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Tan KM, Daitch AL, Pinheiro-Chagas P, Fox KCR, Parvizi J, Lieberman MD. Electrocorticographic evidence of a common neurocognitive sequence for mentalizing about the self and others. Nat Commun 2022; 13:1919. [PMID: 35395826 PMCID: PMC8993891 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-29510-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuroimaging studies of mentalizing (i.e., theory of mind) consistently implicate the default mode network (DMN). Nevertheless, the social cognitive functions of individual DMN regions remain unclear, perhaps due to limited spatiotemporal resolution in neuroimaging. Here we use electrocorticography (ECoG) to directly record neuronal population activity while 16 human participants judge the psychological traits of themselves and others. Self- and other-mentalizing recruit near-identical cortical sites in a common spatiotemporal sequence. Activations begin in the visual cortex, followed by temporoparietal DMN regions, then finally in medial prefrontal regions. Moreover, regions with later activations exhibit stronger functional specificity for mentalizing, stronger associations with behavioral responses, and stronger self/other differentiation. Specifically, other-mentalizing evokes slower and longer activations than self-mentalizing across successive DMN regions, implying lengthier processing at higher levels of representation. Our results suggest a common neurocognitive pathway for self- and other-mentalizing that follows a complex spatiotemporal gradient of functional specialization across DMN and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin M. Tan
- grid.19006.3e0000 0000 9632 6718Social Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Amy L. Daitch
- grid.168010.e0000000419368956Laboratory of Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA USA
| | - Pedro Pinheiro-Chagas
- grid.168010.e0000000419368956Laboratory of Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA USA
| | - Kieran C. R. Fox
- grid.168010.e0000000419368956Laboratory of Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA USA ,grid.168010.e0000000419368956School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA USA
| | - Josef Parvizi
- grid.168010.e0000000419368956Laboratory of Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA USA ,grid.168010.e0000000419368956School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA USA
| | - Matthew D. Lieberman
- grid.19006.3e0000 0000 9632 6718Social Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA USA
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2
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Fox KCR, Parvizi J. Fidelity of first-person reports following intracranial neuromodulation of the human brain: An empirical assessment of sham stimulation in neurosurgical patients. Brain Stimul 2020; 14:77-79. [PMID: 33130019 PMCID: PMC8720563 DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2020.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2020] [Revised: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kieran C R Fox
- Stanford Human Intracranial Cognitive Electrophysiology Program, Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
| | - Josef Parvizi
- Stanford Human Intracranial Cognitive Electrophysiology Program, Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
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3
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Van Dam NT, van Vugt M, Vago DR, Schmalzl L, Saron CD, Olendzki A, Meissner T, Lazar SW, Gorchov J, Fox KCR, Field BA, Britton W, Brefczynski-Lewis J, Meyer DE. Letter to the Editor: Miscommunicating Mindfulness. Perspect Psychol Sci 2020; 15:1289-1290. [PMID: 32750262 DOI: 10.1177/1745691620924057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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4
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Fox KCR, Shi L, Baek S, Raccah O, Foster BL, Saha S, Margulies DS, Kucyi A, Parvizi J. Intrinsic network architecture predicts the effects elicited by intracranial electrical stimulation of the human brain. Nat Hum Behav 2020; 4:1039-1052. [PMID: 32632334 DOI: 10.1038/s41562-020-0910-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Intracranial electrical stimulation (iES) of the human brain has long been known to elicit a remarkable variety of perceptual, motor and cognitive effects, but the functional-anatomical basis of this heterogeneity remains poorly understood. We conducted a whole-brain mapping of iES-elicited effects, collecting first-person reports following iES at 1,537 cortical sites in 67 participants implanted with intracranial electrodes. We found that intrinsic network membership and the principal gradient of functional connectivity strongly predicted the type and frequency of iES-elicited effects in a given brain region. While iES in unimodal brain networks at the base of the cortical hierarchy elicited frequent and simple effects, effects became increasingly rare, heterogeneous and complex in heteromodal and transmodal networks higher in the hierarchy. Our study provides a comprehensive exploration of the relationship between the hierarchical organization of intrinsic functional networks and the causal modulation of human behaviour and experience with iES.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kieran C R Fox
- Stanford Human Intracranial Cognitive Electrophysiology Program, Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA. .,School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
| | - Lin Shi
- Stanford Human Intracranial Cognitive Electrophysiology Program, Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Sori Baek
- Stanford Human Intracranial Cognitive Electrophysiology Program, Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Omri Raccah
- Stanford Human Intracranial Cognitive Electrophysiology Program, Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Brett L Foster
- Departments of Neurosurgery and Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Srijani Saha
- Stanford Human Intracranial Cognitive Electrophysiology Program, Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Daniel S Margulies
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), UMR 7225, Frontlab, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Épinière, Paris, France
| | - Aaron Kucyi
- Stanford Human Intracranial Cognitive Electrophysiology Program, Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Josef Parvizi
