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Totonji S, Ramos-Triguero A, Willmann D, Sum M, Urban S, Bauer H, Rieder A, Wang S, Greschik H, Metzger E, Schüle R. Lysine Methyltransferase 9 (KMT9) Is an Actionable Target in Muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2024; 16:1532. [PMID: 38672614 PMCID: PMC11049522 DOI: 10.3390/cancers16081532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Novel treatment modalities are imperative for the challenging management of muscle-invasive and metastatic BC to improve patient survival rates. The recently identified KMT9, an obligate heterodimer composed of KMT9α and KMT9β, regulates the growth of various types of tumors such as prostate, lung, and colon cancer. While the overexpression of KMT9α was previously observed to be associated with aggressive basal-like MIBC in an analysis of patients' tissue samples, a potential functional role of KMT9 in this type of cancer has not been investigated to date. In this study, we show that KMT9 regulates proliferation, migration, and invasion of various MIBC cell lines with different genetic mutations. KMT9α depletion results in the differential expression of genes regulating the cell cycle, cell adhesion, and migration. Differentially expressed genes include oncogenes such as EGFR and AKT1 as well as mediators of cell adhesion or migration such as DAG1 and ITGA6. Reduced cell proliferation upon KMT9α depletion is also observed in Pten/Trp53 knockout bladder tumor organoids, which cannot be rescued with an enzymatically inactive KMT9α mutant. In accordance with the idea that the catalytic activity of KMT9 is required for the control of cellular processes in MIBC, a recently developed small-molecule inhibitor of KMT9 (KMI169) also impairs cancer cell proliferation. Since KMT9α depletion also restricts the growth of xenografts in mice, our data suggest that KMT9 is an actionable novel therapeutic target for the treatment of MIBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sainab Totonji
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany; (S.T.)
| | - Anna Ramos-Triguero
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany; (S.T.)
| | - Dominica Willmann
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany; (S.T.)
| | - Manuela Sum
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany; (S.T.)
| | - Sylvia Urban
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany; (S.T.)
| | - Helena Bauer
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany; (S.T.)
| | - Astrid Rieder
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany; (S.T.)
| | - Sheng Wang
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany; (S.T.)
| | - Holger Greschik
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany; (S.T.)
| | - Eric Metzger
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany; (S.T.)
- Deutsches Konsortium für Translationale Krebsforschung, Standort Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Roland Schüle
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany; (S.T.)
- Deutsches Konsortium für Translationale Krebsforschung, Standort Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany
- CIBSS Centre of Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
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2
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Xiong Y, Greschik H, Johansson C, Seifert L, Gamble V, Park KS, Fagan V, Li F, Chau I, Vedadi M, Arrowsmith CH, Brennan P, Fedorov O, Jung M, Farnie G, Liu J, Oppermann U, Schüle R, Jin J. Discovery of a Potent, Selective, and Cell-Active SPIN1 Inhibitor. J Med Chem 2024; 67:5837-5853. [PMID: 38533580 PMCID: PMC11022035 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.4c00121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
The methyl-lysine reader protein SPIN1 plays important roles in various human diseases. However, targeting methyl-lysine reader proteins has been challenging. Very few cellularly active SPIN1 inhibitors have been developed. We previously reported that our G9a/GLP inhibitor UNC0638 weakly inhibited SPIN1. Here, we present our comprehensive structure-activity relationship study that led to the discovery of compound 11, a dual SPIN1 and G9a/GLP inhibitor, and compound 18 (MS8535), a SPIN1 selective inhibitor. We solved the cocrystal structure of SPIN1 in complex with 11, confirming that 11 occupied one of the three Tudor domains. Importantly, 18 displayed high selectivity for SPIN1 over 38 epigenetic targets, including G9a/GLP, and concentration dependently disrupted the interactions of SPIN1 and H3 in cells. Furthermore, 18 was bioavailable in mice. We also developed 19 (MS8535N), which was inactive against SPIN1, as a negative control of 18. Collectively, these compounds are useful chemical tools to study biological functions of SPIN1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Xiong
- Mount Sinai Center for Therapeutics Discovery, Departments of Pharmacological Sciences, Oncological Sciences and Neuroscience, Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | - Holger Greschik
- Department of Urology and Center for Clinical Research, University Freiburg Medical Center, Freiburg 79106, Germany
| | - Catrine Johansson
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Botnar Research Center, NIHR Oxford BRU, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LD, U.K
| | - Ludwig Seifert
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Freiburg, Freiburg 79104, Germany
| | - Vicki Gamble
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Botnar Research Center, NIHR Oxford BRU, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LD, U.K
| | - Kwang-Su Park
- Mount Sinai Center for Therapeutics Discovery, Departments of Pharmacological Sciences, Oncological Sciences and Neuroscience, Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | - Vincent Fagan
- Centre for Medicines Discovery, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, U.K.; Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, U.K
| | - Fengling Li
- Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Irene Chau
- Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Masoud Vedadi
- Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, 661 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario M5G 0A3, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Cheryl H Arrowsmith
- Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre and Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Paul Brennan
- Centre for Medicines Discovery, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, U.K.; Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, U.K
| | - Oleg Fedorov
- Centre for Medicines Discovery, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, U.K.; Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, U.K
| | - Manfred Jung
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Freiburg, Freiburg 79104, Germany
- German Cancer Research Centre (DKFZ), Heidelberg 69120, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Freiburg 79104, Germany
| | - Gillian Farnie
- Centre for Medicines Discovery, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, U.K.; Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, U.K
| | - Jing Liu
- Mount Sinai Center for Therapeutics Discovery, Departments of Pharmacological Sciences, Oncological Sciences and Neuroscience, Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | - Udo Oppermann
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Botnar Research Center, NIHR Oxford BRU, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LD, U.K
- Botnar Research Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LD, U.K
- Oxford Translational Myeloma Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LD, U.K
| | - Roland Schüle
- Department of Urology and Center for Clinical Research, University Freiburg Medical Center, Freiburg 79106, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Freiburg 79104, Germany
- CIBSS Centre of Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg 79106, Germany
| | - Jian Jin
- Mount Sinai Center for Therapeutics Discovery, Departments of Pharmacological Sciences, Oncological Sciences and Neuroscience, Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, United States
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3
