Transdermal Opioids and the Quality of Life of the Cancer Patient: A Systematic Literature Review

OBJECTIVE

This systematic literature review aims to evaluate the effectiveness of transdermal opioids in managing cancer pain and their impact on the quality of life (QoL) of patients.

DATA SOURCES

A systematic literature review conducted following the PRISMA protocol, focusing on randomized clinical trials found in the Lilacs, Embase, PubMed, and SciELO databases over the last 20 years.

STUDY SELECTION AND DATA EXTRACTION

We included randomized clinical trials, published in English, Portuguese, or Spanish, which assessed the impact of transdermal opioids on the QoL. Data extraction was facilitated using the Rayyan app.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Six articles meeting the inclusion and exclusion criteria were analyzed. These studies covered a population ranging from 24 to 422 cancer patients experiencing moderate to severe pain. The risk of bias was assessed in each study, generally being categorized as uncertain or high.

RELEVANCE TO PATIENT CARE AND CLINICAL PRACTICE

The findings indicate that the analgesic effectiveness and side effects of transdermal formulations (specifically buprenorphine and fentanyl) for managing moderate to severe cancer pain are comparable to, or in some cases superior to, those of oral opioids traditionally employed.

CONCLUSIONS

Transdermal therapy was suggested to have several advantages over oral opioid therapy in enhancing cancer patients' QoL. These benefits span various dimensions, including pain management, physical functioning, mental health, vitality, overall patient improvement, anger/aversion, strength/activity, general QoL, cognitive and emotional functions, fatigue, and insomnia.

Most Relevant Neuropathic Pain Treatment and Chronic Low Back Pain Management Guidelines: A Change Pain Latin America Advisory Panel Consensus

Objective

Chronic pain conditions profoundly affect the daily living of a significant number of people and are a major economic and social burden, particularly in developing countries. The Change Pain Latin America (CPLA) advisory panel aimed to identify the most appropriate guidelines for the treatment of neuropathic pain (NP) and chronic low back pain (CLBP) for use across Latin America.

Methods

Published systematic reviews or practice guidelines were identified by a systematic search of PubMed, the Guidelines Clearinghouse, and Google. Articles were screened by an independent reviewer, and potential candidate guidelines were selected for more in-depth review. A shortlist of suitable guidelines was selected and critically evaluated by the CPLA advisory panel.

Results

Searches identified 674 and 604 guideline articles for NP and CLBP, respectively. Of these, 14 guidelines were shortlisted for consensus consideration, with the following final selections made: "Recommendations for the pharmacological management of neuropathic pain from the Neuropathic Pain Special Interest Group in 2015-pharmacotherapy for neuropathic pain in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis.""Diagnosis and treatment of low back pain: A joint clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians and the American Pain Society" (2007).

Conclusions

The selected guidelines were endorsed by all members of the CPLA advisory board as the best fit for use across Latin America. In addition, regional considerations were discussed and recorded. We have included this expert local insight and advice to enhance the implementation of each guideline across all Latin American countries.

Optimizing cancer pain management in resource-limited settings

Purpose

Adequate cancer pain management (CPM) is challenging in resource-limited settings, where current international guideline recommendations are difficult to implement owing to constraints such as inadequate availability and accessibility of opioids, limited awareness of appropriate opioid use among patients and clinicians, and lack of guidance on how to translate the best evidence into clinical practice. The multinational and multidisciplinary CAncer Pain managEment in Resource-limited settings (CAPER) Working Group proposes a two-step initiative to bridge clinical practice gaps in CPM in resource-limited settings.

Methods

A thorough review of the literature, a steering committee meeting in February 2017, and post-meeting teleconference discussions contributed to the development of this initiative. As a first step, we developed practical evidence-based CPM algorithms to support healthcare providers (HCPs) in tailoring treatment according to availability of and access to resources. The second part of the initiative proposes a framework to support an effective implementation of the CPM algorithms that includes an educational program, a pilot implementation, and an advocacy plan.

Results

We developed CPM algorithms for first-line use, breakthrough cancer pain, opioid rotation, and refractory cancer pain based on the National Comprehensive Cancer Network guidelines and expert consensus. Our proposed educational program emphasizes the practical elements and illustrates how HCPs can provide optimal CPM according to evidence-based guidelines despite varied resource limitations. Pilot studies are proposed to demonstrate the effectiveness of the algorithms and the educational program, as well as for providing evidence to support a draft advocacy document, to lobby policymakers to improve availability and accessibility of analgesics in resource-limited settings.

