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Aarde SM, Angrish D, Barlow DJ, Wright Jr MJ, Vandewater SA, Creehan KM, Houseknecht KL, Dickerson TJ, Taffe MA. Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) supports intravenous self-administration in Sprague-Dawley and Wistar rats. Addict Biol 2013; 18:786-99. [PMID: 23363010 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Recreational use of the drug 4-methylmethcathinone (mephedrone; 4-MMC) became increasingly popular in the United Kingdom in recent years, spurred in part by the fact that it was not criminalized until April 2010. Although several fatalities have been associated with consumption of 4-MMC and cautions for recreational users about its addictive potential have appeared on Internet forums, very little information about abuse liability for this drug is available. This study was conducted to determine if 4-MMC serves as a reinforcer in a traditional intravenous self-administration model. Groups of male Wistar and Sprague-Dawley rats were prepared with intravenous catheters and trained to self-administer 4-MMC in 1-hour sessions. Per-infusion doses of 0.5 and 1.0 mg/kg were consistently self-administered, resulting in greater than 80% discrimination for the drug-paired lever and mean intakes of about 2-3 mg/kg/hour. Dose-substitution studies after acquisition demonstrated that the number of responses and/or the total amount of drug self-administered varied as a function of dose. In addition, radiotelemetry devices were used to show that self-administered 4-MMC was capable of increasing locomotor activity (Wistar) and decreasing body temperature (Sprague-Dawley). Pharmacokinetic studies found that the T1/2 of 4-MMC was about 1 hour in vivo in rat plasma and 90 minutes using in vitro liver microsomal assays. This study provides evidence of stimulant-typical abuse liability for 4-MMC in the traditional pre-clinical self-administration model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawn M. Aarde
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders; The Scripps Research Institute; La Jolla; CA; USA
| | - Deepshikha Angrish
- Department of Chemistry; The Scripps Research Institute; La Jolla; CA; USA
| | - Deborah J. Barlow
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences; University of New England; Portland; ME; USA
| | - M. Jerry Wright Jr
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders; The Scripps Research Institute; La Jolla; CA; USA
| | - Sophia A. Vandewater
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders; The Scripps Research Institute; La Jolla; CA; USA
| | - Kevin M. Creehan
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders; The Scripps Research Institute; La Jolla; CA; USA
| | - Karen L. Houseknecht
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences; University of New England; Portland; ME; USA
| | - Tobin J. Dickerson
- Department of Chemistry; The Scripps Research Institute; La Jolla; CA; USA
| | - Michael A. Taffe
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders; The Scripps Research Institute; La Jolla; CA; USA
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Miller ML, Creehan K, Angrish D, Barlow DJ, Houseknecht KL, Dickerson TJ, Taffe MA. Changes in ambient temperature differentially alter the thermoregulatory, cardiac and locomotor stimulant effects of 4-methylmethcathinone (mephedrone). Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 127:248-53. [PMID: 22832282 PMCID: PMC3491086 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2012] [Revised: 07/05/2012] [Accepted: 07/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The substituted cathinone compound known as mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone; 4-MMC) has become popular with recreational users of psychomotor-stimulant compounds. Only recently have the first preclinical studies provided information about this drug in the scientific literature; nevertheless, media reports have led to drug control actions in the UK and across several US states. Rodent studies indicate that 4-MMC exhibits neuropharmacological similarity to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and prompt investigation of the thermoregulatory, cardiac and locomotor effects of 4-MMC. This study focuses on the role of ambient temperature, which has been shown to shift the effects of MDMA from hyperthermic to hypothermic. METHODS Male Sprague-Dawley rats were monitored after subcutaneous administration of 4-MMC (1.0-5.6 mg/kg) using an implantable radiotelemetry system under conditions of low (20 °C) and high (30 °C) ambient temperature. RESULTS A pharmacokinetic study found a T(max) of 0.25 h and a C(max) of 1206 ng/ml after 5.6 mg/kg 4-MMC. A dose-dependent reduction of body temperature was produced by 4-MMC at 20 °C but there was no temperature change at 30 °C. Increased locomotor activity was observed after 4-MMC administration under both ambient temperatures, however, significantly more activity was observed at 30 °C. Heart rate was slowed by 1.0 and 5.6 mg/kg 4-MMC at 20°C, and was slower in the 30 °C vs. 20 °C condition across all treatments. CONCLUSION These results show that the cathinone analog 4-MMC exhibits in vivo thermoregulatory properties that are distinct from those produced by MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. L. Miller
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - K.M. Creehan
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - D. Angrish
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - D. J. Barlow
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences; University of New England; Portland, ME 04103
| | - K. L. Houseknecht
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences; University of New England; Portland, ME 04103
| | - T. J. Dickerson
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - M. A. Taffe
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
