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Shen W, Hannum E. Context-relevant risk and protective factors for children in rural communities: Long-term implications for adulthood educational and mental health outcomes. J Community Psychol 2023; 51:724-744. [PMID: 36734961 PMCID: PMC9898632 DOI: 10.1002/jcop.22909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Globally, rural children are more likely than others to experience barriers to opportunity. We propose context-relevant family risk and protective factors for children in rural villages in one of China's poorest provinces and analyze long-term implications for educational and mental health outcomes in early adulthood. Four proposed risk factors-low parental education, insufficient income, parental migration, and parental ill-health-show statistically significant detrimental implications for educational attainment. Low parental education stands out, with negative estimated effects on all outcomes. Insufficient income predicts higher scores for depression but not self-esteem. Parental migration and parental ill health have no significant relationships with mental health outcomes. Proposed protective factors- parental warmth, doing things together, and household credit limit-have positive estimated effects on educational attainment, but not on most mental health outcomes. Few interactions between protective and risk factors exist, and patterns are generally similar for girls and boys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wensong Shen
- Department of Sociology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong, China
| | - Emily Hannum
- Department of Sociology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Liu X, Behrman J, Hannum E, Wang F, Zhao Q. Same environment, stratified impacts? Air pollution, extreme temperatures, and birth weight in South China. Soc Sci Res 2022; 105:102691. [PMID: 35659044 DOI: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2021.102691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This paper investigates whether associations between birth weights and prenatal ambient environmental conditions-pollution and extreme temperatures-differ by 1) maternal education; 2) children's innate health; and 3) interactions between these two. We link birth records from Guangzhou, China, during a period of high pollution, to ambient air pollution (PM10 and a composite measure) and extreme temperature data. We first use mean regressions to test whether, overall, maternal education is an "effect modifier" in the relationships between ambient air pollution, extreme temperature, and birth weight. We then use conditional quantile regressions to test for effect heterogeneity according to the unobserved innate vulnerability of babies after conditioning on other confounders. Results show that 1) the negative association between ambient exposures and birth weight is twice as large at lower conditional quantiles of birth weights as at the median; 2) the protection associated with college-educated mothers with respect to pollution and extreme heat is heterogeneous and potentially substantial: between 0.02 and 0.34 standard deviations of birth weights, depending on the conditional quantiles; 3) this protection is amplified under more extreme ambient conditions and for infants with greater unobserved innate vulnerabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoying Liu
- Population Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania, 3718 Locust Walk, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jere Behrman
- Department of Economics and Sociology and Population Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania, 133 South 36th Street, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Emily Hannum
- Department of Sociology and Population Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania, 3718 Locust Walk, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - Fan Wang
- Department of Economics, University of Houston, 3623 Cullen Boulevard, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Qingguo Zhao
- Epidemiological Research Office of Key Laboratory of Male Reproduction and Genetics National Health and Family Planning Commission, Family Planning Research Institute of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
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Liu X, Miao H, Behrman JR, Hannum E, Liang Z, Zhao Q. The Asian Games, air pollution and birth outcomes in South China: An instrumental variable approach. Econ Hum Biol 2022; 44:101078. [PMID: 34864318 DOI: 10.1016/j.ehb.2021.101078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
We estimate the effects of air-pollution exposure on low birthweight, birthweight, and prematurity risk in South China, for all expectant mothers and by maternal age group and child sex. We do so by exploiting exogenous improvement in air quality during the 2010 Guangzhou Asian Games, when strict regulations were mandated to assure better air quality. We use daily air-pollution levels collected from monitoring stations in Guangzhou, the Asian Games host city, and Shenzhen, a nearby control city, between 2009 and 2011. We first show that air quality during the Asian Games significantly improved in Guangzhou, relative to Shenzhen. Next, using birth-certificate data for both cities for 2009-2011 and using expected pregnancy overlap with the Asian Games as an instrumental variable, we study the effects of three pollutants (PM10, SO2, and NO2) on birth outcomes. Four main conclusions emerge: 1) air pollutants significantly reduce average birthweight and increase preterm risk; 2) for birthweight, late pregnancy is most sensitive to PM10 exposure, but there is not consistent evidence of a sensitive period for other pollutants and outcomes; 3) for birthweight, babies of mothers who are at least 35 years old show more vulnerability to all three air pollutants; and 4) male babies show more vulnerability than female babies to PM10 and SO2, but birthweights of female babies are more sensitive than those of male babies to NO2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoying Liu
- Population Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania, 3718 Locust Walk, Philadelphia, PA19104, USA.
