Effect of x-ray irradiation on reducing the risk of listeriosis in ready-to-eat vacuum-packaged smoked mullet

Listeria monocytogenes can pose a serious threat in several areas of the nation's food supply including ready-to-eat seafood products. Use of irradiation processing can potentially reduce the risk of listeriosis caused by consumption of ready-to-eat seafood products. This study measured the effect of X-ray irradiation on reducing the population of L. monocytogenes on ready-to-eat, vacuum-packaged smoked mullet. Smoked mullet were inoculated with a five-strain mixture of L. monocytogenes (10(4) CFU/g), vacuum packaged, and irradiated (0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 kGy). The packaged fish were then stored at 3 and 10 degrees C for 90 and 17 days, respectively. Radiation doses of 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 kGy reduced the initial population of L. monocytogenes by 1.1, 1.6, and 2.1 log CFU/g, respectively. The 2.0-kGy dose reduced L. monocytogenes to undetectable levels with no recovery growth at either temperature. Compared to the control, irradiation at 1.5 kGy demonstrated 1.0 and 1.7 log CFU/g less growth at 3 degrees C after 60 days and 10 degrees C after 17 days, respectively. Sensory flavor analysis was conducted to determine if a difference existed between irradiated samples. Panelists indicated that there were no differences among treated and untreated samples. An X-ray dose of 2 kGy effectively eliminated 10(4) CFU/g L. monocytogenes on smoked mullet without changing sensory quality.

Response of Vibrio parahaemolyticus 03:K6 to a hot water/cold shock pasteurization process

Vibrio vulnificus and V. parahaemolyticus are natural inhabitants of estuarine environments world wide. Pathogenic strains of these bacteria are often transmitted to humans through consumption of raw oysters, which flourish in the same estuaries. Previous studies reported the effective use of hot water pasteurization followed by cold shock to eliminate from raw oysters naturally and artificially incurred environmental strains of V. vulnificus and V. parahaemolyticus common to the Gulf of Mexico. The present study focused on the use of the same pasteurization method to reduce a highly process resistant Vibrio strain, V. parahaemolyticus O3:K6 to non-detectable levels. Oysters were artificially contaminated with 10(4) and 10(6) V. parahaemolyticus 03:K6 cfu g(-1) oyster meat. Contaminated oysters were pasteurized between 50 and 52 degrees C for up to 22 min. Samples of processed oysters were enumerated for V. parahaemolyticus O3:K6 at 2-min intervals beginning after the 'come-up time' to achieve an oyster internal temperature of at least 50 degrees C. The D value (D(52)deg C) was 1.3-1.6 min. V. parahaemolyticus O3:K6 proved more process resistant than non-pathogenic environmental strains found in Gulf of Mexico waters. A total processing time of at least 22 min at 52 degrees C was recommended to reduce this bacterium to non-detectable levels (< 3 g(-1) oyster meat).

Chronic toxicity/oncogenicity study of styrene in CD-1 mice by inhalation exposure for 104 weeks

