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Willoughby M, Young JT, Borschmann R, Spittal MJ, Keen C, Hail-Jares K, Patton G, Sawyer SM, Kinner SA. Violence-Related Death in Young Australians After Contact With the Youth Justice System: A Data Linkage Study. J Interpers Violence 2023:8862605231169490. [PMID: 37148272 DOI: 10.1177/08862605231169490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Little is known outside of the United States about the risk of violence-related death among young people who have had contact with the youth justice system (justice-involved young people). We examined violence-related deaths among justice-involved young people in Queensland, Australia. In this study, youth justice records for 48,647 young people (10-18 years at baseline) who were charged, or experienced a community-based order or youth detention in Queensland, Australia (1993-2014) were probabilistically linked with death, coroner, and adult correctional records (1993-2016). We calculated violence-related crude mortality rates (CMRs) and age- and sex-standardized mortality ratios (SMRs). We constructed a cause-specific Cox regression model to identify predictors of violence-related deaths. Of 1,328 deaths in the cohort, 57 (4%) were from violence. The violence-related CMR was 9.5 per 100,000 person-years (95% confidence interval [95% CI] [7.4, 12.4]) and the SMR was 6.8 [5.3, 8.9]. Young Indigenous people had a greater risk of violence-related death than non-Indigenous people (cause-specific hazard ratio [csHR] 2.5; [1.5, 4.4]). Young people who experienced detention had more than twice the risk of violence-related death than those who were charged only (csHR 2.5; [1.2, 5.3]). We found that justice-involved young people have a risk of dying from violence that far exceeds that of the general population. The rate of violence-related death found in this study is lower than that in U.S.-based studies, which most likely reflects lower population level firearm violence in Australia. In Australia, young Indigenous people and those released from detention appear key groups to target for violence prevention efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Willoughby
- The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Jesse T Young
- The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
- Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Rohan Borschmann
- The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- University of Oxford, UK
| | | | - Claire Keen
- The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | | | - George Patton
- The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Susan M Sawyer
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Stuart A Kinner
- The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
- Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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Hail-Jares K, Cumming C, Young JT, Borschmann R, Lennox N, Kinner SA. Self-harm and suicide attempts among incarcerated lesbian, gay and bisexual people in Australia. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2023; 57:562-571. [PMID: 35735169 DOI: 10.1177/00048674221104744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Guided by minority stress theory, we explored the association between sexual identity, justice system involvement, self-harm and suicide attempts, among a cohort of incarcerated adults in Australia. METHODS A sample of 2698 adults incarcerated in Queensland and Western Australia were surveyed between 1 August 2008 and 12 August 2016 about their current psychological distress, mental health diagnoses, contact with mental health services, and lifetime and recent self-harm and suicide attempts. We used multivariable logistic regression to explore the relationship between sexual orientation, prior criminal justice system involvement, mental health and demographic factors. RESULTS Five percent of the sample identified as gay, lesbian or bisexual, with 37% of lesbian, gay, bisexual and other same-sex attracted individuals reporting that they had self-harmed (vs 14% of heterosexual peers; χ2 = 52.4; p < 0.001) and 49% reporting a history of at least one suicide attempt (vs 23%; χ2 = 49.2; p < 0.001). Lesbian, gay, bisexual and other same-sex attracted people were 2.1 times (95% confidence interval: [1.4, 3.3]) and 1.8 times (95% confidence interval: [1.2, 2.8]) more likely to report a history of self-harm and suicide attempt, respectively, than non-lesbian, gay, bisexual and other same-sex attracted respondents. CONCLUSION Intersectionality theory suggests that people who are navigating two or more marginalised identities often experience a compounding of internal and external stressors. Consistent with that theory, lesbian, gay, bisexual and other same-sex attracted people who experience incarceration may be at particularly high risk of self-harm and suicidal behaviour. Custodial settings should both improve cultural competency for frontline staff working with lesbian, gay, bisexual and other same-sex attracted individuals and improve access to mental health services during incarceration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie Hail-Jares
- Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, Mt. Gravatt, QLD, Australia
| | - Craig Cumming
- School of Population and Global Health, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Jesse T Young
- School of Population and Global Health, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
- Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- National Drug Research Institute, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
- Justice Health Unit, Centre for Health Equity, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Rohan Borschmann
- Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- National Drug Research Institute, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
- Justice Health Unit, Centre for Health Equity, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Nick Lennox
- Queensland Centre for Intellectual & Developmental Disability, Mater Research Institute - The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Stuart A Kinner
- Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, Mt. Gravatt, QLD, Australia
- Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Justice Health Unit, Centre for Health Equity, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- School of Population Health, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
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Willoughby M, Young JT, Hail-Jares K, Spittal MJ, Borschmann R, Patton G, Sawyer SM, Janca E, Teplin L, Heffernan E, Kinner SA. Circumstances and toxicology of violence-related deaths among young people who have had contact with the youth justice system: a data linkage study. BMC Public Health 2021; 21:2207. [PMID: 34861851 PMCID: PMC8642952 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-021-12244-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Young people who have had contact with the youth justice system have an increased risk of dying from violence. Examining the context of violence-related deaths is essential in informing prevention strategies. We examined the circumstances and toxicology of violence-related deaths among young people who have had contact with the youth justice system in Queensland, Australia. Methods This data linkage study linked youth justice records from Queensland, Australia (30 June 1993-1 July 2014) on 48,670 young people to national death and coroner records (1 July 2000-1 January 2017). Circumstances and toxicology of deaths were coded from coroner’s records. We calculated the incidence of violence-related deaths that were reported to a coroner. Fisher’s exact tests were used to examine crude differences in the circumstances and toxicology of violence-related death, according to sex and Indigenous status. Results There were 982 deaths reported to a coroner in the cohort. Of which, 36 (4%) were from violence-related causes (incidence: 6 per 100,000 person-years, 95% confidence interval: 4-8). People who died from violence were most frequently male (n = 28/36; 78%), and almost half were Indigenous (n = 16/36; 44%). The majority of violence-related deaths involved a weapon (n = 24/36; 67%), most commonly a knife (n = 17/36; 47%). Compared to men where the violent incident was most frequently preceded by an altercation (n = 12/28; 43%), for women it was frequently preceded by a relationship breakdown or argument (n < 5; p = 0.004). Substances most commonly present in toxicology reports were cannabis (n = 16/23; 70%) and alcohol (n = 15/23; 65%). Conclusions Therapeutic alcohol and other drug programs, both in the community and detention, are likely important for reducing violence-related deaths among young people who have had contact with the youth justice system. The majority of violence-related deaths among women were in the context of intimate partner violence, indicating the urgent need for interventions that prevent intimate partner violence in this population. Diversion programs and increased investment in health and social services may reduce the overrepresentation of Indigenous people in the youth justice system and in violence-related deaths. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-021-12244-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Willoughby
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Justice Health Unit, Level 4, 207 Bouverie Street, Carlton, Parkville, Victoria, 3053, Australia. .,Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Jesse T Young
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Justice Health Unit, Level 4, 207 Bouverie Street, Carlton, Parkville, Victoria, 3053, Australia.,Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,School of Population and Global Health, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,National Drug Research Institute, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Katie Hail-Jares
- School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Matthew J Spittal
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Justice Health Unit, Level 4, 207 Bouverie Street, Carlton, Parkville, Victoria, 3053, Australia
| | - Rohan Borschmann
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Justice Health Unit, Level 4, 207 Bouverie Street, Carlton, Parkville, Victoria, 3053, Australia.,Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Health Service and Population Research Department, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.,Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - George Patton
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Justice Health Unit, Level 4, 207 Bouverie Street, Carlton, Parkville, Victoria, 3053, Australia.,Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,The Nossal Institute for Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Susan M Sawyer
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Justice Health Unit, Level 4, 207 Bouverie Street, Carlton, Parkville, Victoria, 3053, Australia.,Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,The Nossal Institute for Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Emilia Janca
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Justice Health Unit, Level 4, 207 Bouverie Street, Carlton, Parkville, Victoria, 3053, Australia
| | - Linda Teplin
- Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, USA
| | - Ed Heffernan
- Forensic Mental Health Group, Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, Brisbane, Australia.,Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.,Queensland Forensic Mental Health Service, Queensland Health, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Stuart A Kinner
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Justice Health Unit, Level 4, 207 Bouverie Street, Carlton, Parkville, Victoria, 3053, Australia.,Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Mater Research Institute-UQ, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Kinner S, Tibble H, Hail-Jares K, Borschmann R, Spittal M, Clough A, Sawyer S, Miller A, Cadet-James Y. Deaths in young people after contact with the youth justice system: a retrospective data linkage study. Int J Popul Data Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.23889/ijpds.v3i4.899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
IntroductionYoung people who have contact with the youth justice system are distinguished by a high prevalence of complex, co-occurring health problems, including known risk factors for preventable mortality. However, almost nothing is known about health outcomes for these young people after separation from the youth justice system.