- Stanford Human Intracranial Cognitive Electrophysiology Program, Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
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5
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Maillet D, Beaty RE, Adnan A, Fox KCR, Turner GR, Spreng RN. Aging and the wandering brain: Age-related differences in the neural correlates of stimulus-independent thoughts. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0223981. [PMID: 31613920 PMCID: PMC6793871 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0223981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, several studies have indicated that healthy older adults exhibit a reduction in task-unrelated thoughts compared to young adults. However, much less is known regarding age-related differences in time spent engaging in stimulus-independent thoughts or in their neural correlates in the absence of an ongoing task. In the current study, we collected functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data while 29 young (mean age = 22y) and 22 older (mean age = 70y) adults underwent experience sampling in the absence of an ongoing task (i.e., at “rest”). Although both age groups reported spending a similar amount of time engaged in stimulus-independent thoughts, older adults rated their thoughts as more present-oriented (rather than atemporal) and more novel. Moreover, controlling for these age-related differences in content, we found that experiencing stimulus-independent thoughts was associated with increased posterior cingulate and left angular gyrus activation across age groups compared to exhibiting an external focus of attention. When experiencing stimulus-independent thoughts, younger adults engaged medial and left lateral prefrontal cortex as well as left superior temporal gyrus to a greater degree than older adults. Taken together, our results suggest that, in the absence of an ongoing task, although young and older adults spend a similar amount of time engaging in stimulus-independent thoughts, the content and neural correlates of these thoughts differ with age.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Maillet
- Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest Health Sciences, University of Toronto, North York, ON, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Roger E. Beaty
- Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States of America
| | - Areeba Adnan
- Department of Psychology, York University, Sherman Health Science Research Centre, Keele Campus, Toronto, Canada
| | - Kieran C. R. Fox
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America
- School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America
| | - Gary R. Turner
- Department of Psychology, York University, Sherman Health Science Research Centre, Keele Campus, Toronto, Canada
| | - R. Nathan Spreng
- Laboratory of Brain and Cognition, Montreal Neurological Institute, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Departments of Psychology and Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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6
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Yih J, Beam DE, Fox KCR, Parvizi J. Intensity of affective experience is modulated by magnitude of intracranial electrical stimulation in human orbitofrontal, cingulate and insular cortices. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2019; 14:339-351. [PMID: 30843590 PMCID: PMC6537947 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsz015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Revised: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The subjective and behavioral effects of intracranial electrical stimulation (iES) have been studied for decades, but there is a knowledge gap regarding the relationship between the magnitude of electric current and the type, intensity and valence of evoked subjective experiences. We report on rare iES data from 18 neurosurgical patients with implanted intracranial electrodes in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), the insula (INS) and the anterior portion of cingulate cortex (ACC). ACC stimulation elicited somatic and visceral sensations, whereas OFC stimulation predominantly elicited olfactory and gustatory responses, and INS stimulation elicited a mix of effects involving somatic and visceral sensations, olfaction and gustation. Further, we found striking evidence that the magnitude of electric current delivered intracranially correlated positively with the perceived intensity of subjective experience and the evoked emotional state, a relationship observed across all three regions. Finally, we observed that the majority of reported experiences were negatively valenced and unpleasant, especially those elicited by ACC stimulation. The present study provides novel case studies from the human brain confirming that these structures contribute causally to the creation of affective states and demonstrates a direct relationship between the magnitude of electrical stimulation of these structures and the qualia of elicited subjective experience. Summary: This study provides critical knowledge about the effect of electrical charge magnitude on the intensity of human subjective experiences and emotional states. We shed light on the fundamental relationship between the electrical (physical) state of cortical tissue and the modality and intensity of human (subjective) experience. As electroceutical interventions are increasingly employed to treat neurological and psychiatric disorders, these findings highlight the importance of electrical stimulation magnitude for eliciting specific changes in human subjective experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Yih
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Danielle E Beam
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Kieran C R Fox
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Josef Parvizi
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
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7