Groups of 70 male and 70 female Charles River CD-1 mice were exposed whole body to styrene vapor at 0, 20, 40, 80 or 160 ppm 6 h per day 5 days per week for 98 weeks (females) or 104 weeks (males). The mice were observed daily; body weights, food and water consumption were measured periodically, a battery of hematological and clinical pathology examinations were conducted at weeks 13, 26, 52, 78 and 98 (females)/104 (males). Ten mice of each gender per group were pre-selected for necropsy after 52 and 78 weeks of exposure and the survivors of the remaining 50 of each gender per group were necropsied after 98 or 104 weeks. An extensive set of organs from the control and high-exposure mice were examined histopathologically, whereas target organs, gross lesions and all masses were examined in all other groups. Styrene had no effect on survival in males. Two high-dose females died (acute liver toxicity) during the first 2 weeks; the remaining exposed females had a slightly higher survival than control mice. Levels of styrene and styrene oxide (SO) in the blood at the end of a 6 h exposure during week 74 were proportional to exposure concentration, except that at 20 ppm the SO level was below the limit of detection. There were no changes of toxicological significance in hematology, clinical chemistry, urinalysis or organ weights. Mice exposed to 80 or 160 ppm gained slightly less weight than the controls. Styrene-related non-neoplastic histopathological changes were found only in the nasal passages and lungs. In the nasal passages of males and females at all exposure concentrations, the changes included respiratory metaplasia of the olfactory epithelium with changes in the underlying Bowman's gland; the severity increased with styrene concentration and duration of exposure. Loss of olfactory nerve fibers was seen in mice exposed to 40, 80 or 160 ppm. In the lungs, there was decreased eosinophilia of Clara cells in the terminal bronchioles and bronchiolar epithelial hyperplasia extending into alveolar ducts. Increased tumor incidence occurred only in the lung. The incidence of bronchioloalveolar adenomas was significantly increased in males exposed to 40, 80 or 160 ppm and in females exposed to 20, 40 and 160 ppm. The increase was seen only after 24 months. In females exposed to 160 ppm, the incidence of bronchiolo-alveolar carcinomas after 24 months was significantly greater than in the controls. No difference in lung tumors between control and styrene-exposed mice was seen in the intensity or degree of immunostaining, the location of tumors relative to bronchioles or histological type (papillary, solid or mixed). It appears that styrene induces an increase in the number of lung tumors seen spontaneously in CD-1 mice.

Developmental toxicity of 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) in the Sprague-Dawley rat

BACKGROUND

1,6-Hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI), a widely used chemical in commercial polyurethane manufacture, has been shown to affect the respiratory tract of experimental animals. However, its potential to affect neonatal development, particularly after inhalation exposure, is less well described. The present study was conducted to assess the developmental toxicity of HDI.

METHODS

Gravid Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to concentrations of 0, 0. 005, 0.050, or 0.300 ppm HDI via inhalation (whole-body exposure) on days 0-19 of gestation. Maternal toxicity, as demonstrated by clinical signs and changes in body weight gain during gestation, was characterized. Dams were sacrificed on gestation day 20, at which time fetuses were removed by cesarean section, the uterus was examined, and a gross maternal necropsy was performed. Maternal evaluation also included lung weight and a detailed histopathologic assessment of the nasal turbinates, larynx, trachea, and lungs. All fetuses were evaluated for external anomalies. Approximately one-half of each litter was examined for visceral effects, the other half underwent a skeletal (bone and cartilage) examination.

RESULTS

Maternal toxicity was demonstrated in the 0.300- and, to a lesser extent, in the 0.050-ppm exposure groups. No maternal effects were noted in the 0.005-ppm group. Test compound-related maternal effects were restricted to histopathological findings and included acanthosis, hyperkeratosis, inflammation of the nasal turbinates, and, more seriously, degeneration of the olfactory epithelium. No pathological alterations were noted in the larynx, trachea, or lungs in any dose group. No test compound-related effects were observed on any reproductive parameters, or any embryonic endpoints, including pre/postimplantation loss and resorption. There were no effects on litter size or the number of fetuses per implantation site and no effects on fetal or placental weights were observed. No test compound-related fetal external, visceral, or skeletal findings were observed. No effect on the fetal or litter incidence of total malformations or variations was observed, and there was no difference in the incidence of malformations between males and females.

CONCLUSIONS

Administered as described in this study, 1, 6-HDI produced maternal effects (nasal turbinate histopathology) at concentrations of 0.050 and 0.300 ppm with no developmental toxicity observed at any concentration.

Low temperature pasteurization to reduce the risk of vibrio infections from raw shell-stock oysters

Vibrio vulnificus and V. parahaemolyticus are natural inhabitants of estuarine environments and may be transmitted to humans by ingestion of raw oysters. This study focused on the use of low temperature pasteurization, to reduce these Vibrio spp. to nondetectable levels, thus reducing the risk of infection associated with raw oyster consumption. Artificially-inoculated V. vulnificus and V. parahaemolyticus and naturally-contaminated V. vulnificus in live oysters were pasteurized at 50 degrees C for up to 15 min. Samples of processed and unprocessed oysters were enumerated for V. vulnificus, V. parahaemolyticus, and aerobic spoilage bacteria for 0-14 days. Low temperature pasteurization was effective in reducing these pathogens from > 100,000 to non-detectable levels in less than 10 min of processing. Spoilage bacteria were reduced by 2-3 logs, thus increasing the shelf-life for up to 7 days beyond live unprocessed oysters. Vibrio vulnificus in control oysters was reduced by 10(2) during ice storage alone. Following pasteurization and during a temperature storage abuse study (24 h at 22 degrees C), V. vulnificus was not recovered. During this storage period spoilage bacteria exceeded 1 million/g oyster meat.