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Wang S, Klein SO, Urban S, Staudt M, Barthes NPF, Willmann D, Bacher J, Sum M, Bauer H, Peng L, Rennar GA, Gratzke C, Schüle KM, Zhang L, Einsle O, Greschik H, MacLeod C, Thomson CG, Jung M, Metzger E, Schüle R. Structure-guided design of a selective inhibitor of the methyltransferase KMT9 with cellular activity. Nat Commun 2024; 15:43. [PMID: 38167811 PMCID: PMC10762027 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-44243-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of epigenetic regulators by small molecules is an attractive strategy for cancer treatment. Recently, we characterised the role of lysine methyltransferase 9 (KMT9) in prostate, lung, and colon cancer. Our observation that the enzymatic activity was required for tumour cell proliferation identified KMT9 as a potential therapeutic target. Here, we report the development of a potent and selective KMT9 inhibitor (compound 4, KMI169) with cellular activity through structure-based drug design. KMI169 functions as a bi-substrate inhibitor targeting the SAM and substrate binding pockets of KMT9 and exhibits high potency, selectivity, and cellular target engagement. KMT9 inhibition selectively downregulates target genes involved in cell cycle regulation and impairs proliferation of tumours cells including castration- and enzalutamide-resistant prostate cancer cells. KMI169 represents a valuable tool to probe cellular KMT9 functions and paves the way for the development of clinical candidate inhibitors as therapeutic options to treat malignancies such as therapy-resistant prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Wang
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Sebastian O Klein
- CIBSS Centre of Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Sylvia Urban
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Maximilian Staudt
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Nicolas P F Barthes
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Dominica Willmann
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Johannes Bacher
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Manuela Sum
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Helena Bauer
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ling Peng
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Georg A Rennar
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Christian Gratzke
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Katrin M Schüle
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Lin Zhang
- Institut für Biochemie, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Oliver Einsle
- Institut für Biochemie, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Holger Greschik
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Calum MacLeod
- Drug Discovery, Pharmaron UK Ltd, Hoddesdon, United Kingdom
| | | | - Manfred Jung
- CIBSS Centre of Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Deutsches Konsortium für Translationale Krebsforschung, Standort Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Eric Metzger
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
- Deutsches Konsortium für Translationale Krebsforschung, Standort Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Roland Schüle
- Klinik für Urologie und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
- CIBSS Centre of Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
- Deutsches Konsortium für Translationale Krebsforschung, Standort Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
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4
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Fagan V, Johansson C, Gileadi C, Monteiro O, Dunford JE, Nibhani R, Philpott M, Malzahn J, Wells G, Faram R, Cribbs AP, Halidi N, Li F, Chau I, Greschik H, Velupillai S, Allali-Hassani A, Bennett J, Christott T, Giroud C, Lewis AM, Huber KVM, Athanasou N, Bountra C, Jung M, Schüle R, Vedadi M, Arrowsmith C, Xiong Y, Jin J, Fedorov O, Farnie G, Brennan PE, Oppermann U. A Chemical Probe for Tudor Domain Protein Spindlin1 to Investigate Chromatin Function. J Med Chem 2019; 62:9008-9025. [PMID: 31550156 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b00562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Modifications of histone tails, including lysine/arginine methylation, provide the basis of a "chromatin or histone code". Proteins that contain "reader" domains can bind to these modifications and form specific effector complexes, which ultimately mediate chromatin function. The spindlin1 (SPIN1) protein contains three Tudor methyllysine/arginine reader domains and was identified as a putative oncogene and transcriptional coactivator. Here we report a SPIN1 chemical probe inhibitor with low nanomolar in vitro activity, exquisite selectivity on a panel of methyl reader and writer proteins, and with submicromolar cellular activity. X-ray crystallography showed that this Tudor domain chemical probe simultaneously engages Tudor domains 1 and 2 via a bidentate binding mode. Small molecule inhibition and siRNA knockdown of SPIN1, as well as chemoproteomic studies, identified genes which are transcriptionally regulated by SPIN1 in squamous cell carcinoma and suggest that SPIN1 may have a role in cancer related inflammation and/or cancer metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Fagan
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7DQ Oxford , U.K
- Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7FZ Oxford , U.K
| | - Catrine Johansson
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7DQ Oxford , U.K
- Botnar Research Centre, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, NIHR Bio-medical Research Centre , University of Oxford , Oxford OX3 7LD , U.K
| | - Carina Gileadi
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7DQ Oxford , U.K
- Botnar Research Centre, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, NIHR Bio-medical Research Centre , University of Oxford , Oxford OX3 7LD , U.K
| | - Octovia Monteiro
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7DQ Oxford , U.K
- Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7FZ Oxford , U.K
| | - James E Dunford
- Botnar Research Centre, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, NIHR Bio-medical Research Centre , University of Oxford , Oxford OX3 7LD , U.K
| | - Reshma Nibhani
- Botnar Research Centre, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, NIHR Bio-medical Research Centre , University of Oxford , Oxford OX3 7LD , U.K
| | - Martin Philpott
- Botnar Research Centre, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, NIHR Bio-medical Research Centre , University of Oxford , Oxford OX3 7LD , U.K
| | - Jessica Malzahn
- Botnar Research Centre, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, NIHR Bio-medical Research Centre , University of Oxford , Oxford OX3 7LD , U.K
| | - Graham Wells
- Botnar Research Centre, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, NIHR Bio-medical Research Centre , University of Oxford , Oxford OX3 7LD , U.K
| | - Ruth Faram
- Botnar Research Centre, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, NIHR Bio-medical Research Centre , University of Oxford , Oxford OX3 7LD , U.K
| | - Adam P Cribbs
- Botnar Research Centre, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, NIHR Bio-medical Research Centre , University of Oxford , Oxford OX3 7LD , U.K
| | - Nadia Halidi
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7DQ Oxford , U.K
- Botnar Research Centre, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, NIHR Bio-medical Research Centre , University of Oxford , Oxford OX3 7LD , U.K
| | - Fengling Li
- Structural Genomics Consortium , University of Toronto , 101 College Street , Toronto , Ontario M5G 1L7 , Canada
| | - Irene Chau
- Structural Genomics Consortium , University of Toronto , 101 College Street , Toronto , Ontario M5G 1L7 , Canada
| | - Holger Greschik
- Department of Urology, Center for Clinical Research, Medical Center, Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS , University of Freiburg , D-79106 Freiburg , Germany
| | - Srikannathasan Velupillai
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7DQ Oxford , U.K
| | - Abdellah Allali-Hassani
- Structural Genomics Consortium , University of Toronto , 101 College Street , Toronto , Ontario M5G 1L7 , Canada
| | - James Bennett
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7DQ Oxford , U.K
- Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7FZ Oxford , U.K
| | - Thomas Christott
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7DQ Oxford , U.K
- Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7FZ Oxford , U.K
| | - Charline Giroud
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7DQ Oxford , U.K
- Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7FZ Oxford , U.K