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Huang PK, Aarde SM, Angrish D, Houseknecht KL, Dickerson TJ, Taffe MA. Contrasting effects of d-methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone, and 4-methylmethcathinone on wheel activity in rats. Drug Alcohol Depend 2012; 126:168-75. [PMID: 22664136 PMCID: PMC3439532 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2012] [Revised: 05/10/2012] [Accepted: 05/11/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reports from U.S., U.K. and European drug policy entities, and ongoing media accounts, show increasing recreational use of 4-methylmethcathinone (4-MMC, mephedrone) and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Severe sympathomimetic symptoms, hallucinations, psychoses, and even deaths have been reported, yet little scientific information is available on the effects of these compounds in laboratory models. Available studies on the neurochemistry of these drugs show that 4-MMC and MDPV enhance DA neurotransmission, while 4-MMC additionally enhances 5-HT neurotransmission--a pattern much like that reported for methamphetamine versus 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). As is the case for designer amphetamines, these neurochemical distinctions may predict differential potential for repetitive versus episodic abuse and distinct lasting toxicities. METHODS This study determined relative locomotor stimulant effects of 4-MMC (1-10 mg/kg, s.c.) and MDPV (0.5-5.6 mg/kg, s.c.), in comparison with d-methamphetamine (MA; 0.5-5.6 mg/kg, s.c.) and MDMA (1-7.5 mg/kg, s.c.) on a measure of locomotor activity--voluntary wheel running--in male Wistar rats (N=8). RESULTS Compared to counts of wheel rotations after saline, a biphasic change in the pattern of counts was observed after injections of MA and MDPV, with relatively higher counts following lower doses and lower counts following the highest dose. However, monophasic, dose-dependent reductions in counts were observed in response to injections of MDMA and 4-MMC. CONCLUSION Thus, voluntary wheel running yielded the same categorical distinctions for these drugs as did prior experiments testing the effects of these drugs on monoaminergic neurotransmission. These data indicate that MDPV produces prototypical locomotor stimulant effects whereas 4-MMC is more similar to the entactogen MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pai-Kai Huang
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, University of New England
| | - Shawn M. Aarde
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, University of New England
| | - Deepshikha Angrish
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, University of New England
| | | | - Tobin J. Dickerson
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, University of New England
| | - Michael A. Taffe
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, University of New England
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Wright MJ, Vandewater SA, Angrish D, Dickerson TJ, Taffe MA. Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) and d-methamphetamine improve visuospatial associative memory, but not spatial working memory, in rhesus macaques. Br J Pharmacol 2012; 167:1342-52. [PMID: 22748013 PMCID: PMC3504998 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.02091.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2012] [Revised: 06/03/2012] [Accepted: 06/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The novel cathinone derivative 4-methylmethcathinone (4-MMC; mephedrone) is increasingly popular with recreational users. Little scientific information is available but users report both entactogen-like and classic stimulant-like subjective properties. A recent study in humans reported psychomotor speed improvement after intranasal 4-MMC suggesting classic stimulant properties. Limitations of the user group (which was impaired on some tasks) prompt controlled laboratory investigation. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Adult male rhesus monkeys were trained to perform tasks from the non-human primate Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery, which assess spatial working memory, visuospatial associative memory, learning and motivation for food reward. Test of bimanual motor coordination and manual tracking were also included. The subjects were challenged with 0.178-0.56 mg·kg(-1) 4-MMC and 0.056-0.56 mg·kg(-1) d-methamphetamine (MA), i.m., in randomized order for behavioural evaluation. KEY RESULTS A pronounced improvement in visuospatial memory and learning was observed after the 0.32 mg·kg(-1) dose of each compound, this effect was confirmed with subsequent repetition of these conditions. Spatial working memory was not improved by either drug, and the progressive ratio, bimanual motor and rotating turntable tasks were all disrupted in a dose-dependent manner. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS These studies show that 4-MMC produces behavioural effects, including improvements in complex spatial memory and learning that are in large part similar to those of MA in non-human primates. Thus, the data suggest that the effects of 4-MMC in monkeys can be classified with classical psychomotor stimulants.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Wright
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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Wright MJ, Angrish D, Aarde SM, Barlow DJ, Buczynski MW, Creehan KM, Vandewater SA, Parsons LH, Houseknecht KL, Dickerson TJ, Taffe MA. Effect of ambient temperature on the thermoregulatory and locomotor stimulant effects of 4-methylmethcathinone in Wistar and Sprague-Dawley rats. PLoS One 2012; 7:e44652. [PMID: 22952999 PMCID: PMC3432134 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0044652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2012] [Accepted: 08/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The drug 4-methylmethcathinone (4-MMC; aka, mephedrone, MMCAT, “plant food”, “bath salts”) is a recent addition to the list of popular recreational psychomotor-stimulant compounds. Relatively little information about this drug is available in the scientific literature, but popular media reports have driven recent drug control actions in the UK and several US States. Online user reports of