Conclusions

These practical evidence-informed algorithms and the implementation framework represent the first multinational step towards achieving optimal CPM in resource-limited settings.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s00520-018-4471-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Undertreatment of pain and low use of opioids in Latin America

Pain is highly prevalent among the adult Latin American population. However, many patients with moderate to severe pain do not have access to effective pain management with opioids due to limited access to healthcare, overuse of nonopioid analgesics, regulatory barriers and lack of appropriate information about opioids. There is scarce training on use of opioids among physicians and other healthcare providers, which leads to misconceptions, mainly related to a fear of prescribing opioids. Although opioids are safe and effective drugs for the treatment of moderate to severe chronic pain, the use of opioids in Latin American nations is clearly below standards compared with developed countries.

The role of tramadol in pain management in Latin America: a report by the Change Pain Latin America Advisory Panel

OBJECTIVE

Change Pain Latin America (CPLA) was created to enhance chronic pain understanding and develop pain management improving strategies in this region. During its seventh meeting (August 2016), the main objective was to discuss tramadol's role in treating pain in Latin America. Furthermore, potential pain management consequences were considered, if tramadol was to become more stringently controlled.

METHODS

Key topics discussed were: main indications for prescribing tramadol, its pharmacological characteristics, safety and tolerability, effects of restrictions on its availability and use, and consequent impact on pain care quality.

RESULTS

The experts agreed that tramadol is used to treat a wide spectrum of non-oncological pain conditions (e.g. post-surgical, musculoskeletal, post-traumatic, neuropathic, fibromyalgia), as well as cancer pain. Its relevance when treating special patient groups (e.g. the elderly) is recognized. The main reasons for tramadol's high significance as a treatment option are: its broad efficacy, an inconspicuous safety profile and its availability, considering that access to strong analgesics - mainly controlled drugs (classical opioids) - is highly restricted in some countries. The CPLA also agreed that tramadol is well tolerated, without the safety issues associated with long-term nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) use, with fewer opioid-like side effects than classical opioids and lower abuse risk.

CONCLUSIONS

In Latin America, tramadol is a valuable and frequently used medication for treating moderate to severe pain. More stringent regulations would have significant impact on its availability, especially for outpatients. This could cause regression to older and frequently inadequate pain management methods, resulting in unnecessary suffering for many Latin American patients.

Latin-American guidelines for opioid use in chronic nononcologic pain

Aim: Latin-American experts in the use of opioids in patients with chronic nononcologic pain (CNOP) have updated existing recommendations to current Latin-American reality. Methods: Several key opinion leaders from Latin America participated in a face-to-face meeting in Guatemala (April 2015) to discuss the use of opioids in CNOP. Subgroups of experts worked on specific topics, reviewed the literature and shaped the final manuscript. Results: The expert panel developed guidelines taking into consideration the utility of both opioid and nonopioid analgesics and factors pertaining to their efficacy, safety, adherence, administration and risks for abuse/addiction. Conclusion: Latin-American guidelines for the use of opioids in CNOP should improve pain relief and patients’ quality of life by increasing access to these effective agents.

[Optimizing post-operative pain management in Latin America]

Post-operative pain management is a significant problem in clinical practice in Latin America. Insufficient or inappropriate pain management is in large part due to insufficient knowledge, attitudes and education, and poor communications at various levels. In addition, the lack of awareness of the availability and importance of clear policies and guidelines for recording pain intensity, the use of specific analgesics and the proper approach to patient education have led to the consistent under-treatment of pain management in the region. However, these problems are not insurmountable and can be addressed at both the provider and patient level. Robust policies and guidelines can help insure continuity of care and reduce unnecessary variations in practice. The objective of this paper is to call attention to the problems associated with Acute Post-Operative Pain (APOP) and to suggest recommendations for their solutions in Latin America. A group of experts on anesthesiology, surgery and pain developed recommendations that will lead to more efficient and effective pain management. It will be necessary to change the knowledge and behavior of health professionals and patients, and to obtain a commitment of policy makers. Success will depend on a positive attitude and the commitment of each party through the development of policies, programs and the promotion of a more efficient and effective system for the delivery of APOP services as recommended by the authors of this paper. The writing group believes that implementation of these recommendations should significantly enhance efficient and effective post-operative pain management in Latin America.

