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Phillips KF, Sontheimer H. Neuroscience: The New English Major? Neuroscientist 2023; 29:158-165. [PMID: 33754906 DOI: 10.1177/10738584211003992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Once strictly the domain of medical and graduate education, neuroscience has made its way into the undergraduate curriculum with over 230 colleges and universities now offering a bachelor's degree in neuroscience. The disciplinary focus on the brain teaches students to apply science to the understanding of human behavior, human interactions, sensation, emotions, and decision making. In this article, we encourage new and existing undergraduate neuroscience programs to envision neuroscience as a broad discipline with the potential to develop competencies suitable for a variety of careers that reach well beyond research and medicine. This article describes our philosophy and illustrates a broad-based undergraduate degree in neuroscience implemented at a major state university, Virginia Tech. We highlight the fact that the research-centered Experimental Neuroscience major is least popular of our four distinct majors, which underscores our philosophy that undergraduate neuroscience can cater to a different audience than traditionally thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin F Phillips
- School of Neuroscience, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Harald Sontheimer
- School of Neuroscience, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
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Phillips KF, Deshpande LS. Calcium Hypothesis of Gulf War Illness: Role of Calcium Ions in Neurological Morbidities in a DFP-Based Rat Model for Gulf War Illness. Neurosci Insights 2020; 15:2633105520979841. [PMID: 33354668 PMCID: PMC7734545 DOI: 10.1177/2633105520979841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Gulf War Illness (GWI) refers to a multi-system disorder that afflicts approximately 30% of First Gulf War (GW) veterans. Amongst the symptoms exhibited, mood and memory impairment are commonly reported by GW veterans. Exposure to organophosphate (OP) compounds which target the cholinergic system is considered a leading cause for GWI symptoms. It is hypothesized that chronic OP-based war-time stimulation of cholinergic signaling led to recruitment of excitatory glutamatergic signaling and other downstream signaling cascades leading to neuronal injury, neuroinflammation, generation of reactive oxygen species, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial damage within the central nervous system. These findings have been observed in both experimental models and GWI veterans. In this context the role of calcium (Ca2+) signaling in GWI has come to the forefront. Here we present our Ca2+ hypothesis of GWI that suggests sustained neuronal Ca2+ elevations serve as a molecular trigger for pathological synaptic plasticity that has allowed for the persistence of GWI symptoms. Subsequently we discuss that therapeutic targeting of Ca2+ homeostatic mechanisms provides novel targets for effective treatment of GWI-related neurological signs in our rodent model.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Laxmikant S Deshpande
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, USA.,Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, USA
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Phillips KF, Santos E, Blair RE, Deshpande LS. Targeting Intracellular Calcium Stores Alleviates Neurological Morbidities in a DFP-Based Rat Model of Gulf War Illness. Toxicol Sci 2020; 169:567-578. [PMID: 30859209 PMCID: PMC6542335 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfz070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Gulf War Illness (GWI) is a chronic multi-symptom disorder afflicting the veterans of the First Gulf War, and includes neurological symptoms characterized by depression and memory deficits. Chronic exposure to organophosphates (OPs) is considered a leading cause for GWI, yet its pathobiology is not fully understood. We recently observed chronic elevations in neuronal Ca2+ levels ([Ca2+]i) in an OP-diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP)-based rat model for GWI. This study was aimed at identifying mechanisms underlying elevated [Ca2+]i in this DFP model and investigating whether their therapeutic targeting could improve GWI-like neurological morbidities. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (9 weeks) were exposed to DFP (0.5 mg/kg, s.c., 1×-daily for 5 days) and at 3 months postDFP exposure, behavior was assessed and rats were euthanized for protein estimations and ratiometric Fura-2 [Ca2+]i estimations in acutely dissociated hippocampal neurons. In DFP rats, a sustained elevation in intracellular Ca2+ levels occurred, and pharmacological blockade of Ca2+-induced Ca2+-release mechanisms significantly lowered elevated [Ca2+]i in DFP neurons. Significant reductions in the protein levels of the ryanodine receptor (RyR) stabilizing protein Calstabin2 were also noted. Such a posttranslational modification would render RyR “leaky” resulting in sustained DFP [Ca2+]i elevations. Antagonism of RyR with levetiracetam significantly lower elevated [Ca2+]i in DFP neurons and improved GWI-like behavioral symptoms. Since Ca2+ is a major second messenger molecule, such chronic increases in its levels could underlie pathological synaptic plasticity that expresses itself as GWI morbidities. Our studies show that treatment with drugs targeted at blocking intracellular Ca2+ release could be effective therapies for GWI neurological morbidities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Laxmikant S Deshpande