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Fox KCR, Yih J, Raccah O, Pendekanti SL, Limbach LE, Maydan DD, Parvizi J. Changes in subjective experience elicited by direct stimulation of the human orbitofrontal cortex. Neurology 2018; 91:e1519-e1527. [PMID: 30232252 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000006358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We applied direct cortical stimulation (DCS) to the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in neurosurgical patients implanted with intracranial electrodes to probe, with high anatomic precision, the causal link between the OFC and human subjective experience. METHODS We administered 272 instances of DCS at 172 OFC sites in 22 patients with intractable focal epilepsy (from 2011 to 2017), none of whom had seizures originating from the OFC. RESULTS Our observations revealed a rich variety of affective, olfactory, gustatory, and somatosensory changes in the subjective domain. Elicited experiences were largely neutral or negatively valenced (e.g., aversive smells and tastes, sadness, and anger). Evidence was found for preferential left lateralization of negatively valenced experiences and strong right lateralization of neutral effects. Moreover, most of the elicited effects were observed after stimulation of OFC tissue around the transverse orbital sulcus, and none were seen in the most anterior aspects of the OFC. CONCLUSIONS Our study yielded 3 central findings: first, a dissociation between the "silent" anterior and nonsilent middle/posterior OFC where stimulation clearly elicits changes in subjective experience; second, evidence that the OFC might play a causal role in integrating affect and multimodal sensory experiences; and third, clear evidence for left lateralization of negatively valenced effects. Our findings provide important information for clinicians treating OFC injury or planning OFC resection and scientists seeking to understand the brain basis for the integration of sensation, cognition, and affect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kieran C R Fox
- From the Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, CA
| | - Jennifer Yih
- From the Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, CA
| | - Omri Raccah
- From the Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, CA
| | - Shrita L Pendekanti
- From the Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, CA
| | - Lauren E Limbach
- From the Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, CA
| | - Daniella D Maydan
- From the Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, CA
| | - Josef Parvizi
- From the Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, CA.
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8
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Fox KCR, Andrews-Hanna JR, Mills C, Dixon ML, Markovic J, Thompson E, Christoff K. Affective neuroscience of self-generated thought. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2018; 1426:25-51. [PMID: 29754412 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.13740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2017] [Revised: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Despite increasing scientific interest in self-generated thought-mental content largely independent of the immediate environment-there has yet to be any comprehensive synthesis of the subjective experience and neural correlates of affect in these forms of thinking. Here, we aim to develop an integrated affective neuroscience encompassing many forms of self-generated thought-normal and pathological, moderate and excessive, in waking and in sleep. In synthesizing existing literature on this topic, we reveal consistent findings pertaining to the prevalence, valence, and variability of emotion in self-generated thought, and highlight how these factors might interact with self-generated thought to influence general well-being. We integrate these psychological findings with recent neuroimaging research, bringing attention to the neural correlates of affect in self-generated thought. We show that affect in self-generated thought is prevalent, positively biased, highly variable (both within and across individuals), and consistently recruits many brain areas implicated in emotional processing, including the orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala, insula, and medial prefrontal cortex. Many factors modulate these typical psychological and neural patterns, however; the emerging affective neuroscience of self-generated thought must endeavor to link brain function and subjective experience in both everyday self-generated thought as well as its dysfunctions in mental illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kieran C R Fox
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Jessica R Andrews-Hanna
- Department of Psychology and Interdisciplinary Program in Cognitive Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Caitlin Mills
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Matthew L Dixon
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jelena Markovic
- Department of Philosophy, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Evan Thompson
- Department of Philosophy, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Kalina Christoff
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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9
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Fox KCR, Foster BL, Kucyi A, Daitch AL, Parvizi J. Intracranial Electrophysiology of the Human Default Network. Trends Cogn Sci 2018; 22:307-324. [PMID: 29525387 PMCID: PMC5957519 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2018.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2017] [Revised: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The human default network (DN) plays a critical role in internally directed cognition, behavior, and neuropsychiatric disease. Despite much progress with functional neuroimaging, persistent questions still linger concerning the electrophysiological underpinnings, fast temporal dynamics, and causal importance of the DN. Here, we review how direct intracranial recording and stimulation of the DN provides a unique combination of high spatiotemporal resolution and causal information that speaks directly to many of these outstanding questions. Our synthesis highlights the electrophysiological basis of activation, suppression, and connectivity of the DN, each key areas of debate in the literature. Integrating these unique electrophysiological data with extant neuroimaging findings will help lay the foundation for a mechanistic account of DN function in human behavior and cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kieran C R Fox
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Stanford Human Intracranial Cognitive Electrophysiology Program (SHICEP), Stanford, CA, USA.
