How local health departments work towards health equity

BACKGROUND

Health inequities are exacerbated when health promotion programs and resources do not reach selected populations. Local health departments (LHDs)¹ have the potential to address health equity via engaging priority populations in their work. However, we do not have an understanding of what local agencies are doing on this front.

METHODS

In the summer of 2016, we collaborated with informants from thirteen LHDs across North Carolina. Via semi-structured interviews, the research team asked informants about their LHD's understanding of health equity and engaging priority populations in program planning, implementation, and evaluation.

FINDINGS

All informants discussed that a key function of their LHD was to improve the health of all residents. LHDs with a more comprehensive understanding of health equity engaged members of priority populations in their organizations' efforts to a greater extent than LHDs with a more limited understanding. Additionally, while all LHDs identified similar barriers to engaging priority populations, LHDs that identified facilitators more comprehensively engaged members of the priority population in program planning, implementation, and evaluation.

CONCLUSIONS

LHDs are ideally situated between the research and practice worlds to address health equity locally. To promote this work, we should ensure LHDs hold an understanding of health equity, have the means to realize facilitators of health equity work, and recognize the complex context in which health equity work exists.

Cost of intervention delivery in a lifestyle weight loss trial in type 2 diabetes: results from the Look AHEAD clinical trial

Objective

The Action for Health in Diabetes (Look AHEAD) trial was a randomized controlled clinical trial to compare the effects of 10 years of intensive lifestyle intervention (ILI) with a control condition of diabetes support and education (DSE) on health outcomes in over 5,000 participants with type 2 diabetes. The ILI had significantly greater weight losses than DSE throughout the trial. The goal of this analysis is to describe the cost of delivering the intervention.

Methods

The ILI was designed to promote weight loss and increase physical activity. It involved a combination of group plus individual intervention sessions, with decreasing frequency of contact over the 10 years. The intervention incorporated a variety of strategies, including meal replacement products, to improve weight loss outcomes. The costs of intervention delivery were derived from staff surveys of effort and from records of intervention materials from the 16 US academic clinical trial sites. Costs were calculated from the payer perspective and presented in 2012 dollars.

Results

During the first year, when intervention delivery was most intensive, the annual cost of intervention delivery, averaged (standard deviation) across clinical sites, was $2,864.6 ($513.3) per ILI participant compared with $202.4 ($76.6) per DSE participant. As intervention intensity declined, costs decreased, such that from years 5 to 9 of the trial, the annual cost of intervention was $1,119.8 ($227.7) per ILI participant and $102.9 ($33.0) per DSE participant. Staffing accounted for the majority of costs throughout the trial, with meal replacements and materials to promote adherence accounting for smaller shares.

Conclusions

The sustained weight losses produced by the Look AHEAD intervention were supported by intervention costs that were within the range of other weight loss programmes. Future work will include an evaluation of the cost‐effectiveness of the ILI and will contain additional follow‐up data.

Improving Population Health by Incorporating Chronic Disease and Injury Prevention Into Value-Based Care Models

Today's health system transformation provides a prime opportunity to leverage the capacity of public health to reduce the burden of chronic disease and injury, improve population health, and contain health care costs. Health care settings and organizations should support public health capacity as a key investment in population health.

Assessing Preliminary Impact of the North Carolina Community Transformation Grant Project Farmers' Market Initiatives Among Rural Residents

OBJECTIVE

Using the Social Determinants of Health as the study's theoretical underpinning, the authors examined the impact of the North Carolina Community Transformation Grant Project farmers' market initiatives on changes in awareness and use of farmers' markets, and fruit and vegetable consumption.

METHODS

During the farmers' market season, the researchers conducted a random digit-dial telephone survey among residents in 3 rural North Carolina counties to examine changes in farmers' market awareness, shopping, and fruit and vegetable consumption. They examined change over 1 year using t tests, chi-square tests, and propensity score matching.

RESULTS

In 1 county there were increases in farmers' market shopping and fruit and vegetable consumption, and in 1 county there were decreases in farmers' market shopping and fruit and vegetable consumption.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The impact of farmers' market initiatives may be affected by county-specific socioeconomic contexts.