Objectives and ApproachWe aimed to examine the incidence, timing, causes and risk factors for death in justice-involved young people. We linked youth justice records in Queensland, Australia 1993-2016 (N=48,963) with adult correctional records and the National Death Index. We split the cohort into three subgroups: those who had ever been in detention (n=7,643), those supervised in the community but never detained (n=12,953), and those charged with an offence but never convicted (n=28,367). We calculated all-cause and cause-specific crude mortality rates (CMRs), and indirectly standardised mortality ratios (SMRs). We used Cox regression to identify static and time-varying risk factors for death.
ResultsDuring a median of 13.6 years of follow-up there were 1,452 deaths (3.0%). The all-cause CMR was 2.2 (95%CI 2.1-2.3) per 1000 person-years, and the all-cause SMR was 3.1 (95%CI 3.0-3.3). The leading external causes of death were suicide (32% of all deaths), transport accidents (16%), accidental drug-related causes (13%), and violence (3%). In adjusted analyses, independent risk factors for all-cause mortality included being male (HR=1.4, 95%CI 1.2-1.6) and older (>=15 vs. vs. charge only; HR=1.6, 95%CI 1.2-2.0) and subsequent incarceration as an adult (HR=1.8, 95%CI 1.4-2.4).
Conclusion/ImplicationsYoung people who have contact with the youth justice system are at markedly increased risk of preventable death, after separation from that system. Efforts to improve long-term health outcomes for justice-involved youth have the potential to reduce preventable deaths in these highly vulnerable young people.
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Tibble H, Law HD, Spittal MJ, Karmel R, Borschmann R, Hail-Jares K, Thomas LA, Kinner SA. The importance of including aliases in data linkage with vulnerable populations. BMC Med Res Methodol 2018; 18:76. [PMID: 29980173 PMCID: PMC6035442 DOI: 10.1186/s12874-018-0536-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Records pertaining to individuals whose identity cannot be verified with legal documentation may contain errors, or be incorrect by intention of the individual. Probabilistic data linkage, especially in vulnerable populations where the incidence of such records may be higher, must be considerate of the usage of these records. METHODS A data linkage was conducted between Queensland Youth Justice records and the Australian National Death Index. Links were assessed to determine how often they were made using the unverified (alias) records that would not have been made in their absence (i.e. links that were not also made using solely verified records). Anomalies in the linked records were investigated in order to make evaluations of the sensitivity and specificity of the linkage, compared to the links made using only verified records. RESULTS From links made using verified records only, 1309 deaths were identified (2.6% of individuals). Using alias records in addition, the number of links increased by 16%. Links made using alias records only were more common in females, and those born after 1985. Different records belonging to the same individual in the justice dataset did not link to different death records, however there were instances of the same death record linking to multiple cohort individuals. CONCLUSIONS The inclusion of aliases in data linkage in youths involved in the justice system increased mortality ascertainment without any discernible increase in false positive matches. We therefore conclude that alias records should be included in data linkage procedures in order to avoid biased attenuation of ascertainment in vulnerable populations, leading to the concealment of health inequality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly Tibble
- Centre for Mental Health, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Hsei Di Law
- Data Linkage Unit, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Canberra, Australia
| | - Matthew J Spittal
- Centre for Mental Health, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Rosemary Karmel
- Data Linkage Unit, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Canberra, Australia
| | - Rohan Borschmann
- Centre for Mental Health, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.,Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia.,Health Service and Population Research Department, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Katie Hail-Jares
- Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Laura A Thomas
- Centre for Health Policy, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Stuart A Kinner
- Centre for Mental Health, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.,Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia.,Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia.,Mater Research Institute-UQ, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.,School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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Chang RC, Hail-Jares K, Zheng H, He N, Bouey JZH. Mitigating circumstances: A model-based analysis of associations between risk environment and infrequent condom use among Chinese street-based sex workers. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0195982. [PMID: 29763416 PMCID: PMC5953488 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0195982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Little is known about how freelance street-based sex workers navigate condom use while soliciting. Traditional behavioural model may fail to account for the complex risk environment that most street-based sex workers work within. We examine first the association of self-efficacy and the infrequent condom use, then we investigated the roles of clients and venues frequented on this association. Method Using a purposive chain-referral sampling method, we surveyed 248 street-based sex workers in Shanghai. The survey focused on sex workers HIV risk factors, sex work patterns, HIV knowledge, and related HIV self-efficacy. Clients types and behaviours, and characteristics of the venues frequented by these commercial sex workers were also collected. We conducted a series of multiple logistic regression models to explore how the association between a sex worker’s self-efficacy with infrequent condom use change as client and venue characteristics were added to the models. Results We find that within the basic model, low self-efficacy was marginally associated with infrequent condom use (54.9% vs. 45.1%, AOR = 1.70, 95% CI = 0.95–3.03). As client- and venue- characteristics were added, the associations between self-efficacy and condom use were strengthened (AOR = 2.10 95% CI = 1.12–3.91 and 2.54 95% CI = 1.24–5.19 respectively). Those who reported middle-tiered income were more likely to report infrequent condom use compared to their peers of high income (AOR = 3.92 95% CI = 1.32–11.70) whereas such difference was not found between low income and high income sex workers. Visiting multiple venues and having migrant workers as clients were also associated with infrequent condom use. Conclusion Our findings suggest sex worker’s self-efficacy matters in their HIV risk behaviours only when environment characteristics were adjusted. Risk environment for street-based sex workers are complex. Programming addressing behavioural changes among female sex workers should adopt holistic, multilevel models with the consideration of risk environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth C. Chang
- Department of International Health, School of Nursing and Health Studies, Georgetown University, Washington DC, United States of America
| | - Katie Hail-Jares
- Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, Mt. Gravatt, Queensland, Australia
| | - Huang Zheng
- Shanghai CSW&MSM Center, Xinjian St., Shanghai, China
| | - Na He
- Department of Epidemiology, Fudan University, Wu Jiao Chang, Yang Pu Qu, Shanghai, China
| | - Jennifer Z. H. Bouey
- Department of International Health, School of Nursing and Health Studies, Georgetown University, Washington DC, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Hail-Jares K, Chang RCF, Choi S, Zheng H, He N, Huang ZJ. Intimate-Partner and Client-Initiated Violence among Female Street-Based Sex Workers in China: Does a Support Network Help? PLoS One 2015; 10:e0139161. [PMID: 26413776 PMCID: PMC4586135 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0139161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Accepted: 09/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Globally, female street-based sex workers are vulnerable to gender-based violence. Previous research has shown having a peer social network can reduce sex workers’ risks of victimization. However, mechanisms of how social network impacts violence among female street-based sex workers are still far from clear. Methods Our study was based on data abstracted from a paper-and-pencil survey administered among 218 female street-based sex workers in Shanghai, China. We focused on self-reported client-initiated violence and intimate-partner violence in emotional, physical, and sexual forms. Social networks were characterized by the size and sources of financial and psychosocial support (e.g. family, friends, and peers). Multi-variable logistic regression was used to estimate adjusted odds ratios (AOR) of each type of violence exposure by social network structure after the adjustment of age, education, and years in Shanghai. Results The street-based female sex workers in our study were primarily rural-to-urban migrants (95.7%) with an average age of 41 years old. 24.3% and 62.8% of the sex workers reported intimate-partner violence and client-initiated violence respectively. Lack of financial support, as defined by having only one individual or none in her peer support system to help financially, was significantly associated with self-reported intimate-partner violence (AOR: 2.5; 95% CI: 1.1–5.9). Respondents who reported client-initiated violence, by contrast, were more likely to report lacked psychosocial support from family (AOR: 2.2, 95% CI: 1.0–4.6) and peers (AOR: 5.1, 95% CI: 2.2–11). Conclusion This study is one of the first to systematically analyze the associations between social network and gender-based violence among street-based female sex worker. We reported a high prevalence of both types of gender-based violence and their complex associations with family, friends, and peer support network. Policies with goals to reduce violence against women may apply these findings to leverage social network in the interventions against gender-based violence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie Hail-Jares
- Department of International Health, School of Nursing and Health Studies, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., United States of America
| | - Ruth C. F. Chang
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Sugy Choi
- Department of International Health, School of Nursing and Health Studies, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., United States of America
| | | | - Na He
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Z. Jennifer Huang
- Department of International Health, School of Nursing and Health Studies, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., United States of America
- * E-mail:
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