Selenium and Zinc Status in Chronic Myofascial Pain: Serum and Erythrocyte Concentrations and Food Intake

INTRODUCTION

Nutritional disorders have been reported to be important causal factors that can intensify or cause a painful response in individuals with chronic musculoskeletal pain.

AIM

To assess the habitual intake of and the serum and erythrocyte levels of selenium and zinc in patients with chronic myofascial pain.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A case-control study of 31 patients with chronic myofascial pain (group I) and 31 subjects without pain (group II). Dietary record in five days for assessing food intake were used. The serum and erythrocyte concentrations of selenium and zinc were analyzed using an atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Pain intensity was assessed using a visual analog scale.

RESULTS

The group of patients with chronic myofascial pain, compared with the control group, showed a lower erythrocyte concentration of selenium (79.46 ± 19.79 μg/L vs. 90.80 ± 23.12 μg/L; p = 0.041) and zinc (30.56 ± 7.74 μgZn/gHb vs. 38.48 ± 14.86 μgZn/gHb, respectively; p = 0.004). In this study, a compromised food intake of zinc was observed in the majority of the subjects in both groups. The selenium intake was considered to be safe in 80% of the subjects in both groups; however, the likelihood of inadequate intake of this mineral was twice as high in group I (49.5% vs. 24.4%, respectively). In the logistic regression analysis, the erythrocyte concentration of zinc was associated with the presence of pain. In each additional 1 mg of Zn2+ per gram of hemoglobin, a reduction of 12.5% was observed in the risk of the individual having chronic myofascial pain (B = -0.133; adjusted OR = 0.875, 95% CI = 0.803 to 0.954, Wald = 9.187, standard error = 0.044, p = 0.002). Physical inactivity and obesity were noted more commonly in group I compared with the control group.

CONCLUSION

In this study, patients with chronic myofascial pain showed lower intracellular stores of zinc and selenium and inadequate food intake of these nutrients.

Use of Opioids in Latin America: The Need of an Evidence-Based Change

OBJECTIVE

The subject of this publication has been focused on local considerations for facilitating regional best practice, including identifying and uniformly adopting the most relevant international guidelines on opioid use (OU) in chronic pain management.

DESIGN AND SETTING

The Change Pain Latin America (CPLA) Advisory Panel conducted a comprehensive, robust, and critical analysis of published national and international reviews and guidelines of OU, considering those most appropriate for Latin America.

METHODS

A PubMed search was conducted using the terms "opioid," "chronic," and "pain" and then refined using the filters "practice guidelines" and "within the last 5 years" (2007-2012). Once the publications were identified, they were selected using five key criteria: "Evidence based," "Comprehensive," "From a well-recognized source," "Current publications," and "Based on best practice" and then critically analyzed considering 10 key criteria for determining the most relevant guidelines to be applied in Latin America.

RESULTS

The initial PubMed search identified 177 reviews and guidelines, which was reduced to 16 articles using the five preliminary criteria. After a secondary analysis according to the 10 key criteria specific to OU in Latin America, 10 publications were selected for critical review and discussion.

CONCLUSIONS

The CPLA advisory panel considered the "Safe and effective use of opioids for chronic non-cancer pain" (published in 2010 by the NOUGG of Canada) to be valid, relevant to Latin America, practical, evidence-based, concise, unambiguous, and sufficiently educational to provide clear instruction on OU and pain management and, thus, recommended for uniform adoption across the Latin America region.

Chronic pain: cytokines, lymphocytes and chemokines

Chronic pain is a debilitating condition and, in most cases, difficult to treat. A prominent example of this is neuropathic pain. Understanding pathophysiological mechanisms of pain and, therefore, making this knowledge into an effective treatment is still a challenge to experts. Pain can now be considered as a neuro-immune disorder, since recent data indicate critical involvement of innate and adaptive immune responses following injury, and this interaction plays an important role in the onset and perpetuation of chronic pain. The aim of this article is to review the relationship between immune system and chronic pain, especially about neuropathic pain, and focusing on cytokines, chemokines and lymphocytes.