Cancer screening behaviors of low-income women: the impact of race

Cancer mortality rates are greater for African Americans than for whites. Reasons for this are due in part to the disproportionate number of the poor who are African American. Of particular concern are breast, cervical, and colorectal cancer, as screening exams, when used regularly, can reduce mortality. As part of an National Cancer Institute-funded study to improve breast and cervical cancer screening among low-income, predominately African American women, a survey was done to collect data on knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to breast, cervical, and colorectal cancer. A total of 300 women, African American and white residents of low-income housing communities, completed the survey. More African American women than white women had a mammogram within guidelines (52% vs. 40%), a clinical breast exam within the last year (60% vs. 56%), a Pap smear within the last 3 years (80% vs. 59%), and a Fecal Occult Blood Test within the last year (21% vs. 17%). Slightly more white women had a flexible sigmoidoscopy (FS) exam within the last 5 years (31% vs. 24%). When adjusted for age differences in the two populations, the differences in receiving regular screening exams were not statistically significant. Variables related to receiving these tests for all women included receiving regular check-ups (breast cancer); beliefs (breast and colorectal cancer screening), and knowledge (cervical cancer). Among African American women, barriers to screening were important for breast screening and regular checkups were related to Pap smear screening (odds ratio [OR] = 13.9, p < .01). High perceived risk of colorectal cancer was related to recent FS only for white women (OR = 47.9, p = .012). Women in this homogenous income group had similar rates of screening and had similar barriers to receiving recommended screening tests; thus, interventions should address beliefs and knowledge of risk targeted to all low-income women.

Service use and financial performance in a replication program on adult day centers

The authors describe results from Partners in Caregiving: The Dementia Services Program, and present information on service utilization and financial performance among a group of 48 adult day centers across the United States from 1992 to 1996. Centers, with nonrandom assignment, received either grant support (average value: $93,000) or intensive technical assistance (average value: $39,000). Sites reported baseline data and submitted utilization information (enrollment and census) and financial data (revenue and expenses) quarterly. Overall, there were significant increases in enrollment, census, and financial performance (percent of cash expenses met through operating revenue) over the 4-year period. The grant-supported and technical-assistance sites had similar rates of improvement. Results provide data on service utilization and financial performance and demonstrate gains that can be achieved in these areas through improved marketing and financial management.

Validity and reproducibility of a food frequency interview in a Multi-Cultural Epidemiology Study

PURPOSE

There is limited support for the validity and reproducibility of dietary assessment in culturally diverse populations. The goal of this study was to evaluate the comparative validity and reproducibility of a Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) used in the observational, multi-cultural Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS).

METHODS

Women (n = 186) were approximately equally distributed by ethnicity from one urban center (African Americans and non-Hispanic whites) and one rural center (Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites). The IRAS FFQ was modified from the National Cancer Institute Health Habits and History Questionnaire to include ethnic and regional foods. Validity was assessed by comparing dietary values, including supplements, obtained from the FFQ to the average intake estimated from a series of 8 24-hour dietary recalls collected by telephone over the same 1-year period. Reproducibility was assessed among women who reported no change in their usual diet (n = 133) by comparing data from the original IRAS FFQ (in-person) with the FFQ administered for the validity study (two to four years later, by telephone).

RESULTS

Correlation coefficients for validity were statistically significant for most nutrients (mean r = 0.62 urban non-Hispanic white, 0.61 rural non-Hispanic whites, 0.50 African American, 0.41 Hispanic) and did not differ among subgroups of obesity or diabetes status. The median correlation coefficient for the total sample was 0.49. Correlations were lower for women with less than 12 years of education (mean r = 0.30; median r = 0.25). The lower correlations among Hispanics was largely explained by the lower educational attainment in that sample. For reproducibility, the mean correlation for nutrients evaluated was r = 0.62 (median r = 0.63) and did not differ for subgroups.

CONCLUSIONS

Although educational attainment must be considered, the IRAS FFQ appears to be reasonably valid and reliable in a diverse cohort.