| | - Andrew M Lewis
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7DQ Oxford , U.K
- Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7FZ Oxford , U.K
| | - Kilian V M Huber
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7DQ Oxford , U.K
- Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7FZ Oxford , U.K
| | - Nick Athanasou
- Botnar Research Centre, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, NIHR Bio-medical Research Centre , University of Oxford , Oxford OX3 7LD , U.K
| | - Chas Bountra
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7DQ Oxford , U.K
| | - Manfred Jung
- FRIAS-Freiburg Institute of Advanced Studies , University of Freiburg , 79104 Freiburg , Germany
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences , University of Freiburg , Albertstraße 25 , 79104 Freiburg , Germany
| | - Roland Schüle
- Department of Urology, Center for Clinical Research, Medical Center, Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS , University of Freiburg , D-79106 Freiburg , Germany
| | - Masoud Vedadi
- Structural Genomics Consortium , University of Toronto , 101 College Street , Toronto , Ontario M5G 1L7 , Canada
| | - Cheryl Arrowsmith
- Structural Genomics Consortium , University of Toronto , 101 College Street , Toronto , Ontario M5G 1L7 , Canada
| | - Yan Xiong
- Mount Sinai Center for Therapeutics Discovery, Departments of Pharmacological Sciences and Oncological Sciences , Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York , New York 10029 , United States
| | - Jian Jin
- Mount Sinai Center for Therapeutics Discovery, Departments of Pharmacological Sciences and Oncological Sciences , Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York , New York 10029 , United States
| | - Oleg Fedorov
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7DQ Oxford , U.K
- Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7FZ Oxford , U.K
| | - Gillian Farnie
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7DQ Oxford , U.K
- Botnar Research Centre, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, NIHR Bio-medical Research Centre , University of Oxford , Oxford OX3 7LD , U.K
| | - Paul E Brennan
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7DQ Oxford , U.K
- Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7FZ Oxford , U.K
- Alzheimer's Research UK Oxford Drug Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7FZ Oxford , U.K
| | - Udo Oppermann
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , OX3 7DQ Oxford , U.K
- Botnar Research Centre, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, NIHR Bio-medical Research Centre , University of Oxford , Oxford OX3 7LD , U.K
- FRIAS-Freiburg Institute of Advanced Studies , University of Freiburg , 79104 Freiburg , Germany
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5
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Xiong Y, Greschik H, Johansson C, Seifert L, Bacher J, Park KS, Babault N, Martini M, Fagan V, Li F, Chau I, Christott T, Dilworth D, Barsyte-Lovejoy D, Vedadi M, Arrowsmith CH, Brennan P, Fedorov O, Jung M, Farnie G, Liu J, Oppermann U, Schüle R, Jin J. Discovery of a Potent and Selective Fragment-like Inhibitor of Methyllysine Reader Protein Spindlin 1 (SPIN1). J Med Chem 2019; 62:8996-9007. [PMID: 31260300 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b00522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
By screening an epigenetic compound library, we identified that UNC0638, a highly potent inhibitor of the histone methyltransferases G9a and GLP, was a weak inhibitor of SPIN1 (spindlin 1), a methyllysine reader protein. Our optimization of this weak hit resulted in the discovery of a potent, selective, and cell-active SPIN1 inhibitor, compound 3 (MS31). Compound 3 potently inhibited binding of trimethyllysine-containing peptides to SPIN1, displayed high binding affinity, was highly selective for SPIN1 over other epigenetic readers and writers, directly engaged SPIN1 in cells, and was not toxic to nontumorigenic cells. The crystal structure of the SPIN1-compound 3 complex indicated that it selectively binds tudor domain II of SPIN1. We also designed a structurally similar but inactive compound 4 (MS31N) as a negative control. Our results have demonstrated for the first time that potent, selective, and cell-active fragment-like inhibitors can be generated by targeting a single tudor domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Xiong
- Mount Sinai Center for Therapeutics Discovery, Departments of Pharmacological Sciences and Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute , Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York , New York 10029 , United States
| | - Holger Greschik
- Department of Urology and Center for Clinical Research , University Freiburg Medical Center , Freiburg 79106 , Germany
| | - Catrine Johansson
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Botnar Research Center, NIHR Oxford BRU , University of Oxford , Oxford OX37LD , U.K
| | - Ludwig Seifert
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences , University of Freiburg , Freiburg 79104 , Germany
| | - Johannes Bacher
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences , University of Freiburg , Freiburg 79104 , Germany
| | - Kwang-Su Park
- Mount Sinai Center for Therapeutics Discovery, Departments of Pharmacological Sciences and Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute , Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York , New York 10029 , United States
| | - Nicolas Babault
- Mount Sinai Center for Therapeutics Discovery, Departments of Pharmacological Sciences and Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute , Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York , New York 10029 , United States
| | - Michael Martini
- Mount Sinai Center for Therapeutics Discovery, Departments of Pharmacological Sciences and Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute , Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York , New York 10029 , United States
| | - Vincent Fagan
- Structural Genomics Consortium & Target Discovery Institute , University of Oxford , Oxford OX37DQ and OX37FZ, U.K
| | | | | | - Thomas Christott
- Structural Genomics Consortium & Target Discovery Institute , University of Oxford , Oxford OX37DQ and OX37FZ, U.K
| | | | | | - Masoud Vedadi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology , University of Toronto , Toronto , Ontario M5S 1A8 , Canada
| | | | - Paul Brennan
- Structural Genomics Consortium & Target Discovery Institute , University of Oxford , Oxford OX37DQ and OX37FZ, U.K
| | - Oleg Fedorov
- Structural Genomics Consortium & Target Discovery Institute , University of Oxford , Oxford OX37DQ and OX37FZ, U.K
| | - Manfred Jung
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences , University of Freiburg , Freiburg 79104 , Germany
- German Cancer Research Centre (DKFZ) , Heidelberg 69120 , Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) , Freiburg 79106 , Germany
| | - Gillian Farnie
- Structural Genomics Consortium & Target Discovery Institute , University of Oxford , Oxford OX37DQ and OX37FZ, U.K
| | - Jing Liu
- Mount Sinai Center for Therapeutics Discovery, Departments of Pharmacological Sciences and Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute , Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York , New York 10029 , United States
| | - Udo Oppermann
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Botnar Research Center, NIHR Oxford BRU , University of Oxford , Oxford OX37LD , U.K
| | - Roland Schüle
- Department of Urology and Center for Clinical Research , University Freiburg Medical Center , Freiburg 79106 , Germany
- BIOSS Centre of Biological Signalling Studies , University of Freiburg , Freiburg 79106 , Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) , Freiburg 79106 , Germany
| | - Jian Jin
- Mount Sinai Center for Therapeutics Discovery, Departments of Pharmacological Sciences and Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute , Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York , New York 10029 , United States
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6