| | - Brett L Foster
- Departments of Neurosurgery and Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Aaron Kucyi
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Stanford Human Intracranial Cognitive Electrophysiology Program (SHICEP), Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Amy L Daitch
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Stanford Human Intracranial Cognitive Electrophysiology Program (SHICEP), Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Josef Parvizi
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Stanford Human Intracranial Cognitive Electrophysiology Program (SHICEP), Stanford, CA, USA; Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
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10
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Van Dam NT, van Vugt MK, Vago DR, Schmalzl L, Saron CD, Olendzki A, Meissner T, Lazar SW, Gorchov J, Fox KCR, Field BA, Britton WB, Brefczynski-Lewis JA, Meyer DE. Reiterated Concerns and Further Challenges for Mindfulness and Meditation Research: A Reply to Davidson and Dahl. Perspect Psychol Sci 2018; 13:66-69. [PMID: 29016240 PMCID: PMC5817993 DOI: 10.1177/1745691617727529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
In response to our article, Davidson and Dahl offer commentary and advice regarding additional topics crucial to a comprehensive prescriptive agenda for future research on mindfulness and meditation. Their commentary raises further challenges and provides an important complement to our article. More consideration of these issues is especially welcome because limited space precluded us from addressing all relevant topics. While we agree with many of Davidson and Dahl's suggestions, the present reply (a) highlights reasons why the concerns we expressed are still especially germane to mindfulness and meditation research (even though those concerns may not be entirely unique) and (b) gives more context to other issues posed by them. We discuss special characteristics of individuals who participate in mindfulness and meditation research and focus on the vulnerability of this field inherent in its relative youthfulness compared to other more mature scientific disciplines. Moreover, our reply highlights the serious consequences of adverse experiences suffered by a significant subset of individuals during mindfulness and other contemplative practices. We also scrutinize common contemporary applications of mindfulness and meditation to illness, and some caveats are introduced regarding mobile technologies for guidance of contemplative practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas T. Van Dam
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai
| | - Marieke K. van Vugt
- Institute of Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Engineering, University of Groningen
| | - David R. Vago
- Osher Center for Integrative Medicine, Departments of Psychiatry and Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, Vanderbilt University Medical Center
| | - Laura Schmalzl
- College of Science and Integrative Health, Southern California University of Health Sciences
| | | | | | - Ted Meissner
- Center for Mindfulness, University of Massachusetts Medical School
| | - Sara W. Lazar
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School
| | | | - Kieran C. R. Fox
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University
| | | | - Willoughby B. Britton
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Warren Alpert Medical School at Brown University
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11
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Fox KCR, Muthukrishna M, Shultz S. The social and cultural roots of whale and dolphin brains. Nat Ecol Evol 2017; 1:1699-1705. [PMID: 29038481 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-017-0336-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2016] [Accepted: 09/01/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Encephalization, or brain expansion, underpins humans' sophisticated social cognition, including language, joint attention, shared goals, teaching, consensus decision-making and empathy. These abilities promote and stabilize cooperative social interactions, and have allowed us to create a 'cognitive' or 'cultural' niche and colonize almost every terrestrial ecosystem. Cetaceans (whales and dolphins) also have exceptionally large and anatomically sophisticated brains. Here, by evaluating a comprehensive database of brain size, social structures and cultural behaviours across cetacean species, we ask whether cetacean brains are similarly associated with a marine cultural niche. We show that cetacean encephalization is predicted by both social structure and by a quadratic relationship with group size. Moreover, brain size predicts the breadth of social and cultural behaviours, as well as ecological factors (diversity of prey types and to a lesser extent latitudinal range). The apparent coevolution of brains, social structure and behavioural richness of marine mammals provides a unique and striking parallel to the large brains and hyper-sociality of humans and other primates. Our results suggest that cetacean social cognition might similarly have arisen to provide the capacity to learn and use a diverse set of behavioural strategies in response to the challenges of social living.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kieran C R Fox
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Michael Muthukrishna
- Department of Psychological and Behavioural Science, London School of Economics and Political Science, London, WC2A 2AE, UK.,Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Susanne Shultz
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK.
