Passive reporting greatly underestimates the rate of transfusion-associated circulatory overload after platelet transfusion

BACKGROUND

Transfusion-associated circulatory overload (TACO) is the second leading cause of reported transfusion-related fatalities in the United States. While its occurrence has been previously investigated after red cell and plasma transfusion, no data are available regarding its association with platelet transfusion. Our goal was to determine the rate of platelet-associated TACO at our university medical centre.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

This study had retrospective and prospective analyses. The 13-year retrospective analysis served to determine the historical rate of platelet-associated TACO by passive reporting. The 30-day prospective analysis included active surveillance of all non-emergently issued and non-operative platelet recipients ≥16 years old with no transfusions in the previous 6 h determined by analysis of blood bank product issue records. Data collected included demographics, vital signs pre- and posttransfusion, fluid balances, supplemental oxygen use, reports of dyspnoea, and infusion rates. For the prospective analysis, all variables were collected within 24 h of transfusion from the medical record and, when necessary, interviews with care providers and/or patients.

RESULTS

In the retrospective analysis, 366 reactions were reported, of which 6 (1·6%) were TACO. The historical rate of TACO was 1:5997 transfused platelet units. During the prospective analysis, 225 eligible patients received a total of 334 units of platelets. The average platelet transfusion volume was 261 ± 26 ml, and the average infusion rate was 391 ± 198 ml/h. Two unreported TACO reactions were discovered and characterized by new-onset hypertension, crackles on lung auscultation, dyspnoea, hypoxia and supplemental oxygen requirements which resolved completely with diuresis. The rate of TACO during this prospective analysis was 1:167 transfused platelet units.

CONCLUSION

Platelet-associated TACO is greatly underestimated by passive reporting in the adult patient population.

Performance of coagulation tests in patients on therapeutic doses of dabigatran: a cross-sectional pharmacodynamic study based on peak and trough plasma levels

BACKGROUND

Knowledge of anticoagulation status during dabigatran therapy may be desirable in certain clinical situations.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the coagulation tests that are most useful for assessing dabigatran's anticoagulant effect.

METHODS

Peak and trough blood samples from 35 patients taking dabigatran 150 mg twice daily, and one sample each from 30 non-anticoagulated individuals, were collected. Mass spectrometry and various coagulation assays were performed. 'Therapeutic range' was defined as the range of plasma dabigatran concentrations determined by mass spectrometry between the 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles of all values.

RESULTS

The therapeutic range was 27-411 ng mL(-1) . The prothrombin time (PT) and activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), determined with multiple reagents, and activated clotting time (ACT) were insensitive to therapeutic dabigatran: 29%, 18% and 40% of samples had a normal PT, APTT, and ACT, respectively. However, normal PT, ACT and APTT ruled out dabigatran levels above the 75th percentile. The thrombin clotting time (TCT) correlated well and linearly with dabigatran levels below the 50th percentile, but was unmeasurable above it. The dilute thrombin time, ecarin clotting time and ecarin chromogenic assay showed linear correlations with dabigatran levels over a broad range, and identified therapeutic and supratherapeutic levels.

CONCLUSIONS

The prothrombin time, APTT and ACT are often normal in spite of therapeutic dabigatran plasma levels. The TCT is useful for detecting minimal dabigatran levels. The dilute thrombin time and chromogenic and clotting ecarin assays accurately identify therapeutic and supratherapeutic dabigatran levels. This trial is registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov (#NCT01588327).

Interlaboratory agreement in the monitoring of unfractionated heparin using the anti-factor Xa-correlated activated partial thromboplastin time

BACKGROUND

In an effort to improve interlaboratory agreement in the monitoring of unfractionated heparin (UFH), the College of American Pathologists (CAP) recommends that the therapeutic range of the activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) be defined in each laboratory through correlation with a direct measure of heparin activity such as the factor Xa inhibition assay. Whether and to what extent this approach enhances the interlaboratory agreement of UFH monitoring has not been reported.

OBJECTIVES

We conducted a cross-validation study among four CAP-accredited coagulation laboratories to compare the interlaboratory agreement of the anti-FXa-correlated APTT with that of the traditional 1.5-2.5 times the midpoint of normal (1.5-2.5:control) method for defining the therapeutic APTT range.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

APTT and FXa inhibition assays were performed in each laboratory on plasma samples from 44 inpatients receiving UFH.

