management, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
- Human Genetics Department, UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Patrick Turley
- Center for Economic and Social Research, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
- Department of Economics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Aysu Okbay
- Department of Economics, School of Business and Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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Meddens SFW, de Vlaming R, Bowers P, Burik CAP, Linnér RK, Lee C, Okbay A, Turley P, Rietveld CA, Fontana MA, Ghanbari M, Imamura F, McMahon G, van der Most PJ, Voortman T, Wade KH, Anderson EL, Braun KVE, Emmett PM, Esko T, Gonzalez JR, Kiefte-de Jong JC, Langenberg C, Luan J, Muka T, Ring S, Rivadeneira F, Snieder H, van Rooij FJA, Wolffenbuttel BHR, Smith GD, Franco OH, Forouhi NG, Ikram MA, Uitterlinden AG, van Vliet-Ostaptchouk JV, Wareham NJ, Cesarini D, Harden KP, Lee JJ, Benjamin DJ, Chow CC, Koellinger PD. Genomic analysis of diet composition finds novel loci and associations with health and lifestyle. Mol Psychiatry 2021; 26:2056-2069. [PMID: 32393786 PMCID: PMC7767645 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-020-0697-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2018] [Revised: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
We conducted genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of relative intake from the macronutrients fat, protein, carbohydrates, and sugar in over 235,000 individuals of European ancestries. We identified 21 unique, approximately independent lead SNPs. Fourteen lead SNPs are uniquely associated with one macronutrient at genome-wide significance (P < 5 × 10-8), while five of the 21 lead SNPs reach suggestive significance (P < 1 × 10-5) for at least one other macronutrient. While the phenotypes are genetically correlated, each phenotype carries a partially unique genetic architecture. Relative protein intake exhibits the strongest relationships with poor health, including positive genetic associations with obesity, type 2 diabetes, and heart disease (rg ≈ 0.15-0.5). In contrast, relative carbohydrate and sugar intake have negative genetic correlations with waist circumference, waist-hip ratio, and neighborhood deprivation (|rg| ≈ 0.1-0.3) and positive genetic correlations with physical activity (rg ≈ 0.1 and 0.2). Relative fat intake has no consistent pattern of genetic correlations with poor health but has a negative genetic correlation with educational attainment (rg ≈-0.1). Although our analyses do not allow us to draw causal conclusions, we find no evidence of negative health consequences associated with relative carbohydrate, sugar, or fat intake. However, our results are consistent with the hypothesis that relative protein intake plays a role in the etiology of metabolic dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Fleur W. Meddens
- grid.12380.380000 0004 1754 9227Department of Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands ,grid.6906.90000000092621349Department of Applied Economics, Erasmus School of Economics, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Burgemeester, Oudlaan 50, 3062 PA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ronald de Vlaming
- grid.12380.380000 0004 1754 9227Department of Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Peter Bowers
- grid.38142.3c000000041936754XDepartment of Economics, Harvard University, 1805 Cambridge St, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA
| | - Casper A. P. Burik
- grid.12380.380000 0004 1754 9227Department of Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Richard Karlsson Linnér
- grid.12380.380000 0004 1754 9227Department of Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Chanwook Lee
- grid.38142.3c000000041936754XDepartment of Economics, Harvard University, 1805 Cambridge St, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA
| | - Aysu Okbay
- grid.12380.380000 0004 1754 9227Department of Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Patrick Turley
- grid.32224.350000 0004 0386 9924Analytical and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Richard B. Simches Research building, 185 Cambridge St, CPZN-6818, Boston, MA 02114 USA ,grid.66859.34Stanley Center for Psychiatric Genomics, The Broad Institute at Harvard and MIT, 75 Ames St, Cambridge, MA 02142 USA ,grid.42505.360000 0001 2156 6853Behavioral and Health Genomics Center, Center for Economic and Social Research, University of Southern, California, 635 Downey Way, Los Angeles, CA 90089 USA
| | - Cornelius A. Rietveld
- grid.6906.90000000092621349Department of Applied Economics, Erasmus School of Economics, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Burgemeester, Oudlaan 50, 3062 PA Rotterdam, The Netherlands ,grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 GE Rotterdam, The Netherlands ,grid.6906.90000000092621349Erasmus University Rotterdam Institute for Behavior and Biology, Erasmus School of Economics, Erasmus, University Rotterdam, Burgemeester Oudlaan 50, 3062 PA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Mark Alan Fontana
- grid.239915.50000 0001 2285 8823Center for the Advancement of Value in Musculoskeletal Care, Hospital for Special Surgery, 535 East 70th Street, New York, NY 10021 USA ,grid.5386.8000000041936877XDepartment of Healthcare Policy and Research, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, 402 East 67th Street, New York, NY 10065 USA
| | - Mohsen Ghanbari
- grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 GE Rotterdam, The Netherlands ,grid.411583.a0000 0001 2198 6209Department of Genetics, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Azadi Square, University Campus, 9177948564 Mashhad, Iran
| | - Fumiaki Imamura