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12
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Fox KCR, Fitz NS, Reiner PB. The Multiplicity of Memory Enhancement: Practical and Ethical Implications of the Diverse Neural Substrates Underlying Human Memory Systems. NEUROETHICS-NETH 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s12152-016-9282-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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13
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Abstract
Most research on mind-wandering has characterized it as a mental state with contents that are task unrelated or stimulus independent. However, the dynamics of mind-wandering - how mental states change over time - have remained largely neglected. Here, we introduce a dynamic framework for understanding mind-wandering and its relationship to the recruitment of large-scale brain networks. We propose that mind-wandering is best understood as a member of a family of spontaneous-thought phenomena that also includes creative thought and dreaming. This dynamic framework can shed new light on mental disorders that are marked by alterations in spontaneous thought, including depression, anxiety and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kalina Christoff
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada.,Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2211 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 2B5, Canada
| | - Zachary C Irving
- Departments of Philosophy and Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - Kieran C R Fox
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - R Nathan Spreng
- Laboratory of Brain and Cognition, Department of Human Development, Cornell University.,Human Neuroscience Institute, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | - Jessica R Andrews-Hanna
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado Boulder, UCB 594, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0594, USA
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14
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Ellamil M, Fox KCR, Dixon ML, Pritchard S, Todd RM, Thompson E, Christoff K. Dynamics of neural recruitment surrounding the spontaneous arising of thoughts in experienced mindfulness practitioners. Neuroimage 2016; 136:186-96. [PMID: 27114056 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.04.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2015] [Revised: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Thoughts arise spontaneously in our minds with remarkable frequency, but tracking the brain systems associated with the early inception of a thought has proved challenging. Here we addressed this issue by taking advantage of the heightened introspective ability of experienced mindfulness practitioners to observe the onset of their spontaneously arising thoughts. We found subtle differences in timing among the many regions typically recruited by spontaneous thought. In some of these regions, fMRI signal peaked prior to the spontaneous arising of a thought - most notably in the medial temporal lobe and inferior parietal lobule. In contrast, activation in the medial prefrontal, temporopolar, mid-insular, lateral prefrontal, and dorsal anterior cingulate cortices peaked together with or immediately following the arising of spontaneous thought. We propose that brain regions that show antecedent recruitment may be preferentially involved in the initial inception of spontaneous thoughts, while those that show later recruitment may be preferentially involved in the subsequent elaboration and metacognitive processing of spontaneous thoughts. Our findings highlight the temporal dynamics of neural recruitment surrounding the emergence of spontaneous thoughts and may help account for some of spontaneous thought's peculiar qualities, including its wild diversity of content and its links to memory and attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Ellamil
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Kieran C R Fox
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Matthew L Dixon
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Sean Pritchard
- School of Psychology, Fielding Graduate University, 2020 De la Vina Street, Santa Barbara, CA 93105, United States
| | - Rebecca M Todd
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada; Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Evan Thompson
- Department of Philosophy, University of British Columbia, 1866 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Kalina Christoff
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada; Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada.