RESULTS

Using the anti-FXa-correlation method, there was agreement among all four laboratories as to whether a sample was subtherapeutic, therapeutic or supratherapeutic in seven (16%) patient samples. In contrast, consensus was achieved in 23 (52%) samples when the 1.5-2.5:control method was employed.

CONCLUSIONS

The anti-FXa-correlation method does not appear to enhance interlaboratory agreement in UFH monitoring as compared with the traditional 1.5-2.5:control method. Adoption of the anti-FXa-correlation method produces considerable disparity in UFH dosing decisions among different centers, although the clinical impact of this disparity is not known.

Essential thrombin residues for inhibition by protein C inhibitor with the cofactors heparin and thrombomodulin

BACKGROUND

Protein C inhibitor (PCI) and antithrombin (AT) are serine protease inhibitors (serpins) that inhibit a wide array of blood coagulation serine proteases including thrombin.

OBJECTIVE

Fifty-five Ala-scanned recombinant thrombin mutants were used to determine thrombin residues important for inhibition by PCI with and without the cofactors heparin and thrombomodulin (TM) and compared with the prototypical serpin, AT.

RESULTS

Residues around the active site (Tyr50 and Glu202) and the sodium-binding site (Glu229 and Arg233) were required for thrombin inhibition by PCI with and without cofactors. Exosite-2 residues (Arg89, Arg93, Glu94, Arg98, Arg245, Arg248, and Gln251) were critical for heparin-accelerated inhibition of thrombin by PCI. Exosite-1 residues (especially Lys65 and Tyr71) were required for enhanced PCI inhibition of thrombin-TM. Interestingly, we also found that the TM chondroitin sulfate moiety is not required for the approximately 150-fold enhanced rate of thrombin inhibition by PCI. Using the aforementioned thrombin exosite-2 mutants that were essential for heparin-catalyzed PCI-thrombin inhibition reactions we found no change in PCI inhibition rates for thrombin-TM.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, these results show that (i) similar thrombin exosite-2 residues are critical for the heparin-catalyzed inhibition by PCI and AT, (ii) PCI and AT are different in their thrombin-TM inhibition properties, and (iii) PCI has a distinct advantage over AT in the regulation of the activity of thrombin-TM.

Role of the gamma-carboxyglutamic acid domain of activated factor X in the presence of calcium during inhibition by antithrombin-heparin

BACKGROUND

Factor (F)Xa has 11 gamma-carboxylated glutamic acid (Gla) residues that are involved in calcium-dependent membrane binding. The serpin antithrombin (AT) is an important physiological regulator of FXa activity in an inhibition reaction that is enhanced by heparin. Recently, Rezaie showed that calcium further enhanced the heparin-catalyzed AT inhibition of FXa by promoting 'ternary complex' formation, and these results showed a role for the gamma-carboxyl-glutamate (Gla)-domain of FXa.

OBJECTIVES

In this study, we used recombinant FXa mutants to assess the role of individual Gla residues in augmenting or antagonizing the AT-heparin inhibition reaction in the presence of calcium.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

In the absence of heparin, AT inhibition of plasma and the recombinant FXas were essentially equivalent. Similar to plasma-derived FXa, calcium increased about 3-fold the inhibition rate of wild-type recombinant FXa by AT-heparin over that in the presence of EDTA. Interestingly, three different effects were found with the recombinant FXa Gla-mutants for AT-heparin inhibition: (i) Gla-->Asp 14 and 29 were enhanced without calcium; (ii) Gla-->Asp 16 and 26 were not enhanced by calcium; and (iii) Gla-->Asp 19 was essentially the same as wild-type recombinant FXa. These results support a theory that mutating individual Gla residues in FXa alters the calcium-induced conformational changes in the Gla region and affects the antithrombin-heparin inhibition reaction.

