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Nazeha N, Sathish T, Soljak M, Dunleavy G, Visvalingam N, Divakar U, Bajpai RC, Soh CK, Christopoulos G, Car J. A Comparative Study of International and Asian Criteria for Overweight or Obesity at Workplaces in Singapore. Asia Pac J Public Health 2021; 33:404-410. [PMID: 33715451 DOI: 10.1177/1010539521998855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
To compare the prevalence of and risk factors associated with overweight or obesity between the international (body mass index [BMI] ≥25 kg/m2) and Asian (BMI ≥23 kg/m2) criteria in a working population in Singapore. This was a cross-sectional analysis of a cohort study of 464 employees (aged ≥21 years) conducted at 4 workplaces in Singapore. The prevalence of overweight or obesity was 47.4% and 67.0% with the international and Asian criteria, respectively. With both the criteria, higher age, male sex, Malay ethnicity (vs Chinese), lower white rice intake, and consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages were positively associated with overweight or obesity. Participants with poorer mental health and higher levels of thermal comfort in the workplace were positively associated with overweight or obesity only with the Asian criteria. The use of international criteria alone in this population could have overlooked these risk factors that are highly relevant to the Singapore context.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Michael Soljak
- Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.,Imperial College London, London, UK
| | | | | | | | - Ram Chandra Bajpai
- Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.,Keele University, Staffordshire, UK
| | - Chee Kiong Soh
- Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.,Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | | | - Josip Car
- Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.,Imperial College London, London, UK
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Omkar Prasad R, Dunleavy G. MA04.01 A Comparative Analysis of Lung Cancer Policies Across the Asia-Pacific Region. J Thorac Oncol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtho.2021.01.223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Thach TQ, Mahirah D, Sauter C, Roberts AC, Dunleavy G, Nazeha N, Rykov Y, Zhang Y, Christopoulos GI, Soh CK, Car J. Associations of perceived indoor environmental quality with stress in the workplace. Indoor Air 2020; 30:1166-1177. [PMID: 32453912 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Indoor environmental quality (IEQ) is a general indicator of the quality of conditions inside a building. We investigated associations of perceived IEQ including air quality, thermal comfort, noise, and light quality with stress at work and the extent to which workplace location modifies these associations. We recruited 464 full-time workers from four companies in Singapore. Data on socio-demographic characteristics, lifestyle/health-related factors, and workplace factors were collected through self-administered questionnaires. Perceived IEQ satisfaction scores of all four factors were collected using the validated OFFICAIR questionnaire. We fitted a logistic regression model to assess associations between each perceived IEQ score and stress at work, adjusting for potential confounders. The odds ratio for stress at work associated with a 1-unit increase in perceived air quality score was 0.88 (0.82-0.94), 0.89 (0.82-0.97) for thermal comfort, 0.93 (0.87-0.98) for noise, and 0.88 (0.82-0.94) for light quality. Significant associations were found in office and control rooms for all four perceived IEQ, except for thermal comfort in office rooms. Higher satisfaction levels of perceived air quality, thermal comfort, noise, and lighting, were significantly associated with a reduction in stress at work. Our findings could potentially provide a useful tool for environmental health impact assessment for buildings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thuan-Quoc Thach
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Dhiya Mahirah
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Charlotte Sauter
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Adam Charles Roberts
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, College of Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Gerard Dunleavy
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Nuraini Nazeha
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yuri Rykov
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yichi Zhang
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - George I Christopoulos
- Division of Strategy, Management and Organisation, Nanyang Business School, College of Business, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Chee-Kiong Soh
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Josip Car
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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Mahirah D, Sauter C, Thach TQ, Dunleavy G, Nazeha N, Christopoulos GI, Soh CK, Car J. Factors associated with health-related quality of life in a working population in Singapore. Epidemiol Health 2020; 42:e2020048. [PMID: 32660219 PMCID: PMC7871151 DOI: 10.4178/epih.e2020048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aimed to evaluate the determinants of health-related quality of life (HRQoL) among workers in Singapore. METHODS We analysed data from a cross-sectional study of 464 participants from 4 companies in Singapore. Physical and mental components of HRQoL were assessed using the Short-Form 36 version 2.0 survey. A generalized linear model was used to determine factors associated with the physical component summary (PCS) and mental component summary (MCS) scores of HRQoL. RESULTS The overall mean PCS and MCS scores were mean±standard deviation 51.6±6.7 and 50.2±7.7, respectively. The scores for subscales ranged from 62.7±14.7 for vitality to 83.5±20.0 for role limitation due to emotional problems. Ethnicity, overweight/obesity, and years working at the company were significantly associated with physical HRQoL, and age and stress at work were significantly associated with mental HRQoL. Moreover, sleep quality was significantly associated with both physical and mental HRQoL. CONCLUSIONS These findings could help workplaces in planning strategies and initiatives for employees to maintain a worklife balance that encompasses their physical, emotional, and social well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhiya Mahirah