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Epigenetic regulators including writers, erasers, and readers of chromatin marks have been implicated in numerous diseases and are therefore subject of intense academic and pharmaceutical research. While several small-molecule inhibitors targeting writers or erasers are either approved drugs or are currently being evaluated in clinical trials, the targeting of epigenetic readers has lagged behind. Proof-of-principle that epigenetic readers are also relevant drug targets was provided by landmark discoveries of selective inhibitors targeting the BET family of acetyl-lysine readers. More recently, high affinity chemical probes for non-BET acetyl- and methyl-lysine reader domains have also been developed. Areas covered: This article covers recent advances with the identification and validation of inhibitors and chemical probes targeting epigenetic reader domains. Issues related to epigenetic reader druggability, quality requirements for chemical probes, interpretation of cellular action, unexpected cross-talk, and future challenges are also discussed. Expert opinion: Chemical probes provide a powerful means to unravel biological functions of epigenetic readers and evaluate their potential as drug targets. To yield meaningful results, potency, selectivity, and cellular target engagement of chemical probes need to be stringently validated. Future chemical probes will probably need to fulfil additional criteria such as strict target specificity or the targeting of readers within protein complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holger Greschik
- a Urologische Klinik und Zentrale Klinische Forschung , Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Medizinische Fakultät, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg , Freiburg , Germany
| | - Roland Schüle
- a Urologische Klinik und Zentrale Klinische Forschung , Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Medizinische Fakultät, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg , Freiburg , Germany.,b Deutsches Konsortium für Translationale Krebsforschung, Standort Freiburg , Freiburg , Germany.,c BIOSS Centre of Biological Signalling Studies , Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg , Freiburg , Germany
| | - Thomas Günther
- a Urologische Klinik und Zentrale Klinische Forschung , Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Medizinische Fakultät, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg , Freiburg , Germany
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7
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Wagner T, Greschik H, Burgahn T, Schmidtkunz K, Schott AK, McMillan J, Baranauskienė L, Xiong Y, Fedorov O, Jin J, Oppermann U, Matulis D, Schüle R, Jung M. Identification of a small-molecule ligand of the epigenetic reader protein Spindlin1 via a versatile screening platform. Nucleic Acids Res 2016; 44:e88. [PMID: 26893353 PMCID: PMC4872087 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkw089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Epigenetic modifications of histone tails play an essential role in the regulation of eukaryotic transcription. Writer and eraser enzymes establish and maintain the epigenetic code by creating or removing posttranslational marks. Specific binding proteins, called readers, recognize the modifications and mediate epigenetic signalling. Here, we present a versatile assay platform for the investigation of the interaction between methyl lysine readers and their ligands. This can be utilized for the screening of small-molecule inhibitors of such protein–protein interactions and the detailed characterization of the inhibition. Our platform is constructed in a modular way consisting of orthogonal in vitro binding assays for ligand screening and verification of initial hits and biophysical, label-free techniques for further kinetic characterization of confirmed ligands. A stability assay for the investigation of target engagement in a cellular context complements the platform. We applied the complete evaluation chain to the Tudor domain containing protein Spindlin1 and established the in vitro test systems for the double Tudor domain of the histone demethylase JMJD2C. We finally conducted an exploratory screen for inhibitors of the interaction between Spindlin1 and H3K4me3 and identified A366 as the first nanomolar small-molecule ligand of a Tudor domain containing methyl lysine reader.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Wagner
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Freiburg, Freiburg 79104, Germany
| | - Holger Greschik
- Department of Urology and Center for Clinical Research, University Freiburg Medical Center, Freiburg 79106, Germany
| | - Teresa Burgahn
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Freiburg, Freiburg 79104, Germany
| | - Karin Schmidtkunz
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Freiburg, Freiburg 79104, Germany
| | - Anne-Kathrin Schott
- Department of Urology and Center for Clinical Research, University Freiburg Medical Center, Freiburg 79106, Germany
| | - Joel McMillan
- Department of Urology and Center for Clinical Research, University Freiburg Medical Center, Freiburg 79106, Germany
| | - Lina Baranauskienė
- Department of Biothermodynamics and Drug Design, Institute of Biotechnology, Vilnius University, Vilnius 02241, Lithuania
| | - Yan Xiong
- Department of Structural and Chemical Biology, Department of Oncological Sciences, Department of Pharmacology and Systems Therapeutics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029-6574, USA
| | - Oleg Fedorov
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Target Discovery Institute (TDI), Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - Jian Jin
- Department of Structural and Chemical Biology, Department of Oncological Sciences, Department of Pharmacology and Systems Therapeutics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029-6574, USA
| | - Udo Oppermann
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Botnar Research Center, NIHR Oxford BRU, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LD, UK
| | - Daumantas Matulis
- Department of Biothermodynamics and Drug Design, Institute of Biotechnology, Vilnius University, Vilnius 02241, Lithuania
| | - Roland Schüle
- Department of Urology and Center for Clinical Research, University Freiburg Medical Center, Freiburg 79106, Germany German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Freiburg, Germany BIOSS Centre of Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Manfred Jung
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Freiburg, Freiburg 79104, Germany BIOSS Centre of Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany German Cancer Research Centre (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
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8
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Franz H, Greschik H, Willmann D, Ozretić L, Jilg CA, Wardelmann E, Jung M, Buettner R, Schüle R. The histone code reader SPIN1 controls RET signaling in liposarcoma. Oncotarget 2016; 6:4773-89. [PMID: 25749382 PMCID: PMC4467114 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.3000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2014] [Accepted: 12/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The histone code reader Spindlin1 (SPIN1) has been implicated in tumorigenesis and tumor growth, but the underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here, we show that reducing SPIN1 levels strongly impairs proliferation and increases apoptosis of liposarcoma cells in vitro and in xenograft mouse models. Combining signaling pathway, genome-wide chromatin binding, and transcriptome analyses, we found that SPIN1 directly enhances expression of GDNF, an activator of the RET signaling pathway, in cooperation with the transcription factor MAZ. Accordingly, knockdown of SPIN1 or MAZ results in reduced levels of GDNF and activated RET explaining diminished liposarcoma cell proliferation and survival. In line with these observations, levels of SPIN1, GDNF, activated RET, and MAZ are increased in human liposarcoma compared to normal adipose tissue or lipoma. Importantly, a mutation of SPIN1 within the reader domain interfering with chromatin binding reduces liposarcoma cell proliferation and survival. Together, our data describe a molecular mechanism for SPIN1 function in liposarcoma and suggest that targeting SPIN1 chromatin association with small molecule inhibitors may represent a novel therapeutic strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henriette Franz
- Urologische Klinik und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Holger Greschik
- Urologische Klinik und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Dominica Willmann
- Urologische Klinik und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Luka Ozretić
