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Fernández-Soto D, García-Jiménez ÁF, Casasnovas JM, Valés-Gómez M, Reyburn HT. Elevated levels of cell-free NKG2D-ligands modulate NKG2D surface expression and compromise NK cell function in severe COVID-19 disease. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1273942. [PMID: 38410511 PMCID: PMC10895954 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1273942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction It is now clear that coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) severity is associated with a dysregulated immune response, but the relative contributions of different immune cells is still not fully understood. SARS CoV-2 infection triggers marked changes in NK cell populations, but there are contradictory reports as to whether these effector lymphocytes play a protective or pathogenic role in immunity to SARS-CoV-2. Methods To address this question we have analysed differences in the phenotype and function of NK cells in SARS-CoV-2 infected individuals who developed either very mild, or life-threatening COVID-19 disease. Results Although NK cells from patients with severe disease appeared more activated and the frequency of adaptive NK cells was increased, they were less potent mediators of ADCC than NK cells from patients with mild disease. Further analysis of peripheral blood NK cells in these patients revealed that a population of NK cells that had lost expression of the activating receptor NKG2D were a feature of patients with severe disease and this correlated with elevated levels of cell free NKG2D ligands, especially ULBP2 and ULBP3 in the plasma of critically ill patients. In vitro, culture in NKG2DL containing patient sera reduced the ADCC function of healthy donor NK cells and this could be blocked by NKG2DL-specific antibodies. Discussion These observations of reduced NK function in severe disease are consistent with the hypothesis that defects in immune surveillance by NK cells permit higher levels of viral replication, rather than that aberrant NK cell function contributes to immune system dysregulation and immunopathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Fernández-Soto
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology (CNB), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Álvaro F. García-Jiménez
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology (CNB), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - José M. Casasnovas
- Department of Macromolecular Structures, National Centre for Biotechnology (CNB), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Mar Valés-Gómez
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology (CNB), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Hugh T. Reyburn
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology (CNB), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
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2
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Albert E, Fernández-Soto D, Giménez E, Casanovas JM, Zulaica J, Álvarez-Rodríguez B, Rusu L, Geller R, Reyburn HT, Navarro D. Antibody-dependent NK-cell and neutralizing antibody responses against the Spike protein of Wuhan-Hu-1 and Omicron BA.1 SARS-CoV-2 variants in vaccinated experienced and vaccinated naïve individuals. J Med Virol 2023; 95:e28900. [PMID: 37403730 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.28900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/06/2023]
Abstract
Antibodies triggering Fc-mediated NK cell activity may contribute to protection against disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection in humans. However, how these Fc-mediated humoral responses compare between individuals displaying hybrid immunity (Vac-ex) and those fully vaccinated with no history of SARS-CoV-2 infection (Vac-n) and whether they correlate with neutralizing antibody (NtAb) responses remains largely undetermined. In this retrospective study serum samples from 50 individuals (median age, 44.5 years; range, 11-85; 25 males), 25 Vac-ex and 25 Vac-n were studied. A flow-cytometry-based antibody-mediated NK-cell activation assay was used to quantitate effector NK-cells stimulated to express LAMP1 (lysosomal associated membrane protein 1), MIP1 (Macrophage inflammatory protein 1), and interferon-γ (IFNγ); NK cells isolated from two donors (D1 and D2) were used. NtAb levels targeting the Spike protein of Wuhan-Hu-1 and Omicron BA.1 SARS-CoV-2 variants were quantitated using a SARS-CoV-2 S pseudotyped neutralization assay. Regardless of the SARS-CoV-2 variant S antigen used in the NK-cell activation assay, the frequency of NK cells stimulated to express LAMP-1, MIP1β, and IFNγ was higher in Vac-ex compared with Vac-n (p values ranging from 0.07 to 0.006) for D1; this was only seen for BA.1 when NK cells from D2 were employed. The frequency of functional NK cells activated by antibody binding to either Wuhan-Hu-1 or Omicron BA.1 S protein was not significantly different for both VAC-ex and VAC-n. In contrast, NtAb titers against BA.1 were around 10-fold lower than that against Wuhan-Hu-1. Vac-ex displayed higher NtAb titers against both (sub)variants than Vac-n. NK-cell responses correlated poorly with NtAb titers (ρ ≤ 0.30). The data demonstrate higher cross-reactivity across variants of concern for antibodies triggering Fc-mediated NK cell than for NtAb. Moreover, Vac-Ex seemed to display more robust functional antibody responses as compared with Vac-n.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliseo Albert