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Charlotte Sauter
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Thuan-Quoc Thach
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Gerard Dunleavy
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Nuraini Nazeha
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - George I. Christopoulos
- Division of Strategy, Management and Organisation, Nanyang Business School, College of Business, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Chee Kiong Soh
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Josip Car
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
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Thach TQ, Mahirah D, Dunleavy G, Zhang Y, Nazeha N, Rykov Y, Nah A, Roberts AC, Christopoulos GI, Soh CK, Car J. Association between shift work and poor sleep quality in an Asian multi-ethnic working population: A cross-sectional study. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0229693. [PMID: 32130268 PMCID: PMC7055880 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0229693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND We aimed to examine the association between shift work and sleep quality in a diverse occupational type. METHODS This was a cross-sectional study of self-reported sleep quality in 424 workers aged ≥21 using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). We divided workers into two categories based on their PSQI score: (a) ≤5 (good sleep quality) and (b) >5 (poor sleep quality). We used multiple logistic regressions to assess the association between shift work and sleep quality adjusted for potential confounders. RESULTS The mean age was 39.2 (SD = 11.3) years, with shift workers being older than their counterparts. Most workers were of Chinese ethnicity (63.9%). Males were significantly more likely to undertake shift work than females (89% v 11%, p-value<0.001), but it should be noted that the majority of workers was male (78.8%) in this sample of workers. Shift workers had a 198% increased odds of poor sleep quality compared to non-shift workers (OR = 2.98; 95% CI:1.53-5.81). CONCLUSION Shift work was significantly and independently associated with increased odds of poor sleep quality in this sample of workers. The present findings may inform employment guidelines and help develop workplace health promotion interventions aimed at improving sleep quality among workers and ultimately lead to a healthier workforce.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thuan-Quoc Thach
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Dhiya Mahirah
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Gerard Dunleavy
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yichi Zhang
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Nuraini Nazeha
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yuri Rykov
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Audrey Nah
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Adam Charles Roberts
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - George I. Christopoulos
- Division of Strategy, Management and Organisation, Nanyang Business School, College of Business, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Chee-Kiong Soh
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Josip Car
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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Rykov Y, Thach TQ, Dunleavy G, Roberts AC, Christopoulos G, Soh CK, Car J. Activity Tracker-Based Metrics as Digital Markers of Cardiometabolic Health in Working Adults: Cross-Sectional Study. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth 2020; 8:e16409. [PMID: 32012098 PMCID: PMC7055791 DOI: 10.2196/16409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 10/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Greater adoption of wearable devices with multiple sensors may enhance personalized health monitoring, facilitate early detection of some diseases, and further scale up population health screening. However, few studies have explored the utility of data from wearable fitness trackers in cardiovascular and metabolic disease risk prediction. Objective This study aimed to investigate the associations between a range of activity metrics derived from a wearable consumer-grade fitness tracker and major modifiable biomarkers of cardiometabolic disease in a working-age population. Methods This was a cross-sectional study of 83 working adults. Participants wore Fitbit Charge 2 for 21 consecutive days and went through a health assessment, including fasting blood tests. The following clinical biomarkers were collected: BMI, waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio, blood pressure, triglycerides (TGs), high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and blood glucose. We used a range of wearable-derived metrics based on steps, heart rate (HR), and energy expenditure, including measures of stability of circadian activity rhythms, sedentary time, and time spent at various intensities of physical activity. Spearman rank correlation was used for preliminary analysis. Multiple linear regression adjusted for potential confounders was used to determine the extent to which each metric of activity was associated with continuous clinical biomarkers. In addition, pairwise multiple regression was used to investigate the significance and mutual dependence of activity metrics when two or more of them had significant association with the same outcome from the previous step of