subjective similarity to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “Ecstasy”) prompted the current investigation of the thermoregulatory and locomotor effects of 4-MMC. Male Wistar and Sprague-Dawley rats were monitored after subcutaneous administration of 4-MMC (1–10 mg/kg ) using an implantable radiotelemetry system under conditions of low (23°C) and high (27°C) ambient temperature. A reliable reduction of body temperature was produced by 4-MMC in Wistar rats at 23°C or 27°C with only minimal effect in Sprague-Dawley rats. Increased locomotor activity was observed after 4-MMC administration in both strains with significantly more activity produced in the Sprague-Dawley strain. The 10 mg/kg s.c. dose evoked greater increase in extracellular serotonin, compared with dopamine, in the nucleus accumbens. Follow-up studies confirmed that the degree of locomotor stimulation produced by 10 mg/kg 4-MMC was nearly identical to that produced by 1 mg/kg d-methamphetamine in each strain. Furthermore, hypothermia produced by the serotonin 1A/7 receptor agonist 8-hydroxy-N,N-dipropyl-2-aminotetralin (8-OH-DPAT) was similar in each strain. These results show that the cathinone analog 4-MMC exhibits thermoregulatory and locomotor properties that are distinct from those established for methamphetamine or MDMA in prior work, despite recent evidence of neuropharmacological similarity with MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Jerry Wright
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Deepshikha Angrish
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Shawn M. Aarde
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Deborah J. Barlow
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of New England, Portland, Maine, United States of America
| | - Matthew W. Buczynski
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Kevin M. Creehan
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Sophia A. Vandewater
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Loren H. Parsons
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Karen L. Houseknecht
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of New England, Portland, Maine, United States of America
| | - Tobin J. Dickerson
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Michael A. Taffe
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Hodgson DM, Angrish D, Erickson SP, Kloesges J, Lee CH. Consecutive alkene cross-metathesis/oxonium ylide formation-rearrangement: synthesis of the anti-HIV agent hyperolactone C. Org Lett 2009; 10:5553-6. [PMID: 19053739 DOI: 10.1021/ol802334y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Alpha-diazo-beta-ketoesters bearing allylic ether functionality undergo highly stereoselective Ru-carbene-catalyzed alkene cross-metathesis followed by Rh(2)(OAc)(4)-catalyzed oxonium ylide formation/[2,3] sigmatropic rearrangement in a one-flask operation and in a highly diastereoselective manner. The methodology has been demonstrated in a concise synthesis of the anti-HIV agent hyperolactone C.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Hodgson
- Department of Chemistry, Chemistry Research Laboratory, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, UK.
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Hodgson DM, Angrish D. Highly Chemo- and Stereoselective Intermolecular Coupling of Diazoacetates To Givecis-Olefins by Using Grubbs Second-Generation Catalyst. Chemistry 2007; 13:3470-9. [PMID: 17290472 DOI: 10.1002/chem.200601692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Highly stereoselective formation of cis-2-ene-1,4-diesters by homo- and heterocoupling of alpha-diazoacetates in the presence of Grubbs second-generation catalyst is demonstrated. The dual reactivity of the catalyst in alkene metathesis and diazocoupling has been exploited in the synthesis of 12-26-membered macrocyclic dienyl dilactones by one-pot carbene dimerisation/ring-closing metathesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Hodgson
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, UK.
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Hodgson D, Angrish D. Oxapolycycles from One-Pot Cross-Metathesis/Carbonyl Ylide Formation-Intramolecular Cycloaddition of α-Diazo-β-keto Esters. Adv Synth Catal 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.200600306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Hodgson DM, Angrish D. Unsymmetrical maleates from stereoselective decomposition of diazoesters using Grubbs’ 2nd-generation Ru carbene catalyst. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molcata.2006.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Hodgson DM, Angrish D, Labande AH. One-pot cross-metathesis/tandem carbonyl ylide formation-intramolecular cycloaddition of an unsaturated 2-diazo-3,6-diketoester. Chem Commun (Camb) 2006:627-8. [PMID: 16446831 DOI: 10.1039/b515943a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Dicarbonyl-stabilised diazo functionality is tolerated during alkene cross-metathesis using Grubbs' catalyst, but undergoes subsequent tandem carbonyl ylide formation-intramolecular 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition on addition of catalytic Rh2(OAc)4 in a one-pot operation.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Hodgson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, Mansfield Road, Oxford, UKOX1 3TA.
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Hodgson DM, Angrish D. Maleates from diazoacetates and dilactones from head-to-head dimerisation of alkenyl diazoacetates using Grubbs' 2nd-generation ruthenium carbene catalyst. Chem Commun (Camb) 2005:4902-4. [PMID: 16205793 DOI: 10.1039/b510829b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Grubbs' 2nd-generation ruthenium carbene catalyst homocouples diazoacetates to maleates and also catalyses head-to-head dimerisation of alkenyl diazoacetates giving dienyl dilactones.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Hodgson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, Mansfield Road, Oxford, UKOX1 3TA.
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