- Departments of Neurology.,Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298
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Phillips KF, Deshpande LS, DeLorenzo RJ. Hypothermia Reduces Mortality, Prevents the Calcium Plateau, and Is Neuroprotective Following Status Epilepticus in Rats. Front Neurol 2018; 9:438. [PMID: 29942282 PMCID: PMC6005175 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2018.00438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Status Epilepticus (SE) is a major neurological emergency and is considered a leading cause of Acquired Epilepsy (AE). We have shown that SE produces neuronal injury and prolonged alterations in hippocampal calcium levels ([Ca2+]i) that may underlie the development of AE. Interventions preventing the SE-induced Ca2+ plateau could therefore prove to be beneficial in lowering the development of AE after SE. Hypothermia is used clinically to prevent neurological complications associated with Traumatic Brain Injury, cardiac arrest, and stroke. Here, we investigated whether hypothermia prevented the development of Ca2+ plateau following SE. SE was induced in hippocampal neuronal cultures (HNC) by exposing them to no added MgCl2 solution for 3 h. To terminate SE, low Mg2+ solution was washed off with 31°C (hypothermic) or 37°C (normothermic) physiological recording solution. [Ca2+]i was estimated with ratiometric Fura-2 imaging. HNCs washed with hypothermic solution exhibited [Ca2+]i ratios, which were significantly lower than ratios obtained from HNCs washed with normothermic solution. For in vivo SE, the rat pilocarpine (PILO) model was used. Moderate hypothermia (30–33°C) in rats was induced at 30-min post-SE using chilled ethanol spray in a cold room. Hypothermia following PILO-SE significantly reduced mortality. Hippocampal neurons isolated from hypothermia-treated PILO SE rats exhibited [Ca2+]i ratios which were significantly lower than ratios obtained from PILO SE rats. Hypothermia also provided significant neuroprotection against SE-induced delayed hippocampal injury as characterized by decreased FluoroJade C labeling in hypothermia-treated PILO SE rats. We previously demonstrated that hypothermia reduced Ca2+ entry via N-methyl-D-aspartate and ryanodine receptors in HNC. Together, our studies indicate that by targeting these two receptor systems hypothermia could interfere with epileptogenesis and prove to be an effective therapeutic intervention for reducing SE-induced AE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin F Phillips
- Department of Neurology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Laxmikant S Deshpande
- Department of Neurology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Robert J DeLorenzo
- Department of Neurology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
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Phillips KF, Deshpande LS. Chronic Neurological Morbidities and Elevated Hippocampal Calcium Levels in a DFP-Based Rat Model of Gulf War Illness. Mil Med 2018; 183:552-555. [DOI: 10.1093/milmed/usx148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kristin F Phillips
- Department of Neurology, Virginia Commonwealth University, PO Box 980599, 1217 East Marshall Street, Richmond, VA 23284
| | - Laxmikant S Deshpande
- Department of Neurology, Virginia Commonwealth University, PO Box 980599, 1217 East Marshall Street, Richmond, VA 23284
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1217 East Marshall Street, Richmond, VA 23284
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Deshpande LS, Blair RE, Phillips KF, DeLorenzo RJ. Role of the calcium plateau in neuronal injury and behavioral morbidities following organophosphate intoxication. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2016; 1374:176-83. [PMID: 27327161 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.13122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Organophosphate (OP) chemicals include nerve agents and pesticides, and there is a growing concern of OP-based chemical attacks against civilians. Current antidotes are essential in limiting immediate mortality associated with OP exposure. However, further research is needed to identify the molecular mechanisms underlying long-term neurological deficits following survival of OP toxicity in order to develop effective therapeutics. We have developed rat survival models of OP-induced status epilepticus (SE) that mimic chronic mortality and morbidity following OP intoxication. We have observed significant elevations in hippocampal calcium levels after OP SE that persisted for weeks following initial survival. Drugs inhibiting intracellular calcium-induced calcium release, such as dantrolene, levetiracetam, and carisbamate, lowered OP SE-mediated protracted calcium elevations. Given the critical role of calcium signaling in modulating behavior and cell death mechanisms, drugs targeted at preventing the development of the calcium plateau could enhance neuroprotection, help reduce morbidity, and improve outcomes following survival of OP SE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laxmikant S Deshpande
- Departments of Neurology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia.,Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia
| | - Robert E Blair
- Departments of Neurology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia
| | - Kristin F Phillips
- Departments of Neurology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia
| | - Robert J DeLorenzo
- Departments of Neurology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia.,Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia
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Phillips KF, Deshpande LS. Repeated low-dose organophosphate DFP exposure leads to the development of depression and cognitive impairment in a rat model of Gulf War Illness. Neurotoxicology 2015; 52:127-33. [PMID: 26619911 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2015.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2015] [Revised: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 11/22/2015] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Approximately 175,000-250,000 of the returning veterans from the 1991 Persian Gulf War exhibit chronic multi-symptom illnesses that includes neurologic co-morbidities such as depression, anxiety and cognitive impairments. Amongst a host of causative factors, exposure to low levels of the nerve agent Sarin has been strongly implicated for expression of Gulf War Illness (GWI). Nerve agents similar to pesticides are organophosphate (OP) compounds. There is evidence from civilian population that exposure to OPs such as in agricultural workers and nerve agents such as the survivors and first-responders of the Tokyo subway Sarin gas attack suffer from chronic neurological problems similar to GWI symptoms. Given this unique chemical profile, OPs are ideal to study the effects of nerve agents and develop models of GWI in civilian laboratories. In this study, we used repeated low-dose exposure to OP agent diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP) over a 5-day period to approximate the duration and level of Sarin exposure during the Persian Gulf War. We tested the rats at 3-months post DFP exposure. Using a battery of behavioral assays, we observed the presence of symptoms of chronic depression, anxiety and memory problems as characterized by increased immobility time in the Forced Swim Test, anhedonia in the Sucrose Preference Test, anxiety in the Elevated Plus Maze, and spatial memory impairments in the Object Location Test, respectively. Chronic low dose DFP exposure was also associated with hippocampal neuronal damage as characterized by the presence of Fluoro-Jade staining. Given that OP exposure is considered a leading cause of GWI related morbidities, this animal model will be ideally suited to study underlying molecular mechanisms for the expression of GWI neurological symptoms and identify drugs for the effective treatment of GWIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin F Phillips
- Department of Neurology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
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Deshpande LS, Carter DS, Phillips KF, Blair RE, DeLorenzo RJ. Development of status epilepticus, sustained calcium elevations and neuronal injury in a rat survival model of lethal paraoxon intoxication. Neurotoxicology 2014; 44:17-26. [PMID: 24785379 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2014.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Revised: 04/22/2014] [Accepted: 04/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Paraoxon (POX) is an active metabolite of organophosphate (OP) pesticide parathion that has been weaponized and used against civilian populations. Exposure to POX produces high mortality. OP poisoning is often associated with chronic neurological disorders. In this study, we optimize a rat survival model of lethal POX exposures in order to mimic both acute and long-term effects of POX intoxication. Male Sprague-Dawley rats injected with POX (4mg/kg, ice-cold PBS, s.c.) produced a rapid cholinergic crisis that evolved into status epilepticus (SE) and death within 6-8min. The EEG profile for POX induced SE was characterized and showed clinical and electrographic seizures with 7-10Hz spike activity. Treatment of 100% lethal POX intoxication with an optimized three drug regimen (atropine, 2mg/kg, i.p., 2-PAM, 25mg/kg, i.m. and diazepam, 5mg/kg, i.p.) promptly stopped SE and reduced acute mortality to 12% and chronic mortality to 18%. This model is ideally suited to test effective countermeasures against lethal POX exposure. Animals that survived the POX SE manifested prolonged elevations in hippocampal [Ca(2+)]i (Ca(2+) plateau) and significant multifocal neuronal injury. POX SE induced Ca(2+) plateau had its origin in Ca(2+) release from intracellular Ca(2+) stores since inhibition of ryanodine/IP3 receptor lowered elevated Ca(2+) levels post SE. POX SE induced neuronal injury and alterations in Ca(2+) dynamics may underlie some of the long term morbidity associated with OP toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dawn S Carter
- Departments of Neurology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Kristin F Phillips
- Departments of Neurology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Robert E Blair
- Departments of Neurology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Robert J DeLorenzo
- Departments of Neurology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA; Departments of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA; Departments of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA.