- Universitätsklinikum Köln, Institut für Pathologie, Köln, Germany
| | - Cordula Annette Jilg
- Urologische Klinik und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Eva Wardelmann
- Universitätsklinikum Münster, Gerhard-Domagk-Insitut für Pathologie, Münster, Germany
| | - Manfred Jung
- Institut für Pharmazeutische Wissenschaften, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Deutsches Konsortium für Translationale Krebsforschung (DKTK), Standort Freiburg, Germany
| | | | - Roland Schüle
- Urologische Klinik und Zentrale Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,BIOSS Centre of Biological Signaling Studies, Albert-Ludwigs-University, Freiburg, Germany.,Deutsches Konsortium für Translationale Krebsforschung (DKTK), Standort Freiburg, Germany
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9
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Greschik H, Althage M, Flaig R, Sato Y, Chavant V, Peluso-Iltis C, Choulier L, Cronet P, Rochel N, Schüle R, Strömstedt PE, Moras D. Communication between the ERRalpha homodimer interface and the PGC-1alpha binding surface via the helix 8-9 loop. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:20220-30. [PMID: 18441008 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m801920200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Although structural studies on the ligand-binding domain (LBD) have established the general mode of nuclear receptor (NR)/coactivator interaction, determinants of binding specificity are only partially understood. The LBD of estrogen receptor-alpha (ERalpha), for example, interacts only with a region of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor coactivator (PGC)-1alpha, which contains the canonical LXXLL motif (NR box2), whereas the LBD of estrogen-related receptor-alpha (ERRalpha) also binds efficiently an untypical, LXXYL-containing region (NR box3) of PGC-1alpha. Surprisingly, in a previous structural study, the ERalpha LBD has been observed to bind NR box3 of transcriptional intermediary factor (TIF)-2 untypically via LXXYL, whereas the ERRalpha LBD binds this region of TIF-2 only poorly. Here we present a new crystal structure of the ERRalpha LBD in complex with a PGC-1alpha box3 peptide. In this structure, residues N-terminal of the PGC-1alpha LXXYL motif formed contacts with helix 4, the loop connecting helices 8 and 9, and with the C terminus of the ERRalpha LBD. Interaction studies using wild-type and mutant PGC-1alpha and ERRalpha showed that these contacts are functionally relevant and are required for efficient ERRalpha/PGC-1alpha interaction. Furthermore, a structure comparison between ERRalpha and ERalpha and mutation analyses provided evidence that the helix 8-9 loop, which differs significantly in both nuclear receptors, is a major determinant of coactivator binding specificity. Finally, our results revealed that in ERRalpha the helix 8-9 loop allosterically links the LBD homodimer interface with the coactivator cleft, thus providing a plausible explanation for distinct PGC-1alpha binding to ERRalpha monomers and homodimers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holger Greschik
- Département de Biologie et Génomique Structurales, Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Illkirch, France
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10
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Wissmann M, Yin N, Müller JM, Greschik H, Fodor BD, Jenuwein T, Vogler C, Schneider R, Günther T, Buettner R, Metzger E, Schüle R. Cooperative demethylation by JMJD2C and LSD1 promotes androgen receptor-dependent gene expression. Nat Cell Biol 2007; 9:347-53. [PMID: 17277772 DOI: 10.1038/ncb1546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 462] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2006] [Accepted: 01/02/2007] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Posttranslational modifications of histones, such as methylation, regulate chromatin structure and gene expression. Recently, lysine-specific demethylase 1 (LSD1), the first histone demethylase, was identified. LSD1 interacts with the androgen receptor and promotes androgen-dependent transcription of target genes by ligand-induced demethylation of mono- and dimethylated histone H3 at Lys 9 (H3K9) only. Here, we identify the Jumonji C (JMJC) domain-containing protein JMJD2C as the first histone tridemethylase regulating androgen receptor function. JMJD2C interacts with androgen receptor in vitro and in vivo. Assembly of ligand-bound androgen receptor and JMJD2C on androgen receptor-target genes results in demethylation of trimethyl H3K9 and in stimulation of androgen receptor-dependent transcription. Conversely, knockdown of JMJD2C inhibits androgen-induced removal of trimethyl H3K9, transcriptional activation and tumour cell proliferation. Importantly, JMJD2C colocalizes with androgen receptor and LSD1 in normal prostate and in prostate carcinomas. JMJD2C and LSD1 interact and both demethylases cooperatively stimulate androgen receptor-dependent gene transcription. In addition, androgen receptor, JMJD2C and LSD1 assemble on chromatin to remove methyl groups from mono, di and trimethylated H3K9. Thus, our data suggest that specific gene regulation requires the assembly and coordinate action of demethylases with distinct substrate specificities.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Line
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Proliferation/drug effects
- Chlorocebus aethiops
- Gene Expression Regulation/drug effects
- HeLa Cells
- Histone Demethylases
- Histones/metabolism
- Humans
- Jumonji Domain-Containing Histone Demethylases
- Male
- Metribolone/pharmacology
- MicroRNAs/genetics
- Neoplasm Proteins/genetics
- Neoplasm Proteins/metabolism
- Oxidoreductases, N-Demethylating/genetics
- Oxidoreductases, N-Demethylating/metabolism
- Prostate-Specific Antigen/genetics
- Prostate-Specific Antigen/metabolism
- Prostatic Neoplasms/genetics
- Prostatic Neoplasms/metabolism
- Prostatic Neoplasms/pathology
- Protein Binding/drug effects
- RNA, Small Interfering/genetics
- Receptors, Androgen/analysis
- Receptors, Androgen/metabolism
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/genetics
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/metabolism
- Receptors, Progesterone/genetics
- Receptors, Progesterone/metabolism
- Response Elements/genetics
- Tissue Kallikreins/genetics
- Transcription Factors/genetics
- Transcription Factors/metabolism
- Transfection
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Wissmann
- Universitäts-Frauenklinik und Zentrum für Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Universität Freiburg, Breisacherstrasse 66, 79106 Freiburg, Germany
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11
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Flaig R, Greschik H, Peluso-Iltis C, Moras D. Structural basis for cell-specific activity of NGFI-B/Nurr1 ligand-binding domains. Acta Crystallogr A 2005. [DOI: 10.1107/s0108767305089270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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12
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Flaig R, Greschik H, Peluso-Iltis C, Moras D. Structural basis for the cell-specific activities of the NGFI-B and the Nurr1 ligand-binding domain. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:19250-8. [PMID: 15716272 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m413175200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
NGFI-B is a ligand-independent orphan nuclear receptor of the NR4A subfamily that displays important functional differences with its homolog Nurr1. In particular, the NGFI-B ligand-binding domain (LBD) exhibits only modest activity in cell lines in which the Nurr1 LBD strongly activates transcription. To gain insight into the structural basis for the distinct activation potentials, we determined the crystal structure of the NGFI-B LBD at 2.4-angstroms resolution. Superimposition with the Nurr1 LBD revealed a significant shift of the position of helix 12, potentially caused by conservative amino acids exchanges in helix 3 or helix 12. Replacement of the helix 11-12 region of Nurr1 with that of NGFI-B dramatically reduces the transcriptional activity of the Nurr1 LBD. Similarly, mutation of Met414 in helix 3 to leucine or of Leu591 in helix 12 to isoleucine (the corresponding residues found in NGFI-B) significantly affects Nurr1 transactivation. In comparison, swapping the helix 11-12 region of Nurr1 into NGFI-B results in a modest increase of activity. These observations reveal a high sensitivity of LBD activity to changes that influence helix 12 positioning. Furthermore, mutation of hydrophobic surface residues in the helix 11-12 region (outside the canonical co-activator surface constituted by helices 3, 4, and 12) severely affects Nurr1 transactivation. Together, our data suggest that a novel co-regulator surface that includes helix 11 and a specifically positioned helix 12 determine the cell type-dependent activities of the NGFI-B and the Nurr1 LBD.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- COS Cells