Effect of oligodeoxynucleotide thrombin aptamer on thrombin inhibition by heparin cofactor II and antithrombin

'Thrombin aptamers' are based on the 15-nucleotide consensus sequence of d(GGTTGGTGTGGTTGG) that binds specifically to thrombin's anion-binding exosite-I. The effect of aptamer-thrombin interactions during inhibition by the serine protease inhibitor (serpin) heparin cofactor II (HCII) and antithrombin (AT) has not been described. Thrombin inhibition by HCII without glycosaminoglycan was decreased approximately two-fold by the aptamer. In contrast, the aptamer dramatically reduced thrombin inhibition by >200-fold and 30-fold for HCII-heparin and HCII-dermatan sulfate, respectively. The aptamer had essentially no effect on thrombin inhibition by AT with or without heparin. These results add to our understanding of thrombin aptamer activity for potential clinical application, and they further demonstrate the importance of thrombin exosite-I during inhibition by HCII-glycosaminoglycans.

Insight into the mechanism of asparaginase-induced depletion of antithrombin III in treatment of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Asparaginase (ASNase) is a widely used and successful agent against childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Asparaginase cleaves asparagine (Asn) to give aspartic acid and ammonia, thereby depleting free Asn in the blood. However, treatment with ASNase has been implicated in significant reduction of plasma levels of the coagulation serine protease inhibitor (serpin) antithrombin III (AT3), predisposing patients to thromboembolic complications. Our investigation was designed to delineate the biochemical mechanism of AT3 depletion that can occur in the plasma of ALL patients undergoing ASNase therapy. SDS-PAGE showed no cleavage of purified AT3 following treatment with ASNase. Furthermore, purified AT3 treated with ASNase demonstrated no decrease in inhibitory activity. Human plasma and whole blood treated with approximate therapeutic concentrations of ASNase showed no loss of AT3 activity as detected by a plasma-based factor Xa inhibition assay. Treatment of a confluent monolayer of HepG2 (hepatocarcinoma) cells with ASNase showed no gross loss in AT3 message levels detected by rtPCR. However, a decrease of cell viability was observed in cultures treated with ASNase. Interestingly, medium from HepG2 cells treated with ASNase showed a marked decrease in secretion of AT3 and another serpin, heparin cofactor II. Collectively, these data show that ASNase has no direct effect on AT3 in blood or plasma, but that ASNase may affect plasma levels of AT3 by interfering with translation and/or secretion of the protein in liver cells.

Role of thrombin anion-binding exosite-I in the formation of thrombin-serpin complexes

Site-directed mutagenesis was used to investigate the role of basic residues in the thrombin anion-binding exosite-I during formation of thrombin-antithrombin III (ATIII), thrombin-protease nexin 1 (PN1), and thrombin-heparin cofactor II (HCII) inhibitor complexes, in the absence and presence of glycosaminoglycans. In the absence of glycosaminoglycan, association rate constant (kon) values for the inhibition of the mutant thrombins (R35Q, K36Q, R67Q, R73Q, R75Q, R77(a)Q, K81Q, K109Q, K110Q, and K149(e)Q) by ATIII and PN1 were similar to wild-type recombinant thrombin (rIIa), whereas kon values were decreased 2-3-fold for HCII against the majority of the exosite-I mutants. The exosite-I mutants did not have a significant effect on heparin-accelerated inhibition by ATIII with maximal kon values similar to rIIa. A small effect was seen for PN1/heparin inhibition of the exosite-I mutants R35Q, R67Q, R73Q, R75Q, and R77(a)Q, where kon values were decreased 2-4-fold, compared with rIIa. For HCII/heparin, kon values for inhibition of the exosite-I mutants (except R67Q, R73Q, and K149(e)Q) were 2-3-fold lower than rIIa. Larger decreases in kon values for HCII/heparin were found for R67Q and R73Q thrombins with 441- and 14-fold decreases, respectively, whereas K149(e)Q was unchanged. For HCII/dermatan sulfate, R67Q and R73Q had kon values reduced 720- and 48-fold, respectively, whereas the remaining mutants were decreased 3-7-fold relative to rIIa. The results suggest that ATIII has no major interaction with exosite-I of thrombin with or without heparin. PN1 bound to heparin uses exosite-I to some extent, possibly by utilizing the positive electrostatic field of exosite-I to enhance orientation and thrombin complex formation. The larger effects of the thrombin exosite-I mutants for HCII inhibition with heparin and dermatan sulfate indicate its need for exosite-I, presumably through contact of the "hirudin-like" domain of HCII with exosite-I of thrombin.