- MRC Epidemiology Unit, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Institute of Metabolic Science, Cambridge Biomedical Campus Cambridge, CB2 0QQ Cambridge, UK
| | - George McMahon
- grid.5337.20000 0004 1936 7603Integrative Epidemiology Unit, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Oakfield House, Oakfield Grove, BS8 2BN Bristol, UK
| | - Peter J. van der Most
- grid.4494.d0000 0000 9558 4598Department of Epidemiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Trudy Voortman
- grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 GE Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kaitlin H. Wade
- grid.5337.20000 0004 1936 7603Integrative Epidemiology Unit, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Oakfield House, Oakfield Grove, BS8 2BN Bristol, UK
| | - Emma L. Anderson
- grid.5337.20000 0004 1936 7603Integrative Epidemiology Unit, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Oakfield House, Oakfield Grove, BS8 2BN Bristol, UK
| | - Kim V. E. Braun
- grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 GE Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Pauline M. Emmett
- grid.5337.20000 0004 1936 7603Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Oakfield House, Oakfield Grove, BS8, 2BN, Bristol, UK
| | - Tonũ Esko
- grid.10939.320000 0001 0943 7661Estonian Genome Center, University of Tartu, Riia 23b, Tartu, 51010 Estonia
| | - Juan R. Gonzalez
- grid.434607.20000 0004 1763 3517Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Doctor Aiguader, 88, Barcelona, 8003 Spain ,grid.5612.00000 0001 2172 2676Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Ramon Trias Fargas 25-27, Barcelona, 8005 Spain ,grid.413448.e0000 0000 9314 1427CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Pabellón 11, Calle Monforte de Lemos, 3-5, Madrid, 280229 Spain
| | - Jessica C. Kiefte-de Jong
- grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 GE Rotterdam, The Netherlands ,grid.5132.50000 0001 2312 1970Leiden University College, Anna van Buerenplein 301, 2595 DG Den Haag, The Netherlands
| | - Claudia Langenberg
- MRC Epidemiology Unit, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Institute of Metabolic Science, Cambridge Biomedical Campus Cambridge, CB2 0QQ Cambridge, UK
| | - Jian’an Luan
- MRC Epidemiology Unit, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Institute of Metabolic Science, Cambridge Biomedical Campus Cambridge, CB2 0QQ Cambridge, UK
| | - Taulant Muka
- grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 GE Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Susan Ring
- grid.5337.20000 0004 1936 7603Integrative Epidemiology Unit, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Oakfield House, Oakfield Grove, BS8 2BN Bristol, UK
| | - Fernando Rivadeneira
- grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC University Medical Center, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 GE Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Harold Snieder
- grid.4494.d0000 0000 9558 4598Department of Epidemiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Frank J. A. van Rooij
- grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 GE Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Bruce H. R. Wolffenbuttel
- grid.4494.d0000 0000 9558 4598Department of Endocrinology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | - George Davey Smith
- grid.5337.20000 0004 1936 7603Integrative Epidemiology Unit, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Oakfield House, Oakfield Grove, BS8 2BN Bristol, UK
| | - Oscar H. Franco
- grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 GE Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nita G. Forouhi
- MRC Epidemiology Unit, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Institute of Metabolic Science, Cambridge Biomedical Campus Cambridge, CB2 0QQ Cambridge, UK
| | - M. Arfan Ikram
- grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 GE Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Andre G. Uitterlinden
- grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC University Medical Center, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 GE Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jana V. van Vliet-Ostaptchouk
- grid.4494.d0000 0000 9558 4598Department of Endocrinology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands ,grid.4494.d0000 0000 9558 4598Genomics Coordination Center, Department of Genetics, University of Groningen, University Medical Center, Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Nick J. Wareham
- MRC Epidemiology Unit, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Institute of Metabolic Science, Cambridge Biomedical Campus Cambridge, CB2 0QQ Cambridge, UK
| | - David Cesarini
- grid.137628.90000 0004 1936 8753Department of Economics, New York University, 19 W. 4th Street, New York, NY 10012 USA
| | - K. Paige Harden
- grid.89336.370000 0004 1936 9924Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, 108 E. Dean Keeton Stop #A8000, Austin, TX 78704 USA
| | - James J. Lee
- grid.17635.360000000419368657Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, 75 East River Parkway, Minneapolis, MN 55455 USA
| | - Daniel J. Benjamin
- grid.42505.360000 0001 2156 6853Behavioral and Health Genomics Center, Center for Economic and Social Research, University of Southern, California, 635 Downey Way, Los Angeles, CA 90089 USA ,grid.250279.b0000 0001 0940 3170National Bureau of Economic Research, 1050 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA ,grid.42505.360000 0001 2156 6853Department of Economics, University of Southern California, 635 Downey Way, Los Angeles, CA 90089 USA
| | - Carson C. Chow
- grid.94365.3d0000 0001 2297 5165Laboratory of Biological Modeling, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National, Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | - Philipp D. Koellinger