the analysis. Results The participants were predominantly middle aged (mean age 44.3 years, SD 12), Chinese (62/83, 75%), and male (64/83, 77%). Blood biomarkers of cardiometabolic disease (HDL cholesterol and TGs) were significantly associated with steps-based activity metrics independent of age, gender, ethnicity, education, and shift work, whereas body composition biomarkers (BMI, waist circumference, and waist-to-hip ratio) were significantly associated with energy expenditure–based and HR-based metrics when adjusted for the same confounders. Steps-based interdaily stability of circadian activity rhythm was strongly associated with HDL (beta=5.4 per 10% change; 95% CI 1.8 to 9.0; P=.005) and TG (beta=−27.7 per 10% change; 95% CI −48.4 to −7.0; P=.01). Average daily steps were negatively associated with TG (beta=−6.8 per 1000 steps; 95% CI −13.0 to −0.6; P=.04). The difference between average HR and resting HR was significantly associated with BMI (beta=−.5; 95% CI −1.0 to −0.1; P=.01) and waist circumference (beta=−1.3; 95% CI −2.4 to −0.2; P=.03). Conclusions Wearable consumer-grade fitness trackers can provide acceptably accurate and meaningful information, which might be used in the risk prediction of cardiometabolic disease. Our results showed the beneficial effects of stable daily patterns of locomotor activity for cardiometabolic health. Study findings should be further replicated with larger population studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri Rykov
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Thuan-Quoc Thach
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Gerard Dunleavy
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Adam Charles Roberts
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, College of Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - George Christopoulos
- Division of Leadership, Management and Organisation, Nanyang Business School, College of Business, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Chee-Kiong Soh
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Josip Car
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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Dunleavy G, Bajpai R, Comiran Tonon A, Chua AP, Cheung KL, Soh CK, Christopoulos G, de Vries H, Car J. Examining the Factor Structure of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index in a Multi-Ethnic Working Population in Singapore. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2019; 16:E4590. [PMID: 31756941 PMCID: PMC6926964 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16234590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2019] [Revised: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) is a widely used measure for assessing sleep impairment. Although it was developed as a unidimensional instrument, there is much debate that it contains multidimensional latent constructs. This study aims to investigate the dimensionality of the underlying factor structure of the PSQI in a multi-ethnic working population in Singapore. The PSQI was administered on three occasions (baseline, 3 months and 12 months) to full-time employees participating in a workplace cohort study. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) investigated the latent factor structure of the scale at each timepoint. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) evaluated the model identified by EFA, and additionally evaluated it against a single factor and a three-factor model. The EFA identified a two-factor model with similar internal consistency and goodness-of-fit across each timepoint. In the CFA, the two- and three-factor models were both superior to the unidimensional model. The two- and three-factor models of the PSQI were reliable, consistent and provided similar goodness-of-fit over time, and both models were superior to the unidimensional measure. We recommend using the two-factor model to assess sleep characteristics in working populations in Singapore, given that it performs as well as the three-factor model and is simpler compared to the latter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerard Dunleavy
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, 11 Mandalay Road, Singapore 308232, Singapore; (R.B.); (J.C.)
- Department of Health Promotion, CAPHRI Care and Public Health Research Institute, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6022 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands;
| | - Ram Bajpai
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, 11 Mandalay Road, Singapore 308232, Singapore; (R.B.); (J.C.)
- Research Institute for Primary Care and Health Sciences, Keele University, David Weatherall Building, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK
| | - André Comiran Tonon
- Laboratório de Cronobiologia e Sono, Porto Alegre Clínicas Hospital (HCPA), R. Ramiro Barcelos, 2350—Santa Cecilia, Porto Alegre 90035-007, RS, Brazil;
- Postgraduate Program in Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Sul (UFRGS), Av. Paulo Gama, 110—Farroupilha, Porto Alegre 90040-060, RS, Brazil
| | - Ai Ping Chua
- Department of Medicine, Jurong Health Campus, National University Health System, 1 Jurong East Street 21, Singapore 609606, Singapore;
| | - Kei Long Cheung
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Health and Life Sciences, Brunel University London, Kingston Lane, Uxbridge, Middlesex, London UB8 3PH, UK;
| | - Chee-Kiong Soh
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore;
| | - Georgios Christopoulos
- Division of Leadership, Management and Organisation, Nanyang Business School, College of Business, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore;
| | - Hein de Vries
- Department of Health Promotion, CAPHRI Care and Public Health Research Institute, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6022 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands;
| | - Josip Car
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, 11 Mandalay Road, Singapore 308232, Singapore; (R.B.); (J.C.)