- Microbiology Service, Clinic University Hospital, INCLIVA Health Research Institute, Valencia, Spain
| | - Daniel Fernández-Soto
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology (CNB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Estela Giménez
- Microbiology Service, Clinic University Hospital, INCLIVA Health Research Institute, Valencia, Spain
- CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - José María Casanovas
- Department of Macromolecular Structures, National Centre for Biotechnology (CNB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Joao Zulaica
- Institute for Integrative Systems Biology (I2SysBio), Universitat de Valencia-CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Beatriz Álvarez-Rodríguez
- Department of Macromolecular Structures, National Centre for Biotechnology (CNB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Luciana Rusu
- Institute for Integrative Systems Biology (I2SysBio), Universitat de Valencia-CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Ron Geller
- Institute for Integrative Systems Biology (I2SysBio), Universitat de Valencia-CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Hugh T Reyburn
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology (CNB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - David Navarro
- Microbiology Service, Clinic University Hospital, INCLIVA Health Research Institute, Valencia, Spain
- CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
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García-Jiménez ÁF, Cáceres-Martell Y, Fernández-Soto D, Martínez Fleta P, Casasnovas JM, Sánchez-Madrid F, Frade JMR, Valés-Gómez M, Reyburn HT. Cross-reactive cellular, but not humoral, immunity is detected between OC43 and SARS-CoV-2 NPs in people not infected with SARS-CoV-2: Possible role of cT FH cells. J Leukoc Biol 2022; 112:339-346. [PMID: 35384035 PMCID: PMC9088540 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.4covcra0721-356rrr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple questions about SARS-CoV-2 humoral and cellular immunity remain unanswered. One key question is whether preexisting memory T or B cells, specific for related coronaviruses in SARS-CoV-2-unexposed individuals, can recognize and suppress COVID-19, but this issue remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 antigens are restricted to serum samples from COVID-19 convalescent individuals. In contrast, cross-reactive T cell proliferation and IFN-γ production responses were detected in PBMCs of around 30% of donor samples collected prepandemic, although we found that these prepandemic T cell responses only elicited weak cTFH activation upon stimulation with either HCoV-OC43 or SARS-CoV-2 NP protein. Overall, these observations confirm that T cell cross-reactive with SARS-CoV-2 antigens are present in unexposed people, but suggest that the T cell response to HCoV-OC43 could be deficient in some important aspects, like TFH expansion, that might compromise the generation of cross-reactive TFH cells and antibodies. Understanding these differences in cellular responses may be of critical importance to advance in our knowledge of immunity against SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yaiza Cáceres-Martell
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, CNB-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Daniel Fernández-Soto
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, CNB-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - José M Casasnovas
- Department of Macromolecular Structures, National Centre for Biotechnology, CNB-CSIC, CNB, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Mar Valés-Gómez
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, CNB-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Hugh T Reyburn
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, CNB-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
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Cáceres-Martell Y, Fernández-Soto D, Campos-Silva C, García-Cuesta EM, Casasnovas JM, Navas-Herrera D, Beneítez-Martínez A, Martínez-Fleta P, Alfranca A, Sánchez-Madrid F, Escudero-López G, Vilches C, Jara-Acevedo R, Reyburn HT, Rodríguez-Frade JM, Valés-Gómez M. Single-reaction multi-antigen serological test for comprehensive evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 patients by flow cytometry. Eur J Immunol 2021; 51:2633-2640. [PMID: 34358329 PMCID: PMC8420214 DOI: 10.1002/eji.202149319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Here, we describe a new, simple, highly multiplexed serological test that generates a more complete picture of seroconversion than single antigen‐based assays. Flow cytometry is