Intermolecular interactions between protein C inhibitor and coagulation proteases

Protein C inhibitor (PCI) inhibits multiple plasma serine proteases. To determine which residues contribute to its specificity of inhibition, 19 mutations in the reactive site loop of PCI (from Thr352 to Arg357) were generated and assayed with thrombin, activated protein C (APC), and factor Xa. To identify the intermolecular interactions responsible for these kinetics, a molecular model of PCI was generated using alpha 1-protease inhibitor and ovalbumin as templates. This model of PCI was docked with thrombin, followed by extensive energy minimization, to determine a lowest energy complex. The resulting docked complex was used as a template to form molecular models of PCI-APC and PCI-factor Xa complexes. The best inhibitors of thrombin contained Pro or Gly at the P2 position in place of Phe353, with 2- and 7-fold increases in activity, respectively. These substitutions reduced steric interactions with the 60-insertion loop unique to thrombin. The best inhibitors of APC and factor Xa contained Arg at the P3 position in place of Thr352, with 2- and 5-fold increases in inhibition rates, respectively. The molecular model predicts that Arg in this position could form a salt bridge with Glu217 of each protease. Changing Arg357 at the P3' position had little effect on protease inhibition, consistent with the observation in the model that this residue points toward the body of PCI, forming a salt bridge with Glu220. Given its broad specificity of inhibition, PCI has proven very useful in understanding the nature of serpin-protease interactions using multiple mutations in a serpin assayed with multiple proteases.

Interaction of thrombin with antithrombin, heparin cofactor II, and protein C inhibitor

alpha-Thrombin is a trypsin-like serine proteinase involved in blood coagulation and wound repair processes. Thrombin interacts with many macromolecular substrates, cofactors, cell-surface receptors, and blood plasma inhibitors. The three-dimensional structure of human alpha-thrombin shows multiple surface "exosites" for interactions with these macromolecules. We used these coordinates to probe the interaction of thrombin's active site and two exosites, anion-binding exosite-I and -II, with the blood plasma serine proteinase inhibitors (serpins) antithrombin (AT), heparin cofactor II (HC), and protein C inhibitor (PCI). Heparin, a widely used anticoagulant drug, accelerates the rate of thrombin inhibition by AT, PCI, and HC. Thrombin Quick II is a dysfunctional thrombin mutant with a Gly 226-->Val substitution in the substrate specificity pocket. We found that thrombin Quick II was inhibited by HC, but not by AT or PCI. Molecular modeling studies suggest that the larger Val side chain protrudes into the specificity pocket, allowing room for the smaller P1 side chain of HC (Leu) but not the larger P1 side chain of AT and PCI (both with Arg). gamma T-Thrombin and thrombin Quick I (Arg 67-->Cys) are both altered in anion-binding exosite-I, yet bind to heparin-Sepharose and can be inhibited by AT, HC, and PCI in an essentially normal manner in the absence of heparin. In the presence of heparin, inhibition of these altered thrombins by HC is greatly reduced compared to both AT and PCI. alpha-Thrombin with chemically modified lysines in both anion-binding exosite-I and -II has no heparin accelerated thrombin inhibition by either AT or HC. Thrombin lysine-modified in the presence of heparin has protected residues in anion-binding exosite-II and the loss of heparin-accelerated inhibition by HC is greater than that by AT. Collectively, these results suggest differences in serpin reactive site recognition by thrombin and a more complicated mechanism for heparin-accelerated inhibition by HC compared to either AT or PCI.