Percutaneous induced thrombosis of iatrogenic femoral pseudoaneurysms following catheterization

Femoral pseudoaneurysms are one of the common iatrogenic complications following catheterization procedures done via the femoral approach. Their treatment has evolved over the last decade from operative repair to ultrasound-guided compression (USGC) and more recently to thrombin injection of the pseudoaneurysm. We report our experience with that technique and compare the results of thromboobliteration to those of the compression method. All consecutive iatrogenic femoral pseudoaneurysms diagnosed in the vascular laboratory of two large community hospitals were referred for the study. Under ultrasound guidance, percutaneous thromboobliteration (PTO) of the pseudoaneurysms was done by injecting thrombin solution (500-unit increments) into the pseudoaneurysm. Time to thrombosis, dose of thrombin, patient's discomfort, and ease of procedure were recorded and analyzed. Comparison with results of USGC reported in the literature was made. Percutaneous thromboobliteration may be a simple and very effective treatment of femoral pseudoaneurysms. The high success rate, ease of procedure, and cost benefit over USGC are noteworthy. A larger trial is currently under way. If results are duplicated, PTO will emerge as the preferred treatment for iatrogenic femoral pseudoaneurysms.

A combined reproduction, neonatal development, and neurotoxicity study with 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) in the rat

1,6-Hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI), a chemical widely used in commercial polyurethane products, was evaluated in a combined reproductive/developmental/neurotoxicity study. Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 120; 15 per sex/dose group) were administered via whole-body inhalation exposure either 0, 0.005, 0.05, or 0.3 ppm HDI for 6 h/day during a 14-day premating phase, up to a 14-day mating phase, and a 21-day gestation phase. The dams and their litters were maintained for a 4-day lactation phase during which exposure to HDI was discontinued. Neurobehavioral testing (automated measures of activity and a functional observational battery) was conducted before exposure, after the premating phase, and before termination. Body weight and clinical observations were recorded throughout the study. Terminal examinations included a gross necropsy, hematology, and clinical chemistry. Tissues retained for microscopic examination included the reproductive organs, neural tissues, nasal turbinates (multiple sections), trachea, larynx, and lung. The animals were also evaluated for effects on mating, fertility, gestation length, litter size, pup sex ratio, and pup viability. In the 0.300 ppm dose group a statistically significant decrease in body weight was observed in the females on day 4 of the study. Also observed at this dose level, in both males and females, were microscopic alterations in the nasal cavity, primarily epithelial hyperplasia, squamous metaplasia, chronic-active inflammation, and more seriously, degeneration of the olfactory epithelium. Similar microscopic effects were also observed, albeit to a lesser extent, in the males and females of the 0.05 ppm dose level. No histopathologic effects were observed in the 0.005 ppm dose level. No effects on any reproductive or neurotoxicologic parameters, hematology, clinical chemistry, or any effects on pup growth and development were observed at any exposure level.

Chronic toxicity/oncogenicity study of styrene in CD rats by inhalation exposure for 104 weeks