| | - Huazhang Miao
- Guangdong Women and Children Hospital, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Jere R Behrman
- Department of Economics and Population Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania, 3718 Locust Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Emily Hannum
- Department of Sociology and Population Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania, 3718 Locust Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Zhijiang Liang
- Guangdong Women and Children Hospital, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Qingguo Zhao
- Epidemiological Research Office of Key Laboratory of Male Reproduction and Genetics National Health and Family Planning Commission, Family Planning Research Institute of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.
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Shen W, Hu LC, Hannum E. Effect pathways of informal family separation on children's outcomes: Paternal labor migration and long-term educational attainment of left-behind children in rural China. Soc Sci Res 2021; 97:102576. [PMID: 34045008 PMCID: PMC8442607 DOI: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2021.102576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Informal family separation due to parental labor migration is an increasingly common experience in the lives of children in many countries. This paper proposes a framework and method for analyzing "effect pathways" by which parental labor migration might affect children's outcomes. The framework incorporates home-environment and child-development mechanisms and is adapted from migration, sociology of education, and child development literatures. We test these pathways using data on father absence and long-term educational outcomes for girls and boys in China. We apply structural equation models with inverse probability of treatment weighting to data from a 15-year longitudinal survey of 2000 children. Significantly, fathers' migration has distinct implications for different effect pathways. It is associated most significantly with reduced human capital at home, which has the largest detrimental effect on children's educational attainment, among those studied. At the same time, father absence is associated with better family economic capital, which partially buffers the negative implications of father absence. Overall, father absence corresponds to a reduction of 0.342 years, on average, in children's educational attainment, but the reduction is larger for boys than for girls. For boys and girls, the reduced availability of literate adults in the household linked to father absence is an important effect pathway. For girls, this detrimental effect is partially offset by a positive income effect, but for boys, the offset effect is trivial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wensong Shen
- Department of Sociology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Room 438, 4/F, Sino Building, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong.
| | - Li-Chung Hu
- Department of Sociology, National Chengchi University, NO.64, Sec.2, ZhiNan Rd., Wenshan District, Taipei City, 11605, Taiwan.
| | - Emily Hannum
- Department of Sociology, University of Pennsylvania, 3718 Locust Walk, McNeil Building, Ste. 353, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
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Abstract
China's so-called "floating population" of rural-urban labor migrants includes rising numbers of couples and families migrating together. Labor market outcomes may differ for migrant men and women, in part due to family obligations, but few recent studies have investigated this possibility. This paper focuses on the relationship of labor outcomes with family obligations among migrant men and women and considers whether this relationship differs among those with higher and lower earnings potential. We perform nested logit models of employment status and OLS regression analyses of income, using a nationally-representative survey collected in 2013. For migrant women, childcare responsibilities are negatively associated with employment and income. In contrast, for migrant men, being co-resident with children has no bearing on probability of being employed full-time and is sometimes positively associated with income. Further, the "motherhood penalty" in income is most pronounced among migrant women with the least education. Results illustrate the embeddedness of individual migration decisions and outcomes within families. Findings also highlight a stark choice facing many migrant women: between earning for their children and living with them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menghan Zhao
- Demography Department and Center for Population and Development Studies, Renmin University of China
| | - Emily Hannum
- Sociology Department and Population Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania
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Hannum E, Hu W, Park A. Home, school, and community deprivations: A multi-context approach to childhood poverty in China. J Contemp China 2019; 28:864-882. [PMID: 33093762 PMCID: PMC7577243 DOI: 10.1080/10670564.2019.1594101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Few studies of childhood poverty in China have considered social deprivations, and fewer still have considered deprivations in contexts beyond the household. In this article, the authors propose a multi-context poverty measure that includes economic and social deprivations in the family, school, and community domains. The authors compare this measure to standard money-metric measures of poverty using a 15-year longitudinal study of children from 100 villages in Northwest China. Nearly a quarter of multi-context poor children are not income poor, while almost three-fourths of the income poor are not multi-context poor. Social and community deprivations are only weakly associated with "money-metric" deprivations but are significantly linked with short and long-term welfare outcomes for children. The multi-context approach can be tailored to index household and community poverty alleviation targets.