Interaction of heparin cofactor II with biglycan and decorin

Two small interstitial dermatan sulfate-containing proteoglycans, biglycan and decorin, are present in extracellular matrices of skin, tendon, ligament, and cartilage. We investigated the effects of biglycan and decorin on the inhibition of alpha-thrombin by the serine proteinase inhibitor heparin cofactor II. In solution, heparin cofactor II inhibition of thrombin is accelerated by intact biglycan or decorin and by the dermatan sulfate-containing glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains prepared from the proteoglycans, while core protein from cartilage biglycan had no effect. L-Iduronic acid-rich skin decorin and GAG chains had a greater accelerating effect than proteoglycan and GAG chains from cartilage that had lower L-iduronic acid content. Treatment of skin decorin and GAG chains with chondroitinase ABC totally eliminated the ability of these compounds to accelerate thrombin inhibition by heparin cofactor II suggesting that dermatan sulfate was responsible for this action. Both biglycan and decorin bound to type V collagen in a saturable and specific manner. Biglycan, decorin, and core protein from biglycan competed for decorin binding to the type V collagen, while only the intact proteoglycans competed for biglycan binding. When bound to type V collagen, both biglycan and decorin accelerated the heparin cofactor II/thrombin inhibition reaction as efficiently as the proteoglycans in solution. Our results demonstrate that heparin cofactor II in the presence of biglycan or decorin bound to type V collagen provides a "thromboresistant surface," further suggesting a physiological function for these proteins in regulating the extravascular activities of thrombin.

Inhibition of dysthrombins Quick I and II by heparin cofactor II and antithrombin

Heparin cofactor II and antithrombin are plasma serine proteinase inhibitors whose ability to inhibit alpha-thrombin is accelerated by glycosaminoglycans. Dysfunctional thrombin mutants Quick I (Arg67-->Cys) and Quick II (Gly226-->Val) were used to further compare heparin cofactor II and antithrombin interactions. Quick I, Quick II, and alpha-thrombin were eluted at the same salt concentration from heparin-Sepharose suggesting that the putative heparin-binding site (also termed anion binding exosite-II) is functional. Antithrombin yielded similar inhibition rates for Quick I and alpha-thrombin in the absence or presence of various amounts of heparin. Also, Quick I was inhibited similarly to alpha-thrombin by heparin cofactor II in the absence of glycosaminoglycan. In contrast, glycosaminoglycan-accelerated Quick I inhibition by heparin cofactor II was greatly reduced indicating that anion binding exosite-I (where the mutation occurs in Quick I) is critical for increased inhibition by heparin cofactor II. We also found that heparin cofactor II formed a SDS-resistant bimolecular complex with Quick II and alpha-thrombin at similar rates and the rate of complex formation was accelerated in the presence of glycosaminoglycans. A three-dimensional molecular model of the Quick II active site compared to alpha-thrombin suggested that the heparin cofactor II Leu-Ser-reactive site sequence (P1-P1') is a compatible "pseudosubstrate" in contrast to the Arg-Ser sequence found in antithrombin. The importance of heparin cofactor II as a thrombin regulator will depend upon its ability to interact with glycosaminoglycans and the functional availability of thrombin exosites.

A comparison of three heparin-binding serine proteinase inhibitors

The purpose of this study was to compare three heparin-binding plasma proteinase inhibitors in order to identify common and unique features of heparin binding and heparin-enhanced proteinase inhibition. Experiments with antithrombin, heparin cofactor, and protein C inhibitor were performed under identical conditions in order to facilitate comparisons. Synthetic peptides corresponding to the putative heparin binding regions of antithrombin, heparin cofactor, and protein C inhibitor bound to heparin directly and interfered in heparin-enhanced proteinase inhibition assays. All three inhibitors obeyed a ternary complex mechanism for heparin-enhanced thrombin inhibition, and the optimum heparin concentration was related to the apparent heparin affinity of the inhibitor. The maximum inhibition rate and rate enhancement due to heparin appeared to be unique properties of each inhibitor. In assays with heparin oligosaccharides of known size, only the antithrombin-thrombin reaction exhibited a sharp threshold for rate enhancement at 14-16 saccharide units. Acceleration of antithrombin inhibition of factor Xa, heparin cofactor inhibition of thrombin, and protein C inhibitor inhibition of thrombin, activated protein C, and factor Xa did not require a minimum saccharide size. The differences in heparin size dependence and rate enhancement of proteinase inhibition by these inhibitors might reflect differences in the importance of the ternary complex mechanism and other mechanisms, alterations in inhibitor reactivity, and orientation effects in heparin-enhanced proteinase inhibition.