Groups of 70 male and 70 female Charles River CD (Sprague-Dawley-derived) rats were exposed whole body to styrene vapor at 0, 50, 200, 500, or 1000 ppm 6 h/day 5 days/week for 104 weeks. The rats were observed daily, body weights and food and water consumption were measured periodically, and a battery of hematologic and clinical pathology examinations was conducted at weeks 13, 26, 52, 78, and 104. Nine or 10 rats per sex per group were necropsied after 52 weeks of exposure and the remaining survivors were necropsied after 104 weeks. Control and high-exposure rats received a complete histopathologic examination, while target organs, gross lesions, and all masses were examined in the lower exposure groups. Styrene had no effect on survival in males, but females exposed to 500 or 1000 ppm had a dose-related increase in survival. Levels of styrene in the blood at the end of a 6-h exposure during week 95 were proportional to exposure concentration. Levels of styrene oxide in the blood of rats exposed to 200 ppm or greater styrene were proportional to styrene exposure concentration. There were no changes of toxicologic significance in hematology, clinical chemistry, urinalysis, or organ weights. Males exposed to 500 or 1000 ppm gained less weight than the controls during the first year and maintained the difference during the second year. Females exposed to 200, 500, or 1000 ppm gained less weight during the first year; those exposed to 500 or 1000 ppm continued to gain less during months 13-18. Styrene-related non-neoplastic histopathologic changes were confined to the olfactory epithelium of the nasal mucosa. There was no evidence that styrene exposure caused treatment-related increases of any tumor type in males or females or in the number of tumor-bearing rats in the exposed groups compared to controls. In females, there were treatment-related decreases in pituitary adenomas and mammary adenocarcinomas. Based on an overall evaluation of eight oncogenicity studies, there is clear evidence that styrene does not induce cancer in rats.

Food preservation using ionizing radiation

Irradiation processing has been researched extensively and is now in use worldwide for many food commodities. Irradiation has been successfully used to reduce pathogenic bacteria, eliminate parasites, decrease postharvest sprouting, and extend the shelf life of fresh perishable foods. Although food irradiation is widely accepted in world food markets, U.S. markets have been slower to accept the idea of irradiated food products. For fruits and vegetables, irradiation is not a cure for shelf life problems; cost and quality problems damage preclude its general use. It appears that the most likely use of irradiation in fruits and vegetables is as an insect control in those commodities for which there is no effective alternative method. For grains such as rice and wheat, irradiation has been used primarily to control insect infestation when insects have been shown to develop resistance to the traditional fumigation methods. Treatment of spices with irradiation doses of 10 kGy has proved to extend shelf life without causing significant changes in sensory or chemical quality. Higher doses that effectively sterilize spices, however, may cause undesirable chemical and sensorial changes. For meat, especially red meat, irradiation is considered a viable alternative in the effort to improve the safety of meat products. With time, the authors believe that economic realities and the technical superiority of irradiation for specific poultry products will lead to public acceptance of the process. Irradiation of seafood products is still being considered for approval by the USFDA, although it is currently used in Asian and European markets, especially for shrimp. It is our belief that scientifically based research in food irradiation and the positive results thereof will also prove economical in the twenty-first century. As we move to a more peaceful world with reduced threat of nuclear holocaust, these valid opinions will prevail and will overshadow the distortions and misinformation generated by the opponents of irradiation.

Oncogenicity studies of inhaled methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) in CD-1 mice and F-344 rats

Oncogenicity studies of methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) vapor were conducted in CD-1 mice and Fischer 344 rats. Fifty animals of each sex per species per group were exposed for 6 h a day, 5 days per week to 0 (control), 400, 3000 and 8000 ppm MTBE vapor in air for 18 months (mice) and 24 months (rats). Both species showed reversible central nervous system depression at 8000 ppm for the first week of exposure, which continued for mice for the study duration. For the 8000 ppm mice, reduced body weight gain and early mortality prior to terminal euthanasia were exposure related. In the males, these deaths appear to be due to exacerbation of uropathy or dysuria, which occurs spontaneously in this strain. Increases in absolute and relative liver (both sexes) and kidney weight (males only) were seen at 3000 and 8000 ppm and decreases in brain and spleen weights were also noted (the latter decreases were without microscopic lesions and occurred at 8000 ppm only). An increase in hepatocellular hypertrophy occurred in both sexes at the two highest concentrations. The only neoplastic lesion found in this study in mice was an increased incidence of hepatocellular adenomas in females at the 8000 ppm exposure. In a follow-up study, a statistically significant elevation of cell proliferation in female mouse liver has been shown to occur following 5 days, but not 28 days, of exposure to 8000 ppm MTBE, suggesting that MTBE induces mitogenesis. For male rats, early euthanasia was required at week 82 and week 97 for the 8000 and 3000 ppm groups, respectively, due to excessive mortality from a severe progressive nephrosis. The end stage of this process appeared earlier in the male rats of all MTBE exposure groups; the incidence of this lesion and mortality for exposed females was comparable to control females. No exposure-related changes in hematological parameters were observed for any group at any time point, but a decrease in corticosterone levels was seen for male rats from the 8000 ppm group. Absolute and relative kidney and liver weight increases occurred in 3000 and 8000 ppm exposure groups, but the liver weight change was not accompanied by histopathological change. At study termination, increases in the incidence and severity of a chronic nephropathy in males from all exposure groups and in females exposed to 3000 and 8000 ppm was associated with secondary lesions of hyperplasia of the parathyroid and mineralization of tissues. Renal tubular cell tumors were increased in male rats exposed to 3000 and 8000 ppm. This may be associated with an accumulation of protein (stainable by Mallory's Heidenhain) in kidney tubular epithelial cells after 4 weeks of exposure. An increased incidence of interstitial cell adenomas of the testes was seen in males exposed to 3000 and 8000 ppm but was believed to be an artefact of an unusually low control incidence and not considered to be exposure related. Based on the above effects, the no-observed-effect level (NOEL) for chronic toxicity is 400 ppm, and the NOEL for carcinogenic effects is 3000 ppm (mice) and 400 ppm (rats).