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Shen W, Hu LC, Hannum E. Cumulative adversity, childhood behavioral problems, and educational mobility in China's poorest rural communities. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 3:491-517. [PMID: 31534783 DOI: 10.1177/2057150x17736664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Behavioral problems are recognized as playing a potentially important role in educational attainment, but their function in contexts of extreme poverty is not well understood. In such settings, other factors might swamp any effects of children's behavioral problems. Further, the interpretation of behavioral problems in circumstances of deep poverty is not clear: problematic behaviors might be in part a direct function of adverse experiences in childhood. In this paper, we focus on the case of 2000 rural youth sampled in the year 2000 from 100 villages in Gansu, one of China's poorest provinces, and followed up through 2015. We investigate whether behavioral problems-internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and teacher-reported behavior problems-predict subsequent educational attainment among the rural poor, and consider the contributions of cumulative adversity to behavioral problems. Results in a high-poverty context where promotion decisions are closely tied to performance show that behavioral factors are linked to long-term educational outcomes. These results are robust to adjustment for a host of individual, family, and community context variables. There is some evidence that children in higher socioeconomic status families and in more developed communities are less vulnerable to behavioral problems. While girls are slightly less vulnerable to teacher-reported behavior problems than boys, there is no gender difference in the implications of behavioral problems for educational attainment. Finally, behavioral problems do not appear to operate simply as a proxy for measured family adversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wensong Shen
- Department of Sociology, University of Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Li-Chung Hu
- Department of Sociology, National Chengchi University, Taipei, China
| | - Emily Hannum
- Department of Sociology, University of Pennsylvania, USA.,Population Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania, USA
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Hannum E, Hu LC. CHRONIC UNDERNUTRITION, SHORT-TERM HUNGER, AND STUDENT FUNCTIONING IN RURAL NORTHWEST CHINA. Int J Educ Dev 2017; 54:26-38. [PMID: 36017528 PMCID: PMC9401553 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijedudev.2016.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Emily Hannum
- Department of Sociology, University of Pennsylvania, 3718 Locust Walk, Philadelphia PA, 19104-6209, United States
| | - Li-Chung Hu
- Department of Sociology, National Chengchi University, No. 64, Sec. 2, Zhinan Road, Wenshan District, Taipei City 11605, Taiwan, ROC
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Abstract
Statistics suggest that young men and women in China migrate at almost equal numbers, but we know less about gender differences in the decision to migrate. We examine the factors associated with the decision to migrate and the rationales given by young migrants. Our results are consistent with previous figures and show no overall gender differences in susceptibility to migration. However, we find that sibship structure operates differently on the decisions of boys and girls. Young men were more likely to report that they had moved for purposes of starting a business or personal development than young women, while young women were more likely to report that they had moved to support the tuition of a family member. We argue that the simple gender parity with respect to the number of migrants masks important differences in the circumstances and personal motivations for migration for men and women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Lin Chiang
- Department of Sociology, University of Pennsylvania, 3718 Locust Walk, Philadelphia PA 19104-6299
| | - Emily Hannum
- Department of Sociology, University of Pennsylvania, 3718 Locust Walk, Philadelphia PA 19104-6299
| | - Grace Kao
- Department of Sociology, University of Pennsylvania, 3718 Locust Walk, Philadelphia PA 19104-6299
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Abstract
Since the 1980s, social scientists working in China have raised questions about whether market transition could harm the relative position of women in the workplace. However, little work has been done to investigate this possibility with longitudinal data that includes both urban and rural populations and covers recent years, or linked gender gaps in income explicitly to the retreat of the State sector. Moreover, most research has not considered the real possibility that trends in gender disparities might diverge depending on the family status of women, though studies in China, as elsewhere, suggest the existence of both employment and wage penalties for motherhood. Guided by feminist theories which emphasize that gender inequality should be examined at the intersections of different social institutions, we consider whether gender wage gap trends differ for single people, compared to married people and parents. Further, given the role posited for market transition in shaping emerging gender gaps, we ask whether changes in gaps can be linked to the shift away from socialist institutions to privatized workplaces. We use multi-province panel data spanning the years 1989 to 2009 to estimate generalized estimating equation (GEE) models of earnings that account for multiple observations within the same individual and correct for potential bias associated with selection into the work force for women. The results show clear evidence of deterioration in income for women relative to men, and also suggest a link between the retreat of the State sector and a wider gender gap. However, the trend diverges by family status. Single women rival, and even outpace, single men in wages by the late 2000s, while mothers are increasingly disadvantaged in income.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuping Zhang
- Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, USA
| | - Emily Hannum
- Department of Sociology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
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Hannum E, Liu J, Frongillo E. Poverty, Food Insecurity and Nutritional Deprivation in Rural China: Implications for Children's Literacy Achievement. Int J Educ Dev 2014; 34:90-97. [PMID: 26609194 PMCID: PMC4655325 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijedudev.2012.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Emily Hannum
- Department of Sociology, 3718 Locust Walk, Philadelphia PA 19104
| | - Jihong Liu
- Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina, Health Sciences Building, 208B, 800 Sumter Street, Columbia, SC 29208,
| | - Edward Frongillo
- Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina, Health Sciences Building, 216B, 800 Sumter Street, Columbia, SC 29208,
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Hannum E, Zhang Y. Poverty and Proximate Barriers to Learning: Vision Deficiencies, Vision Correction and Educational Outcomes in Rural Northwest China. World Dev 2012; 40:1921-1931. [PMID: 26609193 PMCID: PMC4655323 DOI: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.04.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Uncorrected vision may present a significant barrier to educational mobility in poor communities in low and middle income countries. Focusing on the case of rural Northwest China, we analyze the Gansu Survey of Children and Families (2,000 children; 100 rural villages) and the Gansu Vision Intervention Project (a randomized trial; 19,185 students, 165 schools, two counties). Four main findings emerge: significant unmet need for vision correction; socioeconomic gradients in vision correction; somewhat greater vulnerability to vision problems among higher socioeconomic status and more academically engaged children; and significant favorable effects of vision correction on math and literacy performance and class failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Hannum
- Department of Sociology, University of Pennsylvania, 3718 Locust Walk, Philadelphia PA 19104, , ,
| | - Yuping Zhang
- Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Lehigh University, 681 Taylor St., Bethlehem, PA 18015-3169, ,
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Hannum E, Sargent T, Yu S. Poverty, Parental Ill Health and Children's Access to Schooling in Rural Gansu, China. Prov China 2009; 1:24-60. [PMID: 21191453 PMCID: PMC3010365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
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Abstract
In this paper, we investigate the gender gap in education in rural northwest China. We first discuss parental perceptions of abilities and appropriate roles for girls and boys; parental concerns about old-age support; and parental perceptions of different labor market outcomes for girls' and boys' education. We then investigate gender disparities in investments in children, children's performance at school, and children's subsequent attainment. We analyze a survey of 9-12-year-old children and their families conducted in rural Gansu Province in the year 2000, along with follow-up information about subsequent educational attainment collected 7 years later. We complement our main analysis with two illustrative case studies of rural families drawn from 11 months of fieldwork conducted in rural Gansu between 2003 and 2005 by the second author.In 2000, most mothers expressed egalitarian views about girls' and boys' rights and abilities, in the abstract. However, the vast majority of mothers still expected to rely on sons for old-age support, and nearly one in five mothers interviewed agreed with the traditional saying, "Sending girls to school is useless since they will get married and leave home." Compared to boys, girls faced somewhat lower (though still very high) maternal educational expectations and a greater likelihood of being called on for household chores than boys. However, there was little evidence of a gender gap in economic investments in education. Girls rivaled or outperformed boys in academic performance and engagement. Seven years later, boys had attained just about a third of a year more schooling than girls-a quite modest advantage that could not be fully explained by early parental attitudes and investments, or student performance or engagement. Fieldwork confirmed that parents of sons and daughters tended to have high aspirations for their children. Parents sometimes viewed boys as having greater aptitude, but tended to view girls as having more dedication-an attribute parents perceived as being critical for educational success. Findings suggest that at least in Gansu, rural parental educational attitudes and practices toward boys and girls are more complicated and less uniformly negative for girls than commonly portrayed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Hannum
- University of Pennsylvania, Department of Sociology and Population Studies Center, 3718 Locust Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6299, United States
- Corresponding author. E-mail address: (E. Hannum)
| | - Peggy Kong
- University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, United States
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Abstract
Two theoretical perspectives have dominated debates about the impact of development on gender stratification: modernization theory, which argues that gender inequalities decline with economic growth, and the "women in development" perspective, which argues that development may initially widen gender gaps. Analyzing cross-sectional surveys and time-series data from China, this article indicates the relevance of both perspectives: while girls' educational opportunities were clearly more responsive than boys' to better household economic circumstances, the era of market transition in the late 1970s and early 1980s failed to accelerate and, in fact, may have temporarily slowed progress toward gender equity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Hannum
- Department of Sociology, University of Pennsylvania, 3718 Locust Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6299, USA.