Role of thrombin exosites in inhibition by heparin cofactor II

We determined the role of specific thrombin "exosites" in the mechanism of inhibition by the plasma serine proteinase inhibitors heparin cofactor II (HC) and antithrombin (AT) in the absence and presence of a glycosaminoglycan by comparing the inhibition of alpha-thrombin to epsilon- and gamma T-thrombin (produced by partial proteolysis of alpha-thrombin by elastase and trypsin, respectively). All of the thrombin derivatives were inhibited in a similar manner by AT, either in the absence or presence of heparin, which confirmed the integrity of both heparin binding abilities and serpin reactivities of epsilon- and gamma T-thrombin compared to alpha-thrombin. Antithrombin activities of HC in the absence of a glycosaminoglycan with alpha-, epsilon, and gamma T-thrombin were similar with rate constants of 3.5, 2.4, and 1.2 x 10(4) M-1 min-1, respectively. Interestingly, in the presence of glycosaminoglycans the maximal inhibition rate constants by HC with heparin and dermatan sulfate, respectively, were as follows: 30.0 x 10(7) and 60.5 x 10(7) for alpha-thrombin, 14.6 x 10(7) and 24.3 x 10(7) for epsilon-thrombin, and 0.017 x 10(7) and 0.034 x 10(7) M-1 min-1 for gamma T-thrombin. A hirudin carboxyl-terminal peptide, which binds to anion-binding exosite-I of alpha-thrombin, dramatically reduced alpha-thrombin inhibition by HC in the presence of heparin but not in its absence. We analyzed our results in relation to the recently determined x-ray structure of D-Phe-Pro-Arg-chloromethyl ketone-alpha-thrombin (Bode, W., Mayr, I., Baumann, U., Huber, R., Stone, S. R., and Hofsteenge, J. (1989) EMBO J. 8, 3467-3475). Our results suggest that the beta-loop region of anion-binding exosite-I in alpha-thrombin, which is not present in gamma T-thrombin, is essential for the rapid inhibition reaction by HC in the presence of a glycosaminoglycan. Therefore, alpha-thrombin and its derivatives would be recognized and inhibited differently by HC and AT in the presence of a glycosaminoglycan.

Role of lysine 173 in heparin binding to heparin cofactor II

Heparin cofactor II (HC) is a plasma serine proteinase inhibitor (serpin) that inhibits alpha-thrombin in a reaction that is dramatically enhanced by heparin and other glycosaminoglycans/polyanions. We investigated the glycosaminoglycan binding site in HC by: (i) chemical modification with pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP) in the absence and presence of heparin and dermatan sulfate; (ii) molecular modeling; and (iii) site-directed oligonucleotide mutagenesis. Four lysyl residues (173, 252, 343, and 348) were protected from modification by heparin and to a lesser extent by dermatan sulfate. Heparin-protected PLPHC retained both heparin cofactor and dermatan sulfate cofactor activity while dermatan sulfate-protected PLPHC retained some dermatan sulfate cofactor activity and little heparin cofactor activity. Molecular modeling studies revealed that Lys173 and Lys252 are within a region previously shown to contain residues involved in glycosaminoglycan binding. Lys343 and Lys348 are distant from this region, but protection by heparin and dermatan sulfate might result from a conformational change following glycosaminoglycan binding to the inhibitor. Site-directed mutagenesis of Lys173 and Lys343 was performed to further dissect the role of these two regions during HC-heparin and HC-dermatan sulfate interactions. The Lys343----Asn or Thr mutants had normal or only slightly reduced heparin or dermatan sulfate cofactor activity and eluted from heparin-Sepharose at the same ionic strength as native recombinant HC. However, the Lys173----Gln or Leu mutants had greatly reduced heparin cofactor activity and eluted from heparin-Sepharose at a significantly lower ionic strength than native recombinant HC but retained normal dermatan sulfate cofactor activity. Our results demonstrate that Lys173 is involved in the interaction of HC with heparin but not with dermatan sulfate, whereas Lys343 is not critical for HC binding to either glycosaminoglycan. These data provide further evidence for the determinants required for glycosaminoglycan binding to HC.