Assessment of the in vivo mutagenic potential of methyl tertiary-butyl ether

Methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) is one of the highest production volume chemicals in the USA. Previous results from in vitro genetic toxicity studies suggested that it was not mutagenic. However, chronic exposure at high levels resulted in liver tumors in female mice and kidney tumors in male rats. The current program assessed in vivo genotoxicity and also explored the possibility that a mutagenic mechanism was involved in the carcinogenic process. The specific tests used included the Drosophila sex-linked-recessive-lethal test, the rat bone marrow cytogenetics test, the mouse bone marrow micronucleus test and the in vivo-in vitro hepatocyte unscheduled DNA synthesis test in the mouse. All tests produced negative results, indicating that the potential for in vivo mutagenic activity was low. These data also suggest that the tumorigenic activity was probably the result of a non-genotoxic process.

Developmental toxicity evaluation of methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) by inhalation in mice and rabbits

Pregnant CD-1 mice (30 per group) and female New Zealand White rabbits (15 per group) were exposed by inhalation to 0, 1000, 4000 and 8000 ppm methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) vapor for 6 h a day during gestational days (GD) 6-15 and 6-18, respectively. Maternal body weights, clinical observations and food consumption were recorded throughout gestation for both species. At scheduled euthanization (GD 18 for mice and GD 29 for rabbits), fetuses were weighed, sexed and examined for external, visceral (including craniofacial) and skeletal alterations. For both species, the pregnancy rate was high and equivalent across all groups; no pregnant animals died or aborted. There were no does that delivered early, but there were three mouse dams in the control group and two dams in the 4000 ppm group that delivered early and were removed from the study. In mice, maternal body weights, body weight gain, corrected maternal gestational weight change and food consumption were significantly reduced in mice at 8000 ppm. Hypoactivity and ataxia were observed in dams exposed to 4000 and 8000 ppm. Gestational parameters affected at 8000 ppm included post-implantation loss (due to increased late resorptions and dead fetuses) and altered sex ratio (decreased males); fetal body weights per litter were reduced at 4000 and 8000 ppm. There was a significantly increased incidence of cleft palate at 8000 ppm; this resulted in increased incidences of pooled external and visceral malformations and of total malformations at this exposure concentration. There were also treatment-related increases in the incidence of individual skeletal variations at 4000 and 8000 ppm. In rabbits, maternal weight gain and food consumption were significantly reduced at 4000 and 8000 ppm. Relative liver weights were also reduced at 8000 ppm. All gestational parameters were equivalent across all groups, including pre- and post-implantation loss, fetal sex ratios, litter size and fetal weights/litter. There was no evidence of treatment-related teratogenicity observed at any dose tested in rabbits. The no-observed-effect levels (NOELs) for maternal and developmental toxicity were both 1000 ppm in mice and 1000 ppm and at least 8000 ppm, respectively, in rabbits.