- Department of Primary Care and Public Health, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Dunleavy G, Sathish T, Nazeha N, Soljak M, Visvalingam N, Bajpai R, Yap HS, Roberts AC, Thach TQ, Tonon AC, Soh CK, Christopoulos G, Cheung KL, de Vries H, Car J. Health Effects of Underground Workspaces cohort: study design and baseline characteristics. Epidemiol Health 2019; 41:e2019025. [PMID: 31623427 PMCID: PMC6815877 DOI: 10.4178/epih.e2019025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of underground workspaces is a strategic effort towards healthy urban growth in cities with ever-increasing land scarcity. Despite the growth in underground workspaces, there is limited information regarding the impact of this environment on workers' health. The Health Effects of Underground Workspaces (HEUW) study is a cohort study that was set up to examine the health effects of working in underground workspaces. In this paper, we describe the rationale for the study, study design, data collection, and baseline characteristics of participants. The HEUW study recruited 464 participants at baseline, of whom 424 (91.4%) were followed-up at 3 months and 334 (72.0%) at 12 months from baseline. We used standardized and validated questionnaires to collect information on socio-demographic and lifestyle characteristics, medical history, family history of chronic diseases, sleep quality, health-related quality of life, chronotype, psychological distress, occupational factors, and comfort levels with indoor environmental quality parameters. Clinical and anthropometric parameters including blood pressure, spirometry, height, weight, and waist and hip circumference were also measured. Biochemical tests of participants' blood and urine samples were conducted to measure levels of glucose, lipids, and melatonin. We also conducted objective measurements of individuals' workplace environment, assessing air quality, light intensity, temperature, thermal comfort, and bacterial and fungal counts. The findings this study will help to identify modifiable lifestyle and environmental parameters that are negatively affecting workers' health. The findings may be used to guide the development of more health-promoting workspaces that attempt to negate any potential deleterious health effects from working in underground workspaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerard Dunleavy
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Thirunavukkarasu Sathish
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Population Health Research Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Nuraini Nazeha
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Michael Soljak
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Nanthini Visvalingam
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Ram Bajpai
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Research institute for Primary Care and Health Sciences, Keele University, Staffordshire, UK
| | - Hui Shan Yap
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Adam C. Roberts
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Thuan Quoc Thach
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - André Comiran Tonon
- Laboratório de Cronobiologia e Sono, Porto Alegre Clínicas Hospital (HCPA), Porto Alegre, Brazil
- Postgraduate Program in Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Chee Kiong Soh
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Georgios Christopoulos
- Division of Leadership, Management and Organisation, Nanyang Business School, College of Business, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kei Long Cheung
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Health and Life Sciences, Brunel University London, London, UK
| | - Hein de Vries
- Department of Health Promotion, CAPHRI Care and Public Health Research Institute, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Josip Car
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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Kyaw BM, Posadzki P, Dunleavy G, Semwal M, Divakar U, Hervatis V, Tudor Car L. Offline Digital Education for Medical Students: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis by the Digital Health Education Collaboration. J Med Internet Res 2019; 21:e13165. [PMID: 30907731 PMCID: PMC6452290 DOI: 10.2196/13165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Revised: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Medical schools in low- and middle-income countries are facing a shortage of staff, limited infrastructure, and restricted access to fast and reliable internet. Offline digital education may be an alternative solution for these issues, allowing medical students to learn at their own time and pace, without the need for a network connection. Objective The primary objective of this systematic review was to assess the effectiveness of offline digital education compared with traditional learning or a different form of offline digital education such as CD-ROM or PowerPoint presentations in improving knowledge, skills, attitudes, and satisfaction of medical students. The secondary objective was to assess the cost-effectiveness of offline digital education, changes in its accessibility or availability, and its unintended/adverse effects on students. Methods We carried out a systematic review of the literature by following the Cochrane methodology. We searched seven major electronic databases from January 1990 to August 2017 for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or cluster RCTs. Two authors independently screened studies, extracted data, and assessed the risk of bias. We assessed the quality of evidence using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluations criteria. Results We included 36 studies with 3325 medical students, of which 33 were RCTs and three were cluster RCTs. The