Community-based interventions to improve breast and cervical cancer screening: results of the Forsyth County Cancer Screening (FoCaS) Project

The FoCaS (Forsyth County Cancer Screening) Project was one of six projects funded by the National Cancer Institute "Public Health Approaches to Breast and Cervical Cancer" initiative. The goal of this project was to improve the use of breast and cervical cancer screening among low-income, predominately African-American, women age 40 and older. Strategies implemented in the intervention city included public health clinic in-reach strategies (chart reminders, exam room prompts, in-service meetings, and patient-directed literature) and community outreach strategies (educational sessions, literature distribution, community events, media, and church programs). Baseline and follow-up data from independent cross-sectional samples in both the intervention and comparison cities were used to evaluate the effects of the intervention program. A total of 248 women were surveyed at baseline, and 302 women were surveyed 3 years later at follow-up. The proportion of women reporting regular use of mammography increased (31 to 56%; P < 0.001) in the intervention city. In the comparison city, a nonsignificant (ns) increase in mammography utilization was observed (33 to 40%; P = ns). Pap smear screening rates also improved in the intervention city (73 to 87%; P = 0.003) but declined in the comparison city (67 to 60%; P = ns). These relationships hold in multivariate models. The results suggest that a multifaceted intervention can improve screening rates in low-income populations. These results have important implications for community-based research and efforts in underserved populations.

Antioxidant nutrient intake and diabetic retinopathy: the San Luis Valley Diabetes Study

OBJECTIVE

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a major cause of visual impairment and blindness in adults. Antioxidant nutrients, such as vitamins C and E and beta-carotene, may be protective of some eye disorders, such as cataract and age-related macular degeneration, but a relationship between these nutrients and DR has yet to be defined. The purpose of this study was to examine the relation between dietary and supplement intakes of vitamins C, E, and beta-carotene and the risk of DR.

DESIGN

Both cross-sectional and longitudinal data were collected from participants in the San Luis Valley Diabetes Study, including non-Hispanic white and Hispanic adults in southern Colorado.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 387 participants with type 2 diabetes completed at least 1 complete retinal examination and 24-hour dietary recall (including vitamin supplement use).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Type 2 diabetes was defined according to World Health Organization criteria. DR was assessed by retinal photographs, using the Airlie House criteria to classify DR as none, background, preproliferative, or proliferative. Data for both eyes, from up to three clinic visits per participant, were used for analysis. Ordinal logistic regression analysis was used, taking advantage of multiple clinic visits by individual participants and observations from both eyes, to assess the risk for increased DR severity over time as a function of changes in intake of vitamin C, vitamin E, and beta-carotene. Six categories of intake for each nutrient (first to fourth quintiles and ninth and tenth deciles) were considered to ascertain any potential threshold effect. Analyses accounted for age, duration of diabetes, insulin use, ethnicity, glycated hemoglobin, hypertension, gender, and caloric intake.

RESULTS

An increase over time in vitamin C intake from the first to ninth deciles was associated with a risk for increased severity of DR (odds ratio = 2.21, P = 0.01), although excess risk was not observed for the tenth decile or the second through fourth quintiles compared to the first quintile. Increased intake of vitamin E was associated with increased severity of DR among those not taking insulin (odds ratios = 2.69, 2.59, 3.33, 5.65, 3.79; P < 0.02, for an increase over time from the first to the second through fourth quintiles and ninth and tenth deciles, respectively). Among those taking insulin, increased intake of beta-carotene was associated with a risk for severity of DR (odds ratio = 3.31, P = 0.003, and 2.99, P = 0.002, respectively, for the ninth and tenth deciles compared to the first quintile).

CONCLUSIONS

No protective effect was observed between antioxidant nutrients and DR. Depending on insulin use, there appeared to be a potential for deleterious effects of nutrient antioxidants. Further research is needed to confirm associations of nutrient antioxidant intake and DR.

Cartilage injuries: a review of 31,516 knee arthroscopies

Although articular cartilage injuries of the knee are common, injured cartilage has a limited ability to heal. Recent data suggest that articular cartilage grafting may provide treatment for these injuries. To define the patient population that might benefit from cartilage grafting, 31,516 knee arthroscopies were reviewed. Between June 1991 and October 1995, 53,569 hyaline cartilage lesions were documented in 19,827 patients. The majority were articular cartilage lesions; grade III lesions of the patella were the most common. Grade IV lesions were predominantly located on the medial femoral condyle. Patients under 40 years of age with grade IV lesions accounted for 5% of all arthroscopies; 74% of these patients had a single chondral lesions (4% of the arthroscopies). No associated ligamentous or meniscal pathology was found in 36.6% of these patients.

Vitamin C intake and cardiovascular disease risk factors in persons with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. From the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study and the San Luis Valley Diabetes Study

BACKGROUND

Persons with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) are at increased risk for cardiovascular disease, partly due to concomitant worsening of traditional risk factors including dyslipidemia and hypertension. Based on evidence from small, controlled clinical trials, we hypothesized that increased intake of vitamin C would be associated with improved cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factor status among community-dwelling persons with NIDDM.