used to detect multiple Ig isotypes binding to four SARS‐CoV‐2 antigens: the Spike glycoprotein, its RBD fragment (the main target for neutralizing antibodies), the nucleocapsid protein, and the main cysteine‐like protease in a single reaction. Until now, most diagnostic serological tests measured antibodies to only one antigen and in some laboratory‐confirmed patients no SARS‐CoV‐2‐specific antibodies could be detected. Our data reveal that while most patients respond against all the viral antigens tested, others show a marked bias to make antibodies against either proteins exposed on the viral particle or those released after cellular infection. With this assay, it was possible to discriminate between patients and healthy controls with 100% confidence. Analysing the response of multiple Ig isotypes to the four antigens in combination may also help to establish a correlation with the severity degree of disease. A more detailed description of the immune responses of different patients to SARS‐CoV‐2 virus might provide insight into the wide array of clinical presentations of COVID‐19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaiza Cáceres-Martell
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, CNB-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Daniel Fernández-Soto
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, CNB-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen Campos-Silva
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, CNB-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Eva M García-Cuesta
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, CNB-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jose M Casasnovas
- Department of Macromolecular Structures, National Centre for Biotechnology, CNB-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | | | - Arantzazu Alfranca
- Immunology Department, Hospital Universitario La Princesa IIS-IP, Madrid, Spain.,CIBER Cardiovascular Department, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Puerta de Hierro-Segovia de Arana, Majadahonda, Spain
| | - Francisco Sánchez-Madrid
- Immunology Department, Hospital Universitario La Princesa IIS-IP, Madrid, Spain.,CIBER Cardiovascular Department, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Puerta de Hierro-Segovia de Arana, Majadahonda, Spain
| | - Gabriela Escudero-López
- Internal Medicine Department, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Puerta de Hierro-Segovia de Arana, Majadahonda, Spain
| | - Carlos Vilches
- Immunology Department, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Puerta de Hierro-Segovia de Arana, Majadahonda, Spain
| | | | - Hugh T Reyburn
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, CNB-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - José M Rodríguez-Frade
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, CNB-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mar Valés-Gómez
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, CNB-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
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5
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Martínez-Fleta P, Alfranca A, González-Álvaro I, Casasnovas JM, Fernández-Soto D, Esteso G, Cáceres-Martell Y, Gardeta S, López-Sanz C, Prat S, Mateu-Albero T, Gabrie L, López-Granados E, Sánchez-Madrid F, Reyburn HT, Rodríguez Frade JM, Valés-Gómez M. SARS-CoV-2 Cysteine-like Protease Antibodies Can Be Detected in Serum and Saliva of COVID-19-Seropositive Individuals. J Immunol 2020; 205:3130-3140. [PMID: 33148714 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2000842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Currently, there is a need for reliable tests that allow identification of individuals that have been infected with SARS-CoV-2 even if the infection was asymptomatic. To date, the vast majority of the serological tests for SARS-CoV-2-specific Abs are based on serum detection of Abs to either the viral spike glycoprotein (the major target for neutralizing Abs) or the viral nucleocapsid protein that is known to be highly immunogenic in other coronaviruses. Conceivably, exposure of Ags released from infected cells could stimulate Ab responses that might correlate with tissue damage and, hence, they may have some value as a prognostic indicator. We addressed whether other nonstructural viral proteins, not incorporated into the infectious viral particle, specifically the viral cysteine-like protease, might also be potent immunogens. Using ELISA tests, coating several SARS-CoV-2 proteins produced in vitro, we describe that COVID-19 patients make high titer IgG, IgM, and IgA Ab responses to the Cys-like protease from SARS-CoV-2, also known as 3CLpro or Mpro, and it can be used to identify individuals with positive serology against the coronavirus. Higher Ab titers in these assays associated with more-severe disease, and no cross-reactive Abs against prior betacoronavirus were found. Remarkably, IgG Abs specific for Mpro and other SARS-CoV-2 Ags can also be detected in saliva. In conclusion, Mpro is a potent Ag in infected patients that can be used in serological tests, and its detection in saliva could be the basis for a rapid, noninvasive test for COVID-19 seropositivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Martínez-Fleta