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15
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Fox KCR, Dixon ML, Nijeboer S, Girn M, Floman JL, Lifshitz M, Ellamil M, Sedlmeier P, Christoff K. Functional neuroanatomy of meditation: A review and meta-analysis of 78 functional neuroimaging investigations. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 65:208-28. [PMID: 27032724 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2015] [Revised: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Meditation is a family of mental practices that encompasses a wide array of techniques employing distinctive mental strategies. We systematically reviewed 78 functional neuroimaging (fMRI and PET) studies of meditation, and used activation likelihood estimation to meta-analyze 257 peak foci from 31 experiments involving 527 participants. We found reliably dissociable patterns of brain activation and deactivation for four common styles of meditation (focused attention, mantra recitation, open monitoring, and compassion/loving-kindness), and suggestive differences for three others (visualization, sense-withdrawal, and non-dual awareness practices). Overall, dissociable activation patterns are congruent with the psychological and behavioral aims of each practice. Some brain areas are recruited consistently across multiple techniques-including insula, pre/supplementary motor cortices, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, and frontopolar cortex-but convergence is the exception rather than the rule. A preliminary effect-size meta-analysis found medium effects for both activations (d=0.59) and deactivations (d=-0.74), suggesting potential practical significance. Our meta-analysis supports the neurophysiological dissociability of meditation practices, but also raises many methodological concerns and suggests avenues for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kieran C R Fox
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, B.C., V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| | - Matthew L Dixon
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, B.C., V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Savannah Nijeboer
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, B.C., V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Manesh Girn
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, B.C., V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - James L Floman
- Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education, University of British Columbia, 2125 Main Mall, Vancouver, B.C., V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Michael Lifshitz
- Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, 3775 University St., Montreal, QC, H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Melissa Ellamil
- Neuroanatomy and Connectivity Research Group, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Stephanstrasse 1a, Leipzig, 04103, Germany
| | - Peter Sedlmeier
- Institut für Psychologie, Technische Universität Chemnitz, 43 Wilhelm-Raabe Street, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Kalina Christoff
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, B.C., V6T 1Z4, Canada; Brain Research Centre, University of British Columbia, 2211 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, B.C., V6T 2B5, Canada
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16
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Fox KCR, Spreng RN, Ellamil M, Andrews-Hanna JR, Christoff K. Corrigendum to "The wandering brain: Meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies of mind-wandering and related spontaneous thought processes" [NeuroImage 111 (2015) 611-621]. Neuroimage 2016; 137:212. [PMID: 27320028 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.02.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kieran C R Fox
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| | - R Nathan Spreng
- Laboratory of Brain and Cognition, Department of Human Development, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA; Human Neuroscience Institute, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Melissa Ellamil
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Jessica R Andrews-Hanna
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado Boulder, UCB 594, Boulder, CO 80309-0594, USA
| | - Kalina Christoff
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1Z4, Canada; Brain Research Centre, University of British Columbia, 2211 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, B.C. V6T 2B5, Canada
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17
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Domhoff GW, Fox KCR. Dreaming and the default network: A review, synthesis, and counterintuitive research proposal. Conscious Cogn 2015; 33:342-53. [PMID: 25723600 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2015.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2014] [Revised: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 01/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This article argues that the default network, augmented by secondary visual and sensorimotor cortices, is the likely neural correlate of dreaming. This hypothesis is based on a synthesis of work on dream content, the findings on the contents and neural correlates of mind-wandering, and the results from EEG and neuroimaging studies of REM sleep. Relying on studies in the 1970s that serendipitously discovered episodes of dreaming during waking mind-wandering, this article presents the seemingly counterintuitive hypothesis that the neural correlates for dreaming could be further specified in the process of carrying out EEG/fMRI studies of mind-wandering and default network activity. This hypothesis could be tested by asking participants for experiential reports during moments of differentially high levels of default network activation, as indicated by mixed EEG/fMRI criteria. Evidence from earlier EEG/fMRI studies of mind-wandering and from laboratory studies of dreaming during the sleep-onset process is used to support the argument.