Antithrombin activity of fucoidan. The interaction of fucoidan with heparin cofactor II, antithrombin III, and thrombin

Fucoidan, poly(L-fucopyranose) linked primarily alpha 1----2 with either a C3- or a C4-sulfate, is an effective anticoagulant in vitro and in vivo (Springer, G. F., Wurzel, H. A., McNeal, G. M., Jr., Ansell, N. J., and Doughty, M. F. (1957) Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 94, 404-409). We have determined the antithrombin effects of fucoidan on the glycosaminoglycan-binding plasma proteinase inhibitors antithrombin III and heparin cofactor II. Fucoidan enhances the heparin cofactor II-thrombin reaction more than 3500-fold. The apparent second-order rate constant of thrombin inhibition by heparin cofactor II increases from 4 x 10(4) (in the absence of fucoidan) to 1.5 x 10(8) M-1 min-1 as the fucoidan concentration increases from 0.1 to 10 micrograms/ml and then decreases as fucoidan is increased above 10 micrograms/ml. The fucoidan reaction with heparin cofactor II-thrombin is kinetically equivalent to a "template model." Apparent fucoidan-heparin cofactor II and fucoidan-thrombin dissociation constants are 370 and 1 nM, respectively. The enhancement of thrombin inhibition by fucoidan, like heparin and dermatan sulfate, is eliminated by selective chemical modification of lysyl residues either of heparin cofactor II or of thrombin. The fucoidan-antithrombin III reactions with thrombin and factor Xa are accelerated maximally 285- and 35-fold at fucoidan concentrations of 30 and 500 micrograms/ml, respectively. Using human plasma and 125I-labeled thrombin in an ex vivo system, the heparin cofactor II-thrombin complex is formed preferentially over the antithrombin III-thrombin complex in the presence of 10 micrograms/ml fucoidan. Our results indicate that heparin cofactor II is activated by fucoidan in vitro and in an ex vivo plasma system and suggest that the major antithrombin activity of fucoidan in vivo is mediated by heparin cofactor II and not by antithrombin III.

Antithrombin action of phosvitin and other phosphate-containing polyanions is mediated by heparin cofactor II

We have examined the antithrombin effects of various phosphate-containing polyanions (including linear polyphosphates, polynucleotides and the phosphoserine glycoprotein, phosvitin) on the glycosaminoglycan-binding plasma proteinase inhibitors, antithrombin III (ATIII) and heparin cofactor II (HCII). These phosphate-containing polyanions accelerate the HCII-thrombin reaction, as much as 1600-fold in the case of phosvitin. The HCII-thrombin reaction with both phosvitin and polynucleotides appears to follow the ternary complex mechanism. The HCII-thrombin complex is rapidly formed in the presence of these phosphate polyanions (each at 10 micrograms/ml) when 125I-labeled thrombin is incubated with human plasma (ex vivo). None of these phosphate polyanions accelerate the ATIII-thrombin reaction. Our results suggest that the antithrombotic effect of these phosphate-containing polyanions is mediated by HCII activation and not by ATIII.

Carboxylate polyanions accelerate inhibition of thrombin by heparin cofactor II

The heparin cofactor II (HCII)/thrombin inhibition reaction is enhanced by various carboxylate polyanions. In the presence of polyaspartic acid, the HCII/thrombin reaction is accelerated more than 1000-fold with the second-order rate constant increasing from 3.2 x 10(4) M-1 min-1 (in the absence of polyAsp) to 3.6 x 10(7) M-1 min-1 as the polyAsp concentration is increased from 1 to 250 micrograms/ml. This accelerating effect was observed for HCII/thrombin, though to varying degrees, with other carboxylate polyanions. In contrast to HCII, the rate of antithrombin III inhibition of thrombin was decreased in the presence of polyAsp. The HCII/thrombin complex is rapidly formed in the presence of 10 micrograms/ml polyAsp when 125I-labeled-thrombin is incubated with plasma. It is possible that at physiological sites rich in carboxylate polyanions, thrombin may be preferentially inhibited by HCII.

Rapid sulfopropyl-disk chromatographic purification of bovine and human thrombin

Thrombin, from either a crude commercial preparation (bovine) or a prothrombin activation mixture (human), was purified by sulfopropyl-disk chromatography to homogeneity in a rapid and convenient single-step procedure. The yield of both proteinases was greater than 85%. Purified bovine and human thrombin had sp act of 2500 and 3000 "NIH" units/mg, respectively. Human thrombin was more reactive than bovine thrombin with these active site-directed probes: phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, dansyl-Glu-Gly-Arg-chloromethylketone, and human heparin cofactor II. The sulfopropyl-disk chromatographic method is a useful and rapid technique to prepare milligram quantities of highly purified bovine and human thrombin.