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Phillips KF. Testing microbiologic response to antiinfective medications with incomplete data. J Biopharm Stat 2001; 11:237-52. [PMID: 12018778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
Clinical trials of antiinfective medications often require estimates of the proportions of patients, n, who are free of disease-causing pathogens at the end of treatment, as well as the proportions of all pathogens that have been eradicated. Each patient is infected with several species of pathogens, but the response to study medication for some of these pathogens may be unknown because some specimens were lost or because the patient received nonstudy medication that was known to be effective against these species. This paper develops a statistical model that estimates pi for each treatment and that accounts for the unknown pathogen responses as well as overdispersion of the remaining responses due to within-patient effects. The data are modeled with the Poisson distribution for the numbers of pathogen species per patient and the beta-binomial model for pathogen eradication. The Poisson and beta-binomial parameters are estimated through maximum likelihood estimation, and the treatment difference in the pi valves and its standard error are estimated by transforming the underlying parameters. Confidence intervals based on these estimates are constructed to test the hypothesis of noninferiority of the test treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- K F Phillips
- Advanced Biologics, LLC, Lambertville, New Jersey 08530, USA
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Phillips KF, Crain HC. Effectiveness of a pneumonia clinical pathway: quality and financial outcomes. Outcomes Manag Nurs Pract 1998; 2:16-22; quiz 22-3. [PMID: 9469109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In today's health care environment, it is imperative to evaluate planned changes within a health care system. We report the outcomes of a study on the effectiveness of a pneumonia clinical pathway. Important elements of effectiveness studies are discussed and used in presenting study findings. These findings are a preliminary demonstration that clinical pathways can improve patient and process outcomes. Their relation to financial outcomes is less clear.
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Phillips KF. Proof of the independence of the AUC and the absorption rate. Biopharm Drug Dispos 1993; 14:643-6. [PMID: 8251619 DOI: 10.1002/bdd.2510140711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- K F Phillips
- Department of Clinical and Scientific Affairs, Pfizer Pharmaceuticals, New York, NY 10017
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Abstract
A log-normal model is developed for testing pi 1, the probability that a subject's response will fall within given bioequivalence limits. The model is a parametric analog of Anderson and Hauck's TIER rule. Confidence intervals and hypothesis tests are derived. Statistical power is compared with the that of the TIER rule. The probability of demonstrating mean bioequivalence is shown to greatly exceed that of showing individual bioequivalence.
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Affiliation(s)
- K F Phillips
- Department of Clinical and Scientific Affairs, Pfizer Pharmaceuticals, New York, New York 10017
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Phillips KF. Response to "An evaluation of point and interval estimates in population pharmacokinetics using NONMEM analysis" by White et al. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm 1992; 20:389-95. [PMID: 1479560 DOI: 10.1007/bf01062464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Abstract
The power of the two one-sided tests procedure for testing bioequivalence is derived from the bivariate noncentral t distribution. Power curves are shown and their use in planning bioequivalence experiments discussed. Sample sizes computed in the usual manner from an analysis of variance are shown to be too small to assure a declaration of bioequivalence except under favorable conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- K F Phillips
- Department of Clinical and Scientific Affairs, Pfizer Pharmaceuticals, New York, New York 10017
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French MM, Phillips KF. When seconds count: treating malignant hyperthermia. RN 1984; 47:26-31, 74. [PMID: 6208597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Phillips KF. The use of gold therapy with rheumatoid arthritis. Orthop Nurs 1983; 2:31-4. [PMID: 6422427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
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