- Immunology Department, University Teaching Hospital "La Princesa," La Princesa Health Research Institute, Madrid 28006, Spain
| | - Arantzazu Alfranca
- Immunology Department, University Teaching Hospital "La Princesa," La Princesa Health Research Institute, Madrid 28006, Spain.,Cardiovascular Centre for Biomedical Research Network, Health Institute Carlos III, Madrid 28029, Spain
| | - Isidoro González-Álvaro
- Immunology Department, University Teaching Hospital "La Princesa," La Princesa Health Research Institute, Madrid 28006, Spain.,Rheumatology Department, University Teaching Hospital "La Princesa," Madrid 28006, Spain
| | - Jose M Casasnovas
- Department of Macromolecular Structures, National Centre for Biotechnology-Spanish National Research Council, Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - Daniel Fernández-Soto
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, National Centre for Biotechnology-Spanish National Research Council, Madrid 28049, Spain; and
| | - Gloria Esteso
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, National Centre for Biotechnology-Spanish National Research Council, Madrid 28049, Spain; and
| | - Yaiza Cáceres-Martell
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, National Centre for Biotechnology-Spanish National Research Council, Madrid 28049, Spain; and
| | - Sofía Gardeta
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, National Centre for Biotechnology-Spanish National Research Council, Madrid 28049, Spain; and
| | - Celia López-Sanz
- Immunology Department, University Teaching Hospital "La Princesa," La Princesa Health Research Institute, Madrid 28006, Spain
| | - Salomé Prat
- Department of Macromolecular Structures, National Centre for Biotechnology-Spanish National Research Council, Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - Tamara Mateu-Albero
- Immunology Department, University Teaching Hospital "La Princesa," La Princesa Health Research Institute, Madrid 28006, Spain
| | - Ligia Gabrie
- Immunology Department, University Teaching Hospital "La Princesa," La Princesa Health Research Institute, Madrid 28006, Spain
| | | | - Francisco Sánchez-Madrid
- Immunology Department, University Teaching Hospital "La Princesa," La Princesa Health Research Institute, Madrid 28006, Spain.,Cardiovascular Centre for Biomedical Research Network, Health Institute Carlos III, Madrid 28029, Spain
| | - Hugh T Reyburn
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, National Centre for Biotechnology-Spanish National Research Council, Madrid 28049, Spain; and
| | - José M Rodríguez Frade
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, National Centre for Biotechnology-Spanish National Research Council, Madrid 28049, Spain; and
| | - Mar Valés-Gómez
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, National Centre for Biotechnology-Spanish National Research Council, Madrid 28049, Spain; and
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Dukovska D, Fernández-Soto D, Valés-Gómez M, Reyburn HT. NKG2H-Expressing T Cells Negatively Regulate Immune Responses. Front Immunol 2018; 9:390. [PMID: 29545803 PMCID: PMC5837990 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The biology and function of NKG2H receptor, unlike the better characterized members of the NKG2 family NKG2A, NKG2C, and NKG2D, remains largely unclear. Here, we show that NKG2H is able to associate with the signaling adapter molecules DAP12 and DAP10 suggesting that this receptor can signal for cell activation. Using a recently described NKG2H-specific monoclonal antibody (mAb), we have characterized the expression and function of lymphocytes that express this receptor. NKG2H is expressed at the cell surface of a small percentage of peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) and is found more frequently on T cells, rather than NK cells. Moreover, although NKG2H is likely to trigger activation, co-cross-linking of this receptor with an NKG2H-specific mAb led to decreased T cell activation and proliferation in polyclonal PBMC cultures stimulated by anti-CD3 mAbs. This negative regulatory activity was seen only after cross-linking with NKG2H, but not NKG2A- or NKG2C-specific monoclonal antibodies. The mechanism underlying this negative effect is as yet unclear, but did not depend on the release of soluble factors or recognition of MHC class I molecules. These observations raise the intriguing possibility that NKG2H may be a novel marker for T cells able to negatively regulate T cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Dukovska
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Daniel Fernández-Soto
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mar Valés-Gómez
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Hugh T Reyburn
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, National Centre for Biotechnology, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
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