METHODS

In separate but parallel statistical analyses, hypotheses were evaluated among persons with NIDDM confirmed by WHO criteria from the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS, n = 520) and from the San Luis Valley Diabetes Study (SLVDS, n = 422). For IRAS, diet and vitamin supplement use was assessed by food frequency interview and for SLVDS, by 24-hr dietary recall interview.

RESULTS

Mean vitamin C intake (mg/day) was 275 for IRAS and 133 for SLVDS, including supplements. In cross-sectional regression models from each data set, vitamin C intake was not associated with systolic or diastolic blood pressure nor with HDL-C, LDL-C, or triglycerides (P values > 0.10; adjusted for calories, demographic and lifestyle variables, obesity, diabetes duration, and medications). In prospective analyses including 285 SLVDS participants, baseline vitamin C intake was not related to any of these CVD risk factors measured an average of 4 years later nor to change in CVD risk factor status during the follow-up period.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that, across a wide range of intake, vitamin C does not appear to be associated with improved CVD risk factor status among community-dwelling persons with diabetes.

Financial performance among adult day centers: results of a national demonstration program

OBJECTIVES

This paper describes the financial performance (defined as percent of total expenses covered by net operating revenue) of 16 adult day centers participating in a national demonstration program on day services for people with dementia, including examination of possible predictors of financial performance.

METHODS

Participating sites submitted quarterly financial and utilization reports to the National Program Office. Descriptive statistics summarize the factors believed to influence financial performance.

RESULTS

Sites averaged meeting 35% of expenses from self-pay and 29% from government (mainly Medicaid) revenue, totaling 64% of all (cash plus in-kind) expenses met by operating revenue. Examination of center characteristics suggests that factors related to meeting consumer needs, such as being open a full day (i.e., 7:30 am to 6:00 pm) rather than shorter hours, and providing transportation, may be related to improved utilization and, thus, improved financial performance. Higher fees were not related to lower enrollment, census, or revenue.

CONCLUSIONS

Adult day centers are able to achieve financial viability through a combination of operating (i.e., fee-for-service) and non-operating revenue. Operating revenue is enhanced by placing emphasis on consumer responsiveness, such as being open a full day. Because higher fees were not related to lower utilization, centers should set fees to reflect actual costs. The figure of 64% of expenses met by operating revenue is conservative inasmuch as sites included in-kind revenue as expenses in their budgeting calculations, and percent of cash expenses met by operating revenue would be higher (approximately 75% for this group of centers).

Does antihypertensive treatment of the elderly prevent cardiovascular events or prolong life? A meta-analysis of hypertension treatment trials

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the short-term effects of drug treatment of hypertension in the elderly (> or = 60 years of age) on stroke, major coronary events, and mortality rates.

DESIGN

Meta-analysis of all published randomized, controlled trials that addressed the impact of drug treatment of hypertension in the elderly on the above outcomes.

SETTING AND PATIENTS

All published clinical trials that met the above criteria involved men and women recruited from primary care practices or through community screenings, who were then treated according to protocol at either community or specialty clinics. Eight randomized, controlled trials that included 15,990 patients treated for an average of 4.6 years were included in this meta-analysis.

INTERVENTIONS

Patients received either active antihypertensive treatment or placebo in seven of the studies and programmed stepped care vs referral back to the usual care source in one study.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Fatal or nonfatal myocardial infarction or sudden coronary death; fatal or nonfatal stroke; and all-cause mortality. Outcomes were analyzed on an intention-to-treat basis.

RESULTS

Mean baseline blood pressure was 179/90 mm Hg, with a mean treatment effect of 15/6 mm Hg. Homogeneity tests indicated validity of the combined results. Pooled relative risks, calculated as treatment or control (with 95% confidence intervals) for the main end points, were as follows: fatal or nonfatal major coronary event, 0.82 (0.73 to 0.92); fatal or nonfatal stroke, 0.65 (0.57 to 0.75); and death from any cause, 0.85 (0.78 to 0.92) (P < .005 for each).

CONCLUSION

Antihypertensive treatment in the elderly prevents major coronary events and stroke and prolongs life, with significant treatment effects observed within only 5 years.