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Affiliation(s)
- G William Domhoff
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA.
| | - Kieran C R Fox
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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18
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Fox KCR, Thompson E, Andrews-Hanna JR, Christoff K. Is thinking really aversive? A commentary on Wilson et al.'s "Just think: the challenges of the disengaged mind". Front Psychol 2014; 5:1427. [PMID: 25538668 PMCID: PMC4260464 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2014] [Accepted: 11/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kieran C R Fox
- Cognitive Neuroscience of Thought Laboratory, Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Evan Thompson
- Department of Philosophy, University of British Columbia Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | | | - Kalina Christoff
- Cognitive Neuroscience of Thought Laboratory, Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia Vancouver, BC, Canada ; Brain Research Centre, University of British Columbia Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Solomonova E, Fox KCR, Nielsen T. Methodological considerations for the neurophenomenology of dreaming: commentary on Windt's "Reporting dream experience". Front Hum Neurosci 2014; 8:317. [PMID: 24904360 PMCID: PMC4033080 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Elizaveta Solomonova
- Dream and Nightmare Laboratory, Center for Advanced Research in Sleep Medicine, Biomedical Sciences, University of Montreal Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Kieran C R Fox
- Cognitive Neuroscience of Thought Lab, Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Tore Nielsen
- Dream and Nightmare Laboratory, Center for Advanced Research in Sleep Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, University of Montreal Montreal, QC, Canada
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Fox KCR, Nijeboer S, Solomonova E, Domhoff GW, Christoff K. Dreaming as mind wandering: evidence from functional neuroimaging and first-person content reports. Front Hum Neurosci 2013; 7:412. [PMID: 23908622 PMCID: PMC3726865 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Isolated reports have long suggested a similarity in content and thought processes across mind wandering (MW) during waking, and dream mentation during sleep. This overlap has encouraged speculation that both “daydreaming” and dreaming may engage similar brain mechanisms. To explore this possibility, we systematically examined published first-person experiential reports of MW and dreaming and found many similarities: in both states, content is largely audiovisual and emotional, follows loose narratives tinged with fantasy, is strongly related to current concerns, draws on long-term memory, and simulates social interactions. Both states are also characterized by a relative lack of meta-awareness. To relate first-person reports to neural evidence, we compared meta-analytic data from numerous functional neuroimaging (PET, fMRI) studies of the default mode network (DMN, with high chances of MW) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (with high chances of dreaming). Our findings show large overlaps in activation patterns of cortical regions: similar to MW/DMN activity, dreaming and REM sleep activate regions implicated in self-referential thought and memory, including medial prefrontal cortex (PFC), medial temporal lobe structures, and posterior cingulate. Conversely, in REM sleep numerous PFC executive regions are deactivated, even beyond levels seen during waking MW. We argue that dreaming can be understood as an “intensified” version of waking MW: though the two share many similarities, dreams tend to be longer, more visual and immersive, and to more strongly recruit numerous key hubs of the DMN. Further, whereas MW recruits fewer PFC regions than goal-directed thought, dreaming appears to be characterized by an even deeper quiescence of PFC regions involved in cognitive control and metacognition, with a corresponding lack of insight and meta-awareness. We suggest, then, that dreaming amplifies the same features that distinguish MW from goal-directed waking thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kieran C R Fox
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Fox KCR, Zakarauskas P, Dixon M, Ellamil M, Thompson E, Christoff K. Meditation experience predicts introspective accuracy. PLoS One 2012; 7:e45370. [PMID: 23049790 PMCID: PMC3458044 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0045370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2012] [Accepted: 08/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The accuracy of subjective reports, especially those involving introspection of one's own internal processes, remains unclear, and research has demonstrated large individual differences in introspective accuracy. It has been hypothesized that introspective accuracy may be heightened in persons who engage in meditation practices, due to the highly introspective nature of such practices. We undertook a preliminary exploration of this hypothesis, examining introspective accuracy in a cross-section of meditation practitioners (1–15,000 hrs experience). Introspective accuracy was assessed by comparing subjective reports of tactile sensitivity for each of 20 body regions during a ‘body-scanning’ meditation with averaged, objective measures of tactile sensitivity (mean size of body representation area in primary somatosensory cortex; two-point discrimination threshold) as reported in prior research. Expert meditators showed significantly better introspective accuracy than novices; overall meditation experience also significantly predicted individual introspective accuracy. These results suggest that long-term meditators provide more accurate introspective reports than novices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kieran C R Fox
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
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