- grid.12380.380000 0004 1754 9227Department of Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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3
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Bansal V, Mitjans M, Burik CAP, Linnér RK, Okbay A, Rietveld CA, Begemann M, Bonn S, Ripke S, de Vlaming R, Nivard MG, Ehrenreich H, Koellinger PD. Genome-wide association study results for educational attainment aid in identifying genetic heterogeneity of schizophrenia. Nat Commun 2018; 9:3078. [PMID: 30082721 PMCID: PMC6079028 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-05510-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Higher educational attainment (EA) is negatively associated with schizophrenia (SZ). However, recent studies found a positive genetic correlation between EA and SZ. We investigate possible causes of this counterintuitive finding using genome-wide association study results for EA and SZ (N = 443,581) and a replication cohort (1169 controls; 1067 cases) with deeply phenotyped SZ patients. We find strong genetic dependence between EA and SZ that cannot be explained by chance, linkage disequilibrium, or assortative mating. Instead, several genes seem to have pleiotropic effects on EA and SZ, but without a clear pattern of sign concordance. Using EA as a proxy phenotype, we isolate FOXO6 and SLITRK1 as novel candidate genes for SZ. Our results reveal that current SZ diagnoses aggregate over at least two disease subtypes: one part resembles high intelligence and bipolar disorder (BIP), while the other part is a cognitive disorder that is independent of BIP.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Bansal
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hermann-Rein-Straße 3, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
- Research Group for Computational Systems Biology, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Von-Siebold-Straße 3A, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
- Institute of Medical Systems Biology, Center for Molecular Neurobiology, University Clinic Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251, Hamburg, Germany
| | - M Mitjans
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hermann-Rein-Straße 3, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
- DFG Research Center for Nanoscale Microscopy and Molecular Physiology of the Brain (CNMPB), Humboldtallee 23, 30703, Göttingen, Germany
| | - C A P Burik
- Complex Trait Genetics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085 B-631, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Institute for Behavior and Biology, Erasmus University Rotterdam, P.O. Box 1738, 3000 DR, Rotterdam, Netherlands
- School of Business and Economics, Department of Economics, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - R K Linnér
- Complex Trait Genetics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085 B-631, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Institute for Behavior and Biology, Erasmus University Rotterdam, P.O. Box 1738, 3000 DR, Rotterdam, Netherlands
- School of Business and Economics, Department of Economics, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - A Okbay
- Complex Trait Genetics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085 B-631, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- School of Business and Economics, Department of Economics, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - C A Rietveld
- Institute for Behavior and Biology, Erasmus University Rotterdam, P.O. Box 1738, 3000 DR, Rotterdam, Netherlands
- Erasmus School of Economics, Erasmus University Rotterdam, P.O. Box 1738, 3000 DR, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - M Begemann
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hermann-Rein-Straße 3, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry & Psychotherapy, University of Göttingen, Von-Siebold-Straße 5, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - S Bonn
- Research Group for Computational Systems Biology, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Von-Siebold-Straße 3A, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
- Institute of Medical Systems Biology, Center for Molecular Neurobiology, University Clinic Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251, Hamburg, Germany
| | - S Ripke
- Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, 02114 MA, Boston, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, 02142 MA, Cambridge, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Mitte, Berlin, 10117, Germany
| | - R de Vlaming
- Complex Trait Genetics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085 B-631, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- School of Business and Economics, Department of Economics, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - M G Nivard
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, van der Boechorststraat 1, 1081 BT, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - H Ehrenreich
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hermann-Rein-Straße 3, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
- DFG Research Center for Nanoscale Microscopy and Molecular Physiology of the Brain (CNMPB), Humboldtallee 23, 30703, Göttingen, Germany
| | - P D Koellinger
- Complex Trait Genetics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085 B-631, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
- Institute for Behavior and Biology, Erasmus University Rotterdam, P.O. Box 1738, 3000 DR, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
- School of Business and Economics, Department of Economics, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
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