- Crystallography, X-Ray
- DNA, Complementary/metabolism
- DNA-Binding Proteins/chemistry
- DNA-Binding Proteins/physiology
- Dimerization
- Histidine/chemistry
- Leucine/chemistry
- Ligands
- Methionine/chemistry
- Models, Molecular
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Mutation
- Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 4, Group A, Member 1
- Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 4, Group A, Member 2
- Plasmids/metabolism
- Protein Binding
- Protein Conformation
- Protein Structure, Secondary
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- Rats
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/chemistry
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/physiology
- Receptors, Steroid/chemistry
- Receptors, Steroid/physiology
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Transcription Factors/chemistry
- Transcription Factors/physiology
- Transcription, Genetic
- Transcriptional Activation
- Transfection
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralf Flaig
- Département de Biologie et Génomique Structurales, IGBMC, CNRS/INSERM/ULP, 1 Rue Laurent Fries, B.P. 10142, Illkirch 67404, France
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13
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Oehler MK, Greschik H, Fischer DC, Tong X, Schuele R, Kieback DG. Functional characterization of somatic point mutations of the human estrogen receptor alpha (hERalpha) in adenomyosis uteri. Mol Hum Reprod 2004; 10:853-60. [PMID: 15475371 DOI: 10.1093/molehr/gah113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Endometriosis and adenomyosis uteri are chronic, benign diseases caused by the presence of endometrial tissue in ectopic locations, e.g. peritoneal or deep inside the myometrial wall of the uterus and/or in the rectovaginal septum. Although adenomyosis might be considered as a special form of endometriosis, both conditions differ with respect to clinical symptoms and treatment. Induction of a hypo-estrogenic state alone or in combination with surgical removal of the extra-uterine lesion is mostly sufficient for treatment of peritoneal endometriosis. By contrast, adenomyosis uteri rarely responds to hormonal therapy and usually requires a hysterectomy for cure. Consequently, the role of steroid hormone receptors with respect to the aetiology of either condition is still a matter of discussion. Using PCR/single strand conformation polymorphism analysis, we identified somatic estrogen receptor (ER) alpha gene mutations in three out of 55 samples from adenomyosis uteri. Functional characterization revealed that two of the mutant ERalpha proteins display severely impaired DNA-binding and transactivation properties secondary to an altered response to estrogens or changes in epidermal growth factor-mediated ligand-independent activation. Although the exact mechanism remains unknown, we suggest that mutation-related silencing of estrogen responsiveness might render endometriotic cells resistant to hypo-estrogenic conditions thereby accounting for failure of estrogen-ablative therapy in adenomyosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin K Oehler
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
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14
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Greschik H, Flaig R, Renaud JP, Moras D. Structural Basis for the Deactivation of the Estrogen-related Receptor γ by Diethylstilbestrol or 4-Hydroxytamoxifen and Determinants of Selectivity. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:33639-46. [PMID: 15161930 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m402195200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The estrogen-related receptor (ERR) gamma behaves as a constitutive activator of transcription. Although no natural ligand is known, ERRgamma is deactivated by the estrogen receptor (ER) agonist diethylstilbestrol and the selective ER modulator 4-hydroxytamoxifen but does not significantly respond to estradiol or raloxifene. Here we report the crystal structures of the ERRgamma ligand binding domain (LBD) complexed with diethylstilbestrol or 4-hydroxytamoxifen. Antagonist binding to ERRgamma results in a rotation of the side chain of Phe-435 that partially fills the cavity of the apoLBD. The new rotamer of Phe-435 displaces the "activation helix" (helix 12) from the agonist position observed in the absence of ligand. In contrast to the complexes of the ERalpha LBD with 4-hydroxytamoxifen or raloxifene, helix 12 of antagonist-bound ERRgamma does not occupy the coactivator groove but appears to be completely dissociated from the LBD body. Comparison of the ligand-bound LBDs of ERRgamma and ERalpha reveals small but significant differences in the architecture of the ligand binding pockets that result in a slightly shifted binding position of diethylstilbestrol and a small rotation of 4-hydroxytamoxifen in the cavity of ERRgamma relative to ERalpha. Our results provide detailed molecular insight into the conformational changes occurring upon binding of synthetic antagonists to the constitutive orphan receptor ERRgamma and reveal structural differences with ERs that explain why ERRgamma does not bind estradiol or raloxifene and will help to design new selective antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holger Greschik
- Département de Biologie et Génomique Structurales, Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, 1 rue Laurent Fries, B. P. 10142, 67404 Illkirch, France
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15
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Abstract
Small molecules such as retinoids, steroid hormones, fatty acids, cholesterol metabolites, or xenobiotics are involved in the regulation of numerous physiological and patho-physiological processes by binding to and controlling the activity of members of the nuclear receptor (NR) superfamily of transcription factors. In addition to natural ligands, synthetic agonists or antagonists have been identified that in some cases specifically target NR isotypes, or elicit tissue-, signaling pathway-, or promoter-selective transcriptional responses. For these ligands the term "selective NR modulators" (SNRMs) has been introduced. Structure determination of apo- and holo-NR ligand-binding domains (LBDs)--some of them complexed to small coactivator or corepressor fragments--revealed the major principles of ligand-dependent NR action and determinants of (isotype-) selective ligand binding. These studies also stimulated the interpretation of tissue-specific effects of SNRMs on wild-type or mutant receptors. In contrast to the increasing knowledge on the structure-activity relationship of NRs with known SNRMs, rather basic questions remain about the regulation of orphan NRs (for which no ligands are known) or "adopted" orphan NRs (for which only recently ligands were identified). Several crystal structures of orphan NR LBDs uncovered unexpected properties, contributed to the understanding of orphan NR function, and may in the future permit the identification or design of ligands. This review will (i) focus on the current understanding of the structure-activity relationship of NR-ligand interactions, (ii) discuss recent advances in the field of "orphan" NR crystallography, and (iii) outline future challenges in NR structural biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holger Greschik
- Département de Biologie et Génomique Structurales, Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, 1 rue Laurent Fries, B.P. 10142, 67404 Illkirch, France
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16
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Müller JM, Metzger E, Greschik H, Bosserhoff AK, Mercep L, Buettner R, Schüle R. The transcriptional coactivator FHL2 transmits Rho signals from the cell membrane into the nucleus. EMBO J 2002; 21:736-48. [PMID: 11847121 PMCID: PMC125855 DOI: 10.1093/emboj/21.4.736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