interventions consisted of software programs, CD-ROMs, PowerPoint presentations, computer-based videos, and other computer-based interventions. The pooled estimate of 19 studies (1717 participants) showed no significant difference between offline digital education and traditional learning groups in terms of students’ postintervention knowledge scores (standardized mean difference=0.11, 95% CI –0.11 to 0.32; small effect size; low-quality evidence). Meta-analysis of four studies found that, compared with traditional learning, offline digital education improved medical students’ postintervention skills (standardized mean difference=1.05, 95% CI 0.15-1.95; large effect size; low-quality evidence). We are uncertain about the effects of offline digital education on students’ attitudes and satisfaction due to missing or incomplete outcome data. Only four studies estimated the costs of offline digital education, and none reported changes in accessibility or availability of such education or in the adverse effects. The risk of bias was predominantly high in more than half of the included studies. The overall quality of the evidence was low (for knowledge, skills, attitudes, and satisfaction) due to the study limitations and inconsistency across the studies. Conclusions Our findings suggest that offline digital education is as effective as traditional learning in terms of medical students’ knowledge and may be more effective than traditional learning in terms of medical students’ skills. However, there is a need to further investigate students’ attitudes and satisfaction with offline digital education as well as its cost-effectiveness, changes in its accessibility or availability, and any resulting unintended/adverse effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhone Myint Kyaw
- Family Medicine and Primary Care, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Pawel Posadzki
- Centre for Population Health Sciences (CePHaS), Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Gerard Dunleavy
- Centre for Population Health Sciences (CePHaS), Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Monika Semwal
- Centre for Population Health Sciences (CePHaS), Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Ushashree Divakar
- Centre for Population Health Sciences (CePHaS), Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Vasilis Hervatis
- Department of Learning, Informatics, Management and Ethics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lorainne Tudor Car
- Family Medicine and Primary Care, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Primary Care and Public Health, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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Lall P, Rees R, Law GCY, Dunleavy G, Cotič Ž, Car J. Influences on the Implementation of Mobile Learning for Medical and Nursing Education: Qualitative Systematic Review by the Digital Health Education Collaboration. J Med Internet Res 2019; 21:e12895. [PMID: 30816847 PMCID: PMC6416537 DOI: 10.2196/12895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Revised: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In the past 5 decades, digital education has increasingly been used in health professional education. Mobile learning (mLearning), an emerging form of educational technology using mobile devices, has been used to supplement learning outcomes through enabling conversations, sharing information and knowledge with other learners, and aiding support from peers and instructors regardless of geographic distance. Objective This review aimed to synthesize findings from qualitative or mixed-methods studies to provide insight into factors facilitating or hindering implementation of mLearning strategies for medical and nursing education. Methods A systematic search was conducted across a range of databases. Studies with the following criteria were selected: examined mLearning in medical and nursing education, employed a mixed-methods or qualitative approach, and published in English after 1994. Findings were synthesized using a framework approach. Results A total of 1946 citations were screened, resulting in 47 studies being selected for inclusion. Most studies evaluated pilot mLearning interventions. The synthesis identified views on valued aspects of mobile devices in terms of efficiency and personalization but concerns over vigilance and poor device functionality; emphasis on the social aspects of technology, especially in a clinical setting; the value of interaction learning for clinical practice; mLearning as a process, including learning how to use a device; and the importance of institutional infrastructure and policies. Conclusions The portability of mobile devices can enable interactions between learners and educational material, fellow learners, and educators in the health professions. However, devices need to be incorporated institutionally, and learners and educators need additional support to fully comprehend device or app functions. The strategic support of mLearning is likely to require procedural guidance for practice settings and device training and maintenance services on campus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priya Lall
- School of Geography, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rebecca Rees
- Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Co-ordinating Centre, Social Science Research Unit, Department of Social Science, University College London Institute of Education, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gloria Chun Yi Law
- Centre of Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Gerard Dunleavy
- Centre of Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Živa Cotič
- Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Josip Car