Oncogenicity studies of inhaled methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) in CD-1 mice and F-344 rats

Oncogenicity studies of methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) vapor were conducted in CD-1 mice and Fischer 344 rats. Fifty animals of each sex per species per group were exposed for 6 h a day, 5 days per week to 0 (control), 400, 3000 and 8000 ppm MTBE vapor in air for 18 months (mice) and 24 months (rats). Both species showed reversible central nervous system depression at 8000 ppm for the first week of exposure, which continued for mice for the study duration. For the 8000 ppm mice, reduced body weight gain and early mortality prior to terminal euthanasia were exposure related. In the males, these deaths appear to be due to exacerbation of uropathy or dysuria, which occurs spontaneously in this strain. Increases in absolute and relative liver (both sexes) and kidney weight (males only) were seen at 3000 and 8000 ppm and decreases in brain and spleen weights were also noted (the latter decreases were without microscopic lesions and occurred at 8000 ppm only). An increase in hepatocellular hypertrophy occurred in both sexes at the two highest concentrations. The only neoplastic lesion found in this study in mice was an increased incidence of hepatocellular adenomas in females at the 8000 ppm exposure. In a follow-up study, a statistically significant elevation of cell proliferation in female mouse liver has been shown to occur following 5 days, but not 28 days, of exposure to 8000 ppm MTBE, suggesting that MTBE induces mitogenesis. For male rats, early euthanasia was required at week 82 and week 97 for the 8000 and 3000 ppm groups, respectively, due to excessive mortality from a severe progressive nephrosis. The end stage of this process appeared earlier in the male rats of all MTBE exposure groups; the incidence of this lesion and mortality for exposed females was comparable to control females. No exposure-related changes in hematological parameters were observed for any group at any time point, but a decrease in corticosterone levels was seen for male rats from the 8000 ppm group. Absolute and relative kidney and liver weight increases occurred in 3000 and 8000 ppm exposure groups, but the liver weight change was not accompanied by histopathological change. At study termination, increases in the incidence and severity of a chronic nephropathy in males from all exposure groups and in females exposed to 3000 and 8000 ppm was associated with secondary lesions of hyperplasia of the parathyroid and mineralization of tissues. Renal tubular cell tumors were increased in male rats exposed to 3000 and 8000 ppm. This may be associated with an accumulation of protein (stainable by Mallory's Heidenhain) in kidney tubular epithelial cells after 4 weeks of exposure. An increased incidence of interstitial cell adenomas of the testes was seen in males exposed to 3000 and 8000 ppm but was believed to be an artefact of an unusually low control incidence and not considered to be exposure related. Based on the above effects, the no-observed-effect level (NOEL) for chronic toxicity is 400 ppm, and the NOEL for carcinogenic effects is 3000 ppm (mice) and 400 ppm (rats).

Two-generation reproductive toxicity study of methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) in rats

A two-generation reproductive toxicity study of methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) was conducted in Sprague-Dawley rats. Twenty-five rats of each sex (F0) were exposed by inhalation to 0, 400, 3000 or 8000 ppm MTBE vapor, 6 h a day for 10 weeks prior to mating. Parental animals were then mated within groups for up to 3 weeks. Parental females were exposed during mating, gestation and lactation (starting on day 5); parental males were exposed during mating through delivery of their last litter sired. The F1 adults were selected from the F1 litters and were exposed beginning on postnatal day 28 for at least 8 weeks before mating to produce F2 litters. During exposures to 3000 and 8000 ppm MTBE, group observations included hypoactivity and lack of startle reflex in parental animals from both generations. Parental animals at 8000 ppm were also ataxic. During the pre-mating period, body weights of the 8000 ppm males from both generations and the F1 females were significantly reduced compared to control animals. Transient body weight reduction was also observed in the 3000 ppm F1 males and females during the pre-mating period. Lactational body weights were increased in the 8000 ppm females from both generations. In the F1 generation, increased liver weights were noted in the 3000 and 8000 ppm animals for both sexes, although histopathological examination revealed no treatment-related effects. There were no treatment-related reproductive effects noted in any of the parameters measured in this study. Offspring survival was equivalent among treated and control groups from both generations, and there were no remarkable post-mortem findings. There was, however, a significant increase in dead F2 pups in the 8000 ppm group on postnatal day 4. The F1 litters at 3000 and 8000 ppm had lowered body weights from postnatal days 14-21 and 14-28, respectively. The F2 generation of pups at 3000 and 8000 ppm also exhibited lowered body weights from postnatal days 14-28 and 7-28, respectively. Body weight gains in both the F1 and F2 litters were also reduced for the corresponding time intervals. Thus, exposure to MTBE vapor produced no reproductive toxicity to two generations of Sprague-Dawley rats even in the presence of parental toxicity at 3000 and 8000 ppm. Postnatal toxicity was observed in the offspring of both generations, but only in the presence of maternal toxicity. The no-observed-effect level (NOEL) for both parental and postnatal toxicity is 400 ppm, and the NOEL for reproductive toxicity is at least 8000 ppm.

