Antioxidant responses in soybean and alfalfa plants grown in DDTs contaminated soils: Useful variables for selecting plants for soil phytoremediation?

Phytoremediation is a low-cost alternative technology based on the use of plants to remove pollutants from the environment. Persistent organic pollutants such as DDTs with a long half-life in soils are attractive candidates for remediation. This study aimed to determine the potential of antioxidant response use in the evaluation of plants' tolerance for selecting species in phytoremediation purposes. Alfalfa and soybean plants were grown in DDT contaminated soils. After 60days, growth, protein content, antioxidant capacity, GST activity, concentration of proteic and non-proteic thiol groups, chlorophyll content and carotenoid content were measured in plant tissues. Results showed no effect on alfalfa or soybean photosynthetic pigments but different responses in the protein content, antioxidant capacity, GST activity and thiol groups on roots, stems and leaves, indicating that DDTs affected both species. Soybean showed higher susceptibility than alfalfa plants due to the lower antioxidant capacity and GST activity in leaves, in spite of having the lowest DDT accumulation. This study provides new insights into the role of oxidative stress as an important component of the plant's response to DDT exposure.

Co-exposure of the organic nanomaterial fullerene C₆₀ with benzo[a]pyrene in Danio rerio (zebrafish) hepatocytes: evidence of toxicological interactions

Compounds from the nanotechnology industry, such as carbon-based nanomaterials, are strong candidates to contaminate aquatic environments because their production and disposal have exponentially grown in a few years. Previous evidence shows that fullerene C60, a carbon nanomaterial, can facilitate the intake of metals or PAHs both in vivo and in vitro, potentially amplifying the deleterious effects of these toxicants in organisms. The present work aimed to investigate the effects of fullerene C60 in a Danio rerio (zebrafish) hepatocyte cell lineage exposed to benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) in terms of cell viability, oxidative stress parameters and BaP intracellular accumulation. Additionally, a computational docking was performed to investigate the interaction of the fullerene C60 molecule with the detoxificatory and antioxidant enzyme πGST. Fullerene C60 provoked a significant (p<0.05) loss in cellular viability when co-exposed with BaP at 0.01, 0.1 and 1.0 μg/L, and induced an increase (p<0.05) in BaP accumulation in the cells after 3 and 4h of exposure. The levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the cells exposed to BaP were diminished (p<0.05) by the fullerene addition, and the increase of the GST activity observed in the BaP-only treated cells was reduced to the basal levels by co-exposure to fullerene. However, despite the potential of the fullerene molecule to inhibit π GST activity, demonstrated by the computational docking, the nanomaterial did not significantly (p>0.05) alter the enzyme activity when added to GST purified extracts from the zebrafish hepatocyte cells. These results show that fullerene C60 can increase the intake of BaP into the cells, decreasing cell viability and impairing the detoxificatory response by phase II enzymes, such as GST, and this latter effect should be occurring at the transcriptional level.

Effects of carbon nanomaterials fullerene C₆₀ and fullerol C₆₀(OH)₁₈₋₂₂ on gills of fish Cyprinus carpio (Cyprinidae) exposed to ultraviolet radiation