- Centre of Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.,Faculty of Medicine, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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11
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Tudor Car L, Kyaw BM, Dunleavy G, Smart NA, Semwal M, Rotgans JI, Low-Beer N, Campbell J. Digital Problem-Based Learning in Health Professions: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis by the Digital Health Education Collaboration. J Med Internet Res 2019; 21:e12945. [PMID: 30816846 PMCID: PMC6416535 DOI: 10.2196/12945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Revised: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The use of digital education in problem-based learning, or digital problem-based learning (DPBL), is increasingly employed in health professions education. DPBL includes purely digitally delivered as well as blended problem-based learning, wherein digital and face-to-face learning are combined. OBJECTIVE The aim of this review is to evaluate the effectiveness of DPBL in improving health professionals' knowledge, skills, attitudes, and satisfaction. METHODS We used the gold-standard Cochrane methods to conduct a systematic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs). We included studies that compared the effectiveness of DPBL with traditional learning methods or other forms of digital education in improving health professionals' knowledge, skills, attitudes, and satisfaction. Two authors independently screened studies, extracted data, and assessed the risk of bias. We contacted study authors for additional information, if necessary. We used the random-effects model in the meta-analyses. RESULTS Nine RCTs involving 890 preregistration health professionals were included. Digital technology was mostly employed for presentation of problems. In three studies, PBL was delivered fully online. Digital technology modalities spanned online learning, offline learning, virtual reality, and virtual patients. The control groups consisted of traditional PBL and traditional learning. The pooled analysis of seven studies comparing the effect of DPBL and traditional PBL reported little or no difference in postintervention knowledge outcomes (standardized mean difference [SMD] 0.19, 95% CI 0.00-0.38). The pooled analysis of three studies comparing the effect of DPBL to traditional learning on postintervention knowledge outcomes favored DPBL (SMD 0.67, 95% CI 0.14-1.19). For skill development, the pooled analysis of two studies comparing DPBL to traditional PBL favored DPBL (SMD 0.30, 95% CI 0.07-0.54). Findings on attitudes and satisfaction outcomes were mixed. The included studies mostly had an unclear risk of bias. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that DPBL is as effective as traditional PBL and more effective than traditional learning in improving knowledge. DPBL may be more effective than traditional learning or traditional PBL in improving skills. Further studies should evaluate the use of digital technology for the delivery of other PBL components as well as PBL overall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorainne Tudor Car
- Family Medicine and Primary Care, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Primary Care and Public Health, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Bhone Myint Kyaw
- Family Medicine and Primary Care, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Gerard Dunleavy
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Neil A Smart
- School of Science & Technology, University of New England, Armidale, Australia
| | - Monika Semwal
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jerome I Rotgans
- Medical Education Research Unit, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Naomi Low-Beer
- Medical Education Research Unit, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - James Campbell
- Health Workforce Department, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
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Dunleavy G, Nikolaou CK, Nifakos S, Atun R, Law GCY, Tudor Car L. Mobile Digital Education for Health Professions: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis by the Digital Health Education Collaboration. J Med Internet Res 2019; 21:e12937. [PMID: 30747711 PMCID: PMC6390189 DOI: 10.2196/12937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Revised: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background There is a pressing need to implement efficient and cost-effective training to address the worldwide shortage of health professionals. Mobile digital education (mLearning) has been mooted as a potential solution to increase the delivery of health professions education as it offers the opportunity for wide access at low cost and flexibility with the portability of mobile devices. To better inform policy making, we need to determine the effectiveness of mLearning. Objective The primary objective of this review was to evaluate the effectiveness of mLearning interventions for delivering health professions education in terms of learners’ knowledge, skills, attitudes, and satisfaction. Methods We performed a systematic review of the effectiveness of mLearning in health professions education using standard Cochrane methodology. We searched 7 major bibliographic databases from January 1990 to August 2017 and included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or cluster RCTs. Results A total of 29 studies, including 3175 learners, met the inclusion criteria. A total of 25 studies were RCTs and 4 were cluster RCTs. Interventions comprised tablet or smartphone apps, personal digital assistants, basic mobile phones, iPods, and Moving Picture Experts Group-1 audio layer 3 player devices to deliver learning content. A total of 20 studies assessed knowledge (n=2469) and compared mLearning or blended learning to traditional learning or another form of