The cognitive behavioral therapy causes an improvement in quality of life in patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain

Chronic pain causes functional incapacity and compromises an individual's affective, social, and economic life. OBJECTIVE: To study the cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) effectiveness in a group of patients with chronic pain. METHODS: A randomized clinical trial with two parallel groups comprising 93 patients with chronic pain was carried out. Forty-eight patients were submitted to CBT and 45 continued the standard treatment. The visual analogue, hospital anxiety and depression, and quality of life SF-36 scales were applied. Patients were evaluated before and after ten weeks of treatment. RESULTS: When the Control Group and CBT were compared, the latter presented reduction of depressive symptoms (p=0.031) and improvement in the domains 'physical limitations' (p=0.012), 'general state of health' (p=0.045), and 'limitations by emotional aspects' (p=0.025). CONCLUSIONS: The CBT was effective and it has caused an improvement in more domains of quality of life when compared to the Control Group, after ten weeks of treatment.

[Importance of quality of life assessment in patients with endometriosis]

PURPOSE

The present study examined the relationship between some clinical variables and quality of life in a group of patients with endometriosis.

METHODS

A total of 130 women seen at a multidisciplinary center specializing in gynecology endometriosis in 2008 participated in the study. This was a cross-sectional study conducted with a convenience sample. The diagnosis of endometriosis was performed by biopsy according to the criteria of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. The clinical and demographic data were collected from the patients' records. Pain intensity was assessed by a visual numerical scale (0-10), and data on the quality of life were collected using the SF-36. Data analysis consisted of descriptive and inferential statistical tests, Spearman correlation coefficient and Kruskal-Wallis test to compare scores between groups. Nonparametric tests were used for analysis because data were not normally distributed.

RESULTS

The patients were 21 to 54 years of age or 34, standard diversion (SD)=6.56], 87% had a university degree, and 75% were married. Seventeen percent reported cases of endometriosis in the family. The average time of onset of symptoms was 4.5 years (SD=6.6), 63% of patients were in stage 3 or 4 of endometriosis 36% of patients had severe or disabling dysmenorrhea and the average intensity of pain according to a visual numerical scale was of 5.6 (SD=3.5). Results suggest that the staging of the disease did not determine the intensity of pain. The time of onset of symptoms also showed no relationship to pain intensity and SF-36 scores. On the other hand, the intensity of pain was associated with lower scores on some scales of the SF-36.

CONCLUSION

Patients with endometriosis had lower scores of quality of life than the general population and lower than those of some other diseases.

Serum cytokine levels in patients with chronic low back pain due to herniated disc: analytical cross-sectional study

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE

the role of immune response and proinflammatory cytokines in the pathogenesis of chronic pain has been of growing interest. In order to evaluate whether there is any association between disc herniation and elevated cytokine levels, we measured cytokine levels in patients with chronic low back pain and in healthy subjects.

DESIGN AND SETTING

analytical cross-sectional study at the Pain Clinic of Universidade Federal da Bahia (UFBA).

METHODS

cytokine levels were measured using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique on 23 patients with low back pain (G1) and on 10 healthy subjects (G2).

RESULTS

the levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-alpha] (G1 = 5.6 ± 2.3 pg/ml; G2 = 1.6 ± 0.5 pg/ml; P = 0.01) and interleukin-6 [IL-6] (G1 = 4.1 ± 3.0 pg/ml; G2 = 0.9 ± 0.4 pg/ml; P = 0.01) were higher in G1. There were no statistically significant differences in relation to interleukin-1 [IL-1] (G1 = 0.5 ± 0.3 pg/ml; G2 = 0.5 ± 0.1 pg/ml; P = 1) or soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor [sTNF-R] (G1 = 572 pg/ml ± 36; G2 = 581 ± 50 pg/ml; P = 0.87).

CONCLUSION

The patients with chronic low back pain due to disc herniation presented higher levels of TNF-alpha and IL-6, but not of IL-1 or sTNF-R.

Pain: current aspects on peripheral and central sensitization

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Current research has focused on the biochemical and structural plasticity of the nervous system secondary to tissue injury. The mechanisms involved in the transition from acute to chronic pain are complex and involve the interaction of receptor systems and the flow of intracellular ions, second messenger systems, and new synaptic connections. The aim of this article was to discuss the new mechanisms concerning peripheral and central sensitization.

CONTENTS

Tissue injury increases the response of nociceptors, known as sensitization or facilitation. These phenomena begin after the local release of inflammatory mediators and the activation of the cells of the immune system or specific receptors in the peripheral and central nervous system.