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Abstract
Using evidence about educational disparities, this article demonstrates the need for attention to minority populations in studies of social stratification in China. Analyses of data from a 1992 survey of children demonstrate substantial ethnic differences in enrollment among rural 7- to 14 year olds, with rates for ethnic Chinese boys roughly double those for girls from certain ethnic groups. Multivariate analyses indicate that the ethnic gap can be attributed, in part, to compositional differences in geographic location of residence and socioeconomic background. There is no general tendency of a greater gender gap for minorities than for the ethnic Chinese, but significant differences in the gender gap emerge across individual ethnic groups. Together with evidence from census data showing that ethnic disparities in junior high school transitions increased between 1982 and 1990, these results stress the continuing significance of ethnicity as a fundamental factor that conditions status attainment opportunities in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Hannum
- University of Pennsylvania, Department of Sociology, 3718 Locust Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6299, USA.
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Hannum E, Xie Y. Ethnic stratification in Northwest China: Occupational differences between Han Chinese and national minorities in Xinjiang, 1982–1990. Demography 1998. [DOI: 10.2307/3004040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The debate on market reforms and social stratification in China has paid very little attention to China’s ethnic minorities. We explored rising occupational stratification by ethnicity in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Analyses of census data from 1982 and 1990 pointed to educational disadvantages faced by ethnic minorities as the most plausible explanation for the change. Multivariate analysis revealed a significant increase in the effect of education on high-status occupational attainment but no change in the effect of ethnicity. Net of education, ethnic differences in high-status occupational attainment were negligible. In contrast, large ethnic differences in manufacturing and agricultural occupations persisted after education and geography were statistically controlled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Hannum
- Harvard Graduate School of Education and Harvard Institute for International Development, 454 Gutman, 6 Appian Way, Cambridge, MA 02138
| | - Yu Xie
- Sociology Department and Population Studies Center, University of Michigan, Michgan, USA
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Hannum E, Xie Y. Ethnic stratification in northwest China: occupational differences between Han Chinese and national minorities in Xinjiang, 1982-1990. Demography 1998; 35:323-33. [PMID: 9749324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The debate on market reforms and social stratification in China has paid very little attention to China's ethnic minorities. We explored rising occupational stratification by ethnicity in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Analyses of census data from 1982 and 1990 pointed to educational disadvantages faced by ethinic minorities as the most plausible explanation for the change. Multivariate analysis revealed a significant increase in the effect of education on high-status occupational attainment but no change in the effect of ethnicity. Net of education, ethnic differences in high-status occupational attainment were negligible. In contrast, large ethnic differences in manufacturing and agricultural occupations persisted after education and geography were statistically controlled.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Hannum
- Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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Huntoon FM, Masucci P, Hannum E. Antibody Studies. The Journal of Immunology 1921. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.6.2.185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
The chemical nature of antibodies can be definitely determined only by direct tests on the pure product. Unfortunately, these substances occur in such small proportions that hitherto it has been impossible to isolate them in pure form. Whether the substances involved in immunity reactions are colloids or not, we know that antibodies are closely associated with proteins, and that not only antibody, but some proteins are taken up by antigen in the process of sensitization. Both of these serum constituents may be dissociated during the final extraction of a sensitized antigen. That such a possibility exists will be shown in protocol 4.
Again, the question of the delicacy of the chemical tests at our disposal and the competence of any chemical reaction to detect the presence of antibody as a chemical entity must be considered. The fundamental fact to be borne in mind is that these bodies are comparatively unstable and are easily altered by strong chemical reagents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - P. Masucci
- Mulford Biological Laboratories From the
| | - E. Hannum
- Mulford Biological Laboratories From the
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