digital education. The pooled estimate of studies favored mLearning over traditional learning for knowledge (standardized mean difference [SMD]=0.43, 95% CI 0.05-0.80, N=11 studies, low-quality evidence). There was no difference between blended learning and traditional learning for knowledge (SMD=0.20, 95% CI –0.47 to 0.86, N=6 studies, low-quality evidence). A total of 14 studies assessed skills (n=1097) and compared mLearning or blended learning to traditional learning or another form of digital education. The pooled estimate of studies favored mLearning (SMD=1.12, 95% CI 0.56-1.69, N=5 studies, moderate quality evidence) and blended learning (SMD=1.06, 95% CI 0.09-2.03, N=7 studies, low-quality evidence) over traditional learning for skills. A total of 5 and 4 studies assessed attitudes (n=440) and satisfaction (n=327), respectively, with inconclusive findings reported for each outcome. The risk of bias was judged as high in 16 studies. Conclusions The evidence base suggests that mLearning is as effective as traditional learning or possibly more so. Although acknowledging the heterogeneity among the studies, this synthesis provides encouraging early evidence to strengthen efforts aimed at expanding health professions education using mobile devices in order to help tackle the global shortage of health professionals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerard Dunleavy
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | | | - Sokratis Nifakos
- Health Informatics Centre, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Rifat Atun
- Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States.,Harvard Medical School, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Gloria Chun Yi Law
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Lorainne Tudor Car
- Family Medicine and Primary Care, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Primary Care and Public Health, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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Hervatis V, Kyaw BM, Semwal M, Dunleavy G, Tudor Car L, Zary N, Car J. Offline and computer-based eLearning interventions for medical students' education. Hippokratia 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd012149.pub2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vasilis Hervatis
- Karolinska Institutet; Department of Learning, Informatics, Management and Ethics (LIME); Stockholm Sweden
| | - Bhone Myint Kyaw
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University; Family Medicine and Primary Care; Singapore Singapore
| | - Monika Semwal
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University; Centre for Population Health Sciences (CePHaS); Singapore Singapore
| | - Gerard Dunleavy
- Nanyang Technological University; Centre for Population Health Sciences (CePHaS), Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine; Singapore Singapore
| | - Lorainne Tudor Car
- Nanyang Technological University; Family Medicine and Primary Care, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine; Singapore Singapore 308232
| | - Nabil Zary
- Karolinska Institutet; Department of Learning, Informatics, Management and Ethics (LIME); Stockholm Sweden
| | - Josip Car
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University; Centre for Population Health Sciences (CePHaS); Singapore Singapore
- University of Ljubljana; Department of Family Medicine, Faculty of Medicine; Ljubljana Slovenia
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14
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Posadzki PP, Bajpai R, Kyaw BM, Roberts NJ, Brzezinski A, Christopoulos GI, Divakar U, Bajpai S, Soljak M, Dunleavy G, Jarbrink K, Nang EEK, Soh CK, Car J. Melatonin and health: an umbrella review of health outcomes and biological mechanisms of action. BMC Med 2018; 16:18. [PMID: 29397794 PMCID: PMC5798185 DOI: 10.1186/s12916-017-1000-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Our aims were to evaluate critically the evidence from systematic reviews as well as narrative reviews of the effects of melatonin (MLT) on health and to identify the potential mechanisms of action involved. METHODS An umbrella review of the evidence across systematic reviews and narrative reviews of endogenous and exogenous (supplementation) MLT was undertaken. The Oxman checklist for assessing the methodological quality of the included systematic reviews was utilised. The following databases were searched: MEDLINE, EMBASE, Web of Science, CENTRAL, PsycINFO and CINAHL. In addition, reference lists were screened. We included reviews of the effects of MLT on any type of health-related outcome measure. RESULTS Altogether, 195 reviews met the inclusion criteria. Most were of low methodological quality (mean -4.5, standard deviation 6.7). Of those, 164 did not pool the data and were synthesised narratively (qualitatively) whereas the remaining 31 used meta-analytic techniques and were synthesised quantitatively. Seven meta-analyses were significant with P values less than 0.001 under the random-effects model. These pertained to sleep latency, pre-operative anxiety, prevention of agitation and risk of breast cancer. CONCLUSIONS There is an abundance of reviews evaluating the effects of exogenous and endogenous MLT on health. In general, MLT has been shown to be associated with a wide variety of health outcomes in clinically and methodologically heterogeneous populations. Many reviews stressed the need for more high-quality randomised clinical trials to reduce the existing uncertainties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pawel P Posadzki
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, 11 Mandalay Road, Level 18 Clinical Sciences Building, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Novena Campus, Nanyang Technological University , Singapore, 308232, Singapore.