In consequence of their growing use and demand, the inevitable environmental presence of nanomaterials (NMs) has raised concerns about their potential deleterious effects to aquatic environments. The carbon NM fullerene (C₆₀), which forms colloidal aggregates in water, and its water-soluble derivative fullerol (C₆₀(OH)₁₈₋₂₂), which possesses antioxidant properties, are known to be photo-excited by ultraviolet (UV) or visible light. To investigate their potential hazards to aquatic organisms upon exposure to UV sunlight, this study analyzed (a) the in vitro behavior of fullerene and fullerol against peroxyl radicals (ROO) under UV-A radiation and (b) the effects of these photo-excited NMs on oxidative stress parameters in functional gills extracted from the fish Cyprinus carpio (Cyprinidae). The variables measured were the total antioxidant capacity, lipid peroxidation (TBARS), the activities of the antioxidant enzymes glutathione reductase (GR) and glutamate cysteine ligase (GCL), and the levels of the non-enzymatic antioxidant glutathione (GSH). The obtained results revealed the following: (1) both NMs behaved in vitro as antioxidants against ROO in the dark and as pro-oxidants in presence of UV-A, the latter effect being reversed by the addition of sodium azide, which is a singlet oxygen (¹O₂) quencher; (2) fullerene induced toxicity with or without UV-A incidence, with a significant (p<0.05) increase in lipid peroxidation (with greater damage under illumination), a decrease in GCL activity, and the depletion of GSH stocks (under illumination), all of which were attributed to ¹O₂ generation; and (3) fullerol also decreased GCL activity and GSH formation (p<0.05) but without lipid damage. The overall results show that fullerene can be toxic with or without light incidence, whereas UV radiation seems to play a key role in the environmental toxicity of carbon NMs through ¹O₂ formation.

In vitro evaluation of co-exposure of arsenium and an organic nanomaterial (fullerene, C₆₀) in zebrafish hepatocytes

Taking into account the concept of the "Trojan Horse", where contaminants may have its entry into specific organs potentiated by its association with nanomaterials, the aim of this study was to analyze the joint toxic effects induced by an organic nanomaterial, fullerene (C(60)) with the metalloid arsenic (As(III)). Hepatocytes of zebrafish Danio rerio were exposed to As(III) (2.5 or 100 μM), C(60) or As+C(60) for 4h, not altering cells viability. Intracellular reactive oxygen species concentration was reduced in cells exposed only to the C(60) (1mg/L) and in the treatment of 100 μM As(III)+C(60). Co-exposure with C(60) abolished the peak of the antioxidant glutathione (GSH) registered in cells exposed to the lowest As(III) concentration (2.5 μM). A similar result was observed in terms of lipid damage (TBARS). Total antioxidant capacity was significantly higher at both As(III) concentrations co-exposed to C(60) when compared with the control group. Activity of glutathione-S-transferase omega, a limiting enzyme in the methylation pathway of As(III), was reduced in the 100 μM As(III)+C(60) treatment. Cells co-exposed to C(60) had a significantly higher accumulation of As(III), showing a "Trojan Horse" effect which did not result in higher cell toxicity. Instead, co-exposure of As(III) with C(60) showed to reduce cellular injury.

Antioxidant properties of the mucus secreted by Laeonereis acuta (Polychaeta, Nereididae): a defense against environmental pro-oxidants?

Polychaeta species like Laeonereis acuta (Nereididae) usually secrete great amounts of mucus that wrap the animal inside. Taking into account that fungi action in the sediment and UV radiation acting on dissolved organic matter in the water produces reactive oxygen species (ROS) like hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)), it was considered that the mucus secretion could represent an antioxidant defense against environmental ROS. Antioxidant enzymes (catalase-CAT; superoxide dismutase-SOD; glutathione peroxidase-GPx and glutathione-S-transferase-GST) and total antioxidant capacity (TOSC) were determined in worms and mucus secretion. Higher (p<0.05) CAT, GPx and TOSC values were registered in mucus samples respect worms, SOD activity was similar (p>0.05) in both kind of samples, and absence of GST activity was observed in mucus samples, suggesting absence of catalyzed phase II reactions. In assays conducted with hepatoma cell lines exposed to H(2)O(2), it was verified that: (1) mucus co-exposure significantly (p<0.05) lowered DNA damage induced by H(2)O(2); (2) ROS production was significantly (p<0.05) reduced when cells were exposed simultaneously with mucus samples and H(2)O(2) respect H(2)O(2) alone. It can be concluded that the mucus production contributes substantially to the antioxidant defense system of the worm against environmental ROS through the interception or degradation of H(2)O(2), peroxyl and hydroxyl radicals.