Pharmacokinetics and disposition of methyl t-butyl ether in Fischer-344 rats

Methyl t-butyl ether (MTBE) is a commonly used octane booster in gasoline. This study examines the pharmacokinetics and disposition of MTBE in Fischer-344 rats after i.v., oral, dermal and inhalation routes of administration. Groups of male and female rats were given single i.v. (40 mg kg-1), oral (40 and 400 mg kg-1) and dermal (40 and 400 mg kg-1 in occluded chambers) doses of [14C]MTBE. For inhalation studies, rats were exposed nose-only for 6 h to low (400 ppm), high (8000 ppm) and repeated daily 6-h low (400 ppm x 15 days) chamber concentrations of [14C]MTBE. Blood, expired air, and excreta (urine and feces) were collected at selected times up to 7 days post-dose and quantified for 14C content. Plasma concentrations of MTBE and t-butyl alcohol (TBA) were quantified and mean values used for pharmacokinetic analysis. The mean total recoveries of 14C ranged from 91 to 105%. Methyl t-butyl ether was rapidly and completely absorbed after oral and inhalation exposures; dermal absorption was low. After all routes, MTBE was rapidly eliminated from blood (ti = 0.5 h) by exhalation and metabolism to TBA. At the high doses, metabolism was saturated and the proportion of renal 14C excretion decreased relative to the pulmonary route. At 48 h post-exposure, virtually all of the 14C was eliminated. The major metabolites recovered in urine were 2-methyl-1,2-propanediol and alpha-hydroxyisobutyric acid. There were no significant gender or route-dependent differences in the pharmacokinetics and disposition of MTBE.

Evaluation of 13-week inhalation toxicity study on methyl t-butyl ether (MTBE) in Fischer 344 rats

Methyl-t-butyl ether (MTBE) is widely used as an octane enhancing agent in gasoline. A 13-week inhalation study was conducted in Fischer 344 rats to provide information on potential target organs and toxicity of MTBE, and to ascertain a no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) for MTBE. Male and female Fischer 344 rats were exposed to target doses of MTBE vapor of 0, 800, 4000 and 8000 ppm for 6 h a day, 5 days per week for 13 weeks: MTBE produced no mortalities. At 8000 ppm, males and females showed a decrease in body weights compared to controls. The only notable effect on clinical observation was ataxia at 8000 ppm, which was apparent during the first 4 weeks of treatment. Mild hematological and clinical chemistry changes were observed in the 8000 ppm group. At 8000 ppm, animals showed increased serum levels of corticosteroids, which suggest some stress-like effect. At necropsy, there were no treatment-related gross lesions. Absolute and relative organ weights (liver, adrenals and kidneys) were increased in both sexes at 4000 and 8000 ppm, but there were no microscopic lesions in these tissues with the exception of the kidney. Microscopic examination of other tissues revealed no effects with the exception that at 8000 ppm, male rats showed: mild increased size of hyaline droplets within the kidney, mild increase in hemosiderosis in the spleen and higher incidence of hyperplasia in the lymph nodes. The highest NOAEL was judged at 800 ppm.