| | - Ram Bajpai
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, 11 Mandalay Road, Level 18 Clinical Sciences Building, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Novena Campus, Nanyang Technological University , Singapore, 308232, Singapore
| | - Bhone Myint Kyaw
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, 11 Mandalay Road, Level 18 Clinical Sciences Building, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Novena Campus, Nanyang Technological University , Singapore, 308232, Singapore
| | - Nicola J Roberts
- School of Health and Life Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, G4 0BA, UK
| | - Amnon Brzezinski
- The Hebrew University Medical School, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, 91120, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - George I Christopoulos
- Nanyang Business School, Division of Strategy Management and Organisation, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Ushashree Divakar
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, 11 Mandalay Road, Level 18 Clinical Sciences Building, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Novena Campus, Nanyang Technological University , Singapore, 308232, Singapore
| | - Shweta Bajpai
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, 11 Mandalay Road, Level 18 Clinical Sciences Building, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Novena Campus, Nanyang Technological University , Singapore, 308232, Singapore
| | - Michael Soljak
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, 11 Mandalay Road, Level 18 Clinical Sciences Building, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Novena Campus, Nanyang Technological University , Singapore, 308232, Singapore
| | - Gerard Dunleavy
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, 11 Mandalay Road, Level 18 Clinical Sciences Building, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Novena Campus, Nanyang Technological University , Singapore, 308232, Singapore
| | - Krister Jarbrink
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, 11 Mandalay Road, Level 18 Clinical Sciences Building, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Novena Campus, Nanyang Technological University , Singapore, 308232, Singapore
| | - Ei Ei Khaing Nang
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, 11 Mandalay Road, Level 18 Clinical Sciences Building, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Novena Campus, Nanyang Technological University , Singapore, 308232, Singapore
| | - Chee Kiong Soh
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Josip Car
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, 11 Mandalay Road, Level 18 Clinical Sciences Building, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Novena Campus, Nanyang Technological University , Singapore, 308232, Singapore.,Global eHealth Unit, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, W6 8RP, UK
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15
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Hervatis V, Kyaw BM, Semwal M, Dunleavy G, Tudor Car L, Zary N, Car J. Offline and computer-based eLearning interventions for medical students' education. Hippokratia 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd012149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vasilis Hervatis
- Karolinska Institutet; Department of Learning, Informatics, Management and Ethics (LIME); Stockholm Sweden
| | - Bhone M Kyaw
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University; Health Services and Outcomes Research Programme; Singapore Singapore
| | - Monika Semwal
- Nanyang Technological University; Health Services and Outcomes Research Programme, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine; Singapore Singapore
| | - Gerard Dunleavy
- Nanyang Technological University; Health Services and Outcomes Research Programme, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine; Singapore Singapore
| | - Lorainne Tudor Car
- School of Public Health, Imperial College London; Department of Primary Care and Public Health; St Dunstans Road London UK W6 6RP
| | - Nabil Zary
- Karolinska Institutet; Department of Learning, Informatics, Management and Ethics (LIME); Stockholm Sweden
| | - Josip Car
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University; Health Services and Outcomes Research Programme; Singapore Singapore
- Imperial College London; Global eHealth Unit, Department of Primary Care and Public Health, School of Public Health; Reynolds Building St Dunstans Road London UK W6 8RP
- University of Ljubljana; Department of Family Medicine, Faculty of Medicine; Ljubljana Slovenia
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