GTPases of the Rho family are transducers of extracellular signals and control cellular processes such as organization of the actin cytoskeleton, motility, adhesion and gene regulation. The Rho signalling pathway is activated, for example, by bioactive sphingolipids such as sphingosine-1-phosphate (SPP) or by overexpression of Rho family members in tumorigenesis and metastases. Here, we show that stimulation of the Rho signalling pathway induces translocation of the transcriptional LIM-only coactivator FHL2 to the nucleus and subsequent activation of FHL2- and androgen receptor-dependent genes. Interestingly, prostate tumours overexpress Rho GTPases and display altered cellular localization of FHL2 concomitant with tumour dedifferentiation. SPP-induced FHL2 activation is mediated by Rho GTPases, but not by the GTPases Cdc42, Rac1 or Ras, and depends on Rho-kinase. In addition, Rho signalling influences other transcriptional coactivators, thus pointing to a general regulatory role for Rho GTPases in cofactor function. In summary, our data propose a yet undescribed signalling pathway in which the coactivator FHL2 acts as a novel molecular transmitter of the Rho signalling pathway, thereby integrating extracellular cues into altered gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Holger Greschik
- Universitäts-Frauenklinik und Zentrum für Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Universität Freiburg, Breisacherstrasse 66, D-79106 Freiburg,
Institut für Pathologie, Klinikum der RWTH Aachen, Pauwelstrasse 30, D-52074 Aachen and Institut für Pathologie, Universitätsklinikum Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Strasse 25, D-53127 Bonn, Germany Present address: IGBMC, 1 rue Laurent Fries, BP 163, F-67404 Illkirch Cedex, France Corresponding author e-mail:
| | - Anja-Katrin Bosserhoff
- Universitäts-Frauenklinik und Zentrum für Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Universität Freiburg, Breisacherstrasse 66, D-79106 Freiburg,
Institut für Pathologie, Klinikum der RWTH Aachen, Pauwelstrasse 30, D-52074 Aachen and Institut für Pathologie, Universitätsklinikum Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Strasse 25, D-53127 Bonn, Germany Present address: IGBMC, 1 rue Laurent Fries, BP 163, F-67404 Illkirch Cedex, France Corresponding author e-mail:
| | | | - Reinhard Buettner
- Universitäts-Frauenklinik und Zentrum für Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Universität Freiburg, Breisacherstrasse 66, D-79106 Freiburg,
Institut für Pathologie, Klinikum der RWTH Aachen, Pauwelstrasse 30, D-52074 Aachen and Institut für Pathologie, Universitätsklinikum Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Strasse 25, D-53127 Bonn, Germany Present address: IGBMC, 1 rue Laurent Fries, BP 163, F-67404 Illkirch Cedex, France Corresponding author e-mail:
| | - Roland Schüle
- Universitäts-Frauenklinik und Zentrum für Klinische Forschung, Klinikum der Universität Freiburg, Breisacherstrasse 66, D-79106 Freiburg,
Institut für Pathologie, Klinikum der RWTH Aachen, Pauwelstrasse 30, D-52074 Aachen and Institut für Pathologie, Universitätsklinikum Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Strasse 25, D-53127 Bonn, Germany Present address: IGBMC, 1 rue Laurent Fries, BP 163, F-67404 Illkirch Cedex, France Corresponding author e-mail:
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17
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Greschik H, Wurtz JM, Sanglier S, Bourguet W, van Dorsselaer A, Moras D, Renaud JP. Structural and functional evidence for ligand-independent transcriptional activation by the estrogen-related receptor 3. Mol Cell 2002; 9:303-13. [PMID: 11864604 DOI: 10.1016/s1097-2765(02)00444-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 217] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The crystal structure of the ligand binding domain (LBD) of the estrogen-related receptor 3 (ERR3) complexed with a steroid receptor coactivator-1 (SRC-1) peptide reveals a transcriptionally active conformation in absence of any ligand. The structure explains why estradiol does not bind ERRs with significant affinity. Docking of the previously reported ERR antagonists, diethylstilbestrol and 4-hydroxytamoxifen, requires structural rearrangements enlarging the ligand binding pocket that can only be accommodated with an antagonist LBD conformation. Mutant receptors in which the ligand binding cavity is filled up by bulkier side chains still interact with SRC-1 in vitro and are transcriptionally active in vivo, but are no longer efficiently inactivated by diethylstilbestrol or 4-hydroxytamoxifen. These results provide structural and functional evidence for ligand-independent transcriptional activation by ERR3.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Amino Acid Substitution
- Animals
- Binding Sites
- COS Cells
- Cell Line
- Chlorocebus aethiops
- Cricetinae
- Crystallography, X-Ray
- Diethylstilbestrol/metabolism
- Diethylstilbestrol/pharmacology
- Estradiol/metabolism
- Estradiol/pharmacology
- Histone Acetyltransferases
- Humans
- Ligands
- Mesocricetus
- Mice
- Models, Molecular
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Nuclear Receptor Coactivator 1
- Protein Conformation
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear
- Receptors, Estrogen/drug effects
- Receptors, Estrogen/genetics
- Receptors, Estrogen/physiology
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/chemistry
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/physiology
- Sequence Alignment
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Spectrometry, Mass, Electrospray Ionization
- Structure-Activity Relationship
- Tamoxifen/analogs & derivatives
- Tamoxifen/metabolism
- Tamoxifen/pharmacology
- Transcription Factors/metabolism
- Transcription, Genetic/physiology
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Affiliation(s)
- Holger Greschik
- Laboratoire de Biologie et Génomique Structurales, Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, 1 rue Laurent Fries, B.P. 163, 67404 Illkirch, France
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18
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Greiner EF, Kirfel J, Greschik H, Huang D, Becker P, Kapfhammer JP, Schüle R. Differential ligand-dependent protein-protein interactions between nuclear receptors and a neuronal-specific cofactor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000; 97:7160-5. [PMID: 10860982 PMCID: PMC16516 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.97.13.7160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Nuclear receptors are transcription factors that require multiple protein-protein interactions to regulate target gene expression. We have cloned a 27-kDa protein, termed NIX1 (neuronal interacting factor X 1), that directly binds nuclear receptors in vitro and in vivo. Protein-protein interaction between NIX1 and ligand-activated or constitutive active nuclear receptors, including retinoid-related orphan receptor beta (RORbeta) (NR1F2), strictly depends on the conserved receptor C-terminal activation function 2 (AF2-D). NIX1 selectively binds retinoic acid receptor (RAR) (NR1A) and thyroid hormone receptor (TR) (NR1B) in a ligand-dependent manner, but does not interact with retinoid X receptor (RXR) (NR2B) or steroid hormone receptors. Interestingly, NIX1 down-regulates transcriptional activation by binding to ligand-bound nuclear receptors. A 39-aa domain within NIX1 was found to be necessary and sufficient for protein-protein interactions with nuclear receptors. Northern blot analysis demonstrates low-abundance RNA messages only in brain and neuronal cells. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry revealed that NIX1 expression is restricted to the central nervous system and could be confined to neurons in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, the amygdala, thalamic, and hypothalamic regions. In summary, protein-protein interactions between the neuronal protein NIX1 and ligand-activated nuclear receptors are both specific and selective. By suppressing receptor-mediated transcription, NIX1 implements coregulation of nuclear receptor functions in brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- E F Greiner
- Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, Tumor Biology Center, and Universitäts-Frauenklinik, Abteilung Frauenheilkunde und Geburtshilfe I, Universität Freiburg, Breisacherstrasse 117, 79106 Freiburg, Germany
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19