CONCLUSIONS

Tissue and neuronal lesions result in sensitization of the nociceptors and facilitation of the central and peripheral nervous conduction.

Pain in patients with spinal cord injury: a review

BACKGROUND AND METHODS

Chronic pain after spinal cord injury is a highly prevalent clinical condition, which is difficult to treat. Therefore, it is important to know its clinical characteristics and causes for a better diagnostic and therapeutic approach. The objective of this study was to review the literature on pain in patients with spinal cord injury and the possible association with physical (level of the injury, completeness of lesion, pain duration) and psychological (mood and quality of life) factors.

CONTENTS

Original studies in the Medline database with patients older than 18 years and published over the last six years were reviewed. The clinical characteristics of pain in patients with spinal cord injury are discussed, and the works of several authors are compared.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite conceptual and methodological differences among the studies, the prevalence of pain in patients with spinal cord injury was high, varying from 64% to 82%. Neuropathic pain at the level of the injury has an early onset (days or weeks), while that below the level of the injury has a late onset (months or years). An association between pain and integrity of the lesion is not observed, and the percentage of patients who complain of severe pain varies from 21% to 39%. It was not possible to conclude which is the relationship between pain and level of spinal cord injury. However, pain can have a negative influence on mood and in the capacity to perform cognitive, social, recreational, and work-related activities.

[Psoas muscle abscess after epidural analgesia: case report.]

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Psoas muscle abscess is a rare complication of epidural analgesia. The adequate approach to this complication is fundamental for a good resolution. The objective of this report was to discuss the diagnosis and treatment of psoas muscle abscess.

CASE REPORT

A female patient, 65 years old, with neuropathic pain in the lower limbs, difficult to control with systemic drugs. The patient was treated with epidural opioid and local anesthetic as an alternate treatment. Twenty days after the continuous epidural administration, the patient complained of lumbar pain, headache, and fever. A CT scan of the pelvis showed an abscess of the psoas muscle, thus, closed drainage and antibiotics were indicated.

CONCLUSIONS

An adequate, continuous supervision of the patient is necessary when an epidural catheter is placed, and it should continue after its removal.

Gabapentin to treat sacral perineural cyst-induced pain. Case report

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Perineural cysts may induce difficult to control neuropathic pain. Anticonvulsivants are used to treat such pain. This report aimed at presenting a case of total pain remission with gabapentin after failure of all other therapeutic alternatives used.

CASE REPORT

Female, diabetic patient, 67 years old, complaining of lumbosacral pain for two months, with the following characteristics: daily, sharp and burning pain of mild to moderate intensity irradiating to posterior thigh. Pain would worsen with movement and in the standing position. Six months before she had had a similar pain episode which improved with steroids. Lumbosacral spine MRI showed 2.5 cm sacral perineural cyst injuries at S1, S2 and S3, compressing the dural sac and associated to bone erosion. Gabapentin was introduced in progressive doses until 900 mg/day, with complete pain relief.

CONCLUSIONS

Tarlov's cyst neuropathic pain may be adequately controlled with gabapentin.

[Visceral hyperalgesia and chronic abdominal pain: diagnostic and therapeutic approach.]

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Chronic abdominal pain is one of the most frequent reasons for medical consultation. There is, however, no well-established protocol for its diagnostic approach and, most of the times, investigation becomes an expensive and invasive medical practice. This review aimed at explaining visceral pain pathophysiology and establishing diagnostic and therapeutic goals for these patients, based on specific criteria.

CONTENTS

Chronic nonspecific or functional abdominal pain is a complex interaction among impaired motility, visceral hypersensitivity and inadequate neuroendocrine and psychosocial responses. Peripheral and central nociception mechanisms seem to be involved in visceral hyperalgesia. Diagnosis requires detailed history and clinical evaluation, taking into consideration Rome II criteria. Based on known or assumed pathophysiological mechanisms, new drugs have been researched, and some have been more recently used to control abdominal pain, such as 5-HT4 receptor agonists and sodium channel blockers.

CONCLUSIONS

Chronic pathophysiological abdominal pain mechanisms are still not well understood. Therapy and diagnosis require the understanding of such mechanisms, as well as of Rome II criteria. On the other hand, good patient-physician relationship and multidisciplinary teams performance seem to be critical in improving treatment response and patients quality of life.