Neurotoxicological evaluation of methyl tertiary-butyl ether in rats

Methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) is an oxygenate that is added to gasoline to boost octane and enhance combustion, thereby reducing carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon tailpipe emissions. The acute and subchronic neurotoxicity of MTBE were evaluated in rats using a functional observation battery (FOB), measures of motor activity (MA) and a neuropathological evaluation. In the acute study, rats were exposed once to 0, 800, 4000 or 8000 ppm MTBE by inhalation for 6 h and then evaluated three times over a 24-h period. In the FOB evaluations, treatment-related effects were seen at the 1-h session immediately following exposure and were indicative of transient central nervous system (CNS) depression. Effects were most apparent in the high-dose group (8000 ppm) but were also evident to a lesser extent in the mid-dose (4000 ppm) group. Labored respiration, ataxia, duck-walk gait and decreases in muscle tone, hind-limb grip strength and treadmill performance were the most frequently noted findings. No significant effects were observed in the FOB when testing was conducted at 6 h and 24 h post-exposure. The pattern of motor activity measured in the different dose groups following exposure was also in keeping with a reversible CNS-depressant effect of MTBE. In the subchronic study, rats were exposed to 0, 800, 4000 or 8000 ppm MTBE for 6 h a day, 5 days per week, for 13 weeks. No persistent or cumulative effects on neurobehavioral function were found. Body weights and absolute brain weights were reduced in the 8000 ppm group, however there were no differences among groups when brain weight was expressed relative to body weight. No histopathological changes were noted in the brains or peripheral nervous tissues of MTBE-exposed animals. In summary, MTBE produced signs of acute reversible CNS depression following exposure to 8000 ppm and, to a lesser extent, to 4000 ppm vapor. The no-observed-adverse-effect level for these effects was 800 ppm in the present study. No persistent or cumulative neurotoxic effects were observed following exposure to MTBE at concentrations up to 8000 ppm for 13 weeks.

Radiosensitivity of Listeria monocytogenes Using Split Dose Application of Gamma Irradiation †

The purpose of this study was to determine if split dose application of gamma radiation would alter the radiosensitivity of L. monocytogenes . Concentrations of 10⁶ and 10⁹ CFU L. monocytogenes per ml were suspended in tryptic soy broth and exposed to 0 to 5 kGy gamma radiation at 20, 4, and -80°C with equal split doses at 0- to 2-h time intervals (times between fractions, TBFs). Regression analyses of survival plots were used to calculate irradiation D values. Irradiation D values for split doses with 1- and 2-h TBFs were significantly lower than the control value and the values for 0.25- and 0.50-h TBFs (P < .05) at 20°C but this was not true at 4 or - 80°C With 1- and 2-h TBFs at 20°C the bacterium was near its generation time of 1.2 h, possibly accounting for the increased sensitivity. Results of this study indicated that split dose application increased the sensitivity of Listeria under certain conditions and that further investigation into this method is warranted.

Subchronic inhalation studies of styrene in CD rats and CD-1 mice

Groups of 10 male and 10 female Charles River (CRL) CD (Sprague-Dawley-derived) rats were exposed to styrene vapor at 0, 200, 500, 1000, or 1500 ppm 6 hr per day 5 days per week for 13 weeks. Styrene had no effect on survival, hematology, or clinical chemistry. Males at 1500 ppm weighed 10% less after 13 weeks and males and females at 1000 and 1500 ppm consumed more water than controls. Histopathologic changes were confined to the olfactory epithelium of the nasal mucosa. Groups of 20 male and 20 female CRL CD-1 and B6C3F1 mice were exposed to styrene vapor at 0, 15, 60, 250, or 500 ppm 6 hr per day 5 days per week for 2 weeks. Mortality was observed in both CD-1 and B6C3F1 mice exposed to 250 or 500 ppm; more female mice, but not males, died from exposure to 250 ppm than from 500 ppm. Groups of 10 male and 10 female CRL CD-1 mice were exposed to styrene vapors at 0, 50, 100, 150, or 200 ppm 6 hr per day 5 days per week for 13 weeks. Two females exposed to 200 ppm died during the first week. Liver toxicity was evident in the decedents and in some female survivors at 200 ppm. Changes were observed in the lungs of mice exposed to 100, 150, or 200 ppm and in the nasal passages of all treatment groups, those exposed to 50 ppm being less affected. Satellite