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Greschik H, Wurtz JM, Hublitz P, Köhler F, Moras D, Schüle R. Characterization of the DNA-binding and dimerization properties of the nuclear orphan receptor germ cell nuclear factor. Mol Cell Biol 1999; 19:690-703. [PMID: 9858592 PMCID: PMC83926 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.19.1.690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The orphan receptor germ cell nuclear factor (GCNF) is a member of the superfamily of nuclear receptors. During development, GCNF exhibits a restricted brain-specific expression pattern, whereas GCNF expression in the adult is germ cell specific. Therefore, the receptor may participate in the regulation of neurogenesis and reproductive functions. No natural GCNF target gene has yet been identified, but recent data demonstrate specific and high-affinity binding of GCNF either to the direct repeat DNA element AGGTCAAGGTCA (DR0) or to extended half-sites, such as TCAAGGTCA. In this study, we show that murine GCNF (mGCNF) can bind as a homodimer to extended half-sites, thus describing a novel property within the nuclear receptor superfamily. Homodimeric binding to extended half-sites requires the presence of a dimerization function within the mGCNF DNA-binding domain (DBD) and a novel dimerization surface encompassing the putative helix 3 and the helix 12 region of the mGCNF ligand-binding domain (LBD). In addition, the mGCNF LBD has the potential to adopt different conformations with distinct dimerization properties. The helix 12 region of the mGCNF LBD not only regulates the switch between these dimerization conformations but also dictates the DNA-binding behavior and transcriptional properties of the different dimerization conformations. In summary, our findings describe unique DNA-binding and dimerization properties of a nuclear receptor and suggest a novel mechanism that allows mGCNF to modulate target gene activity.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Binding Sites
- Binding, Competitive
- COUP Transcription Factor I
- Cell Line
- Cell Line, Transformed
- Cricetinae
- DNA/metabolism
- DNA-Binding Proteins/chemistry
- DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism
- Dimerization
- Humans
- Ligands
- Mice
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Mutagenesis
- Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 6, Group A, Member 1
- Protein Conformation
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/chemistry
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/genetics
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/metabolism
- Receptors, Retinoic Acid/chemistry
- Retinoid X Receptors
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Transcription Factors/chemistry
- Transcription, Genetic
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Affiliation(s)
- H Greschik
- Institut für Experimentelle Krebsforschung, Klinik für Tumorbiologie an der Universität Freiburg, D-79106 Freiburg, Germany
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20
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Abstract
The orphan receptor germ cell nuclear factor (GCNF) is a member of the superfamily of nuclear receptors. During embryogenesis GCNF expression is restricted to the developing nervous system, whereas in the adult the receptor is also expressed during specific stages in maturing germ cells of the ovary and testis. Therefore GCNF may participate in the regulation of neurogenesis and reproductive functions. Binding of GCNF to the consensus element TCA[AG(G/T)TCA]2 (conRE), to the direct repeat DNA element AGGTCAAGGTCA (DR0), and to extended half-sites such as TCAAGGTCA (XRE) has been demonstrated, but no natural GCNF target gene has been identified. However, due to an overlapping temporal expression pattern and the presence of DR0-type elements in their promoter regions, the protamine 1 and 2 genes have been proposed as potential candidates for a regulation by GCNF. Since GCNF binds as a homodimer to all three elements (conRE, DR0, and XRE) the receptor exhibits an exceptional property within the nuclear receptor superfamily. Homodimeric binding of GCNF to extended half-sites requires the presence of a novel dimerization motif located in the putative helix 3 of the GCNF ligand-binding domain (LBD). Since neither potential ligands nor heterodimerization partners or cofactors for GCNF have been identified, little is known about the mechanisms by which the receptor controls transcriptional processes. Due to the lack of a conserved transcriptional activation function 2 core motif (AF-2 AD core) in the helix 12 region of the GCNF LBD, it has been suggested that GCNF functions as a repressor of transcription. In addition, recent data suggest that the helix 12 region displays functions distinct from those in other nuclear receptors and is involved in the control of DNA binding. Together, these reports indicate that GCNF exhibits novel properties distinct from other members of the nuclear receptor superfamily.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Greschik
- Institut für Experimentelle Krebsforschung, Klinik für Tumorbiologie, Universität Freiburg, Germany
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21
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Greiner EF, Kirfel J, Greschik H, Dörflinger U, Becker P, Mercep A, Schüle R. Functional analysis of retinoid Z receptor beta, a brain-specific nuclear orphan receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1996; 93:10105-10. [PMID: 8816759 PMCID: PMC38344 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.93.19.10105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The retinoid Z receptor beta (RZR beta), an orphan receptor, is a member of the retinoic acid receptor (RAR)/thyroid hormone receptor (TR) subfamily of nuclear receptors. RZR beta exhibits a highly restricted brain-specific expression pattern. So far, no natural RZR beta target gene has been identified and the physiological role of the receptor in transcriptional regulation remains to be elucidated. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays reveal binding of RZR beta to monomeric response elements containing the sequence AnnTAGGTCA, but RZR beta-mediated transactivation of reporter genes is only achieved with two property spaced binding sites. We present evidence that RZR beta can function as a cell-type-specific transactivator. In neuronal cells, GaI-RZR beta fusion proteins function as potent transcriptional activators, whereas no transactivation can be observed in nonneuronal cells. Mutational analyses demonstrate that the activation domain (AF-2) of RZR beta and RAR alpha are functionally interchangeable. However, in contrast to RAR and TR, the RZR beta AF-2 cannot function autonomously as a transactivation domain. Furthermore, our data define a novel repressor function for the C-terminal part of the putative ligand binding domain. We propose that the transcriptional activity of RZR beta is regulated by an interplay of different receptor domains with coactivators and corepressors.
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MESH Headings
- 3T3 Cells
- Animals
- Base Sequence
- Binding Sites
- Brain/metabolism
- Cell Line
- DNA Primers
- Genes, Reporter
- Humans
- Luciferases/biosynthesis
- Mice
- Neurons/metabolism
- Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 1, Group F, Member 1
- Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 1, Group F, Member 2
- Oligonucleotide Probes
- Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Receptors, Cell Surface/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Cell Surface/metabolism
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/metabolism
- Receptors, Melatonin
- Receptors, Retinoic Acid
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/biosynthesis
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/metabolism
- Trans-Activators/metabolism
- Transcriptional Activation
- Transfection
- beta-Galactosidase/biosynthesis
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Affiliation(s)
- E F Greiner
- Klinik für Tumorbiologie, Universität Freiburg, Germany
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22
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Smith AT, Sanders SA, Greschik H, Thorneley RN, Burke JF, Bray RC. Probing the mechanism of horseradish peroxidase by site-directed mutagenesis. Biochem Soc Trans 1992; 20:340-5. [PMID: 1397626 DOI: 10.1042/bst0200340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A T Smith
- Biochemistry Laboratory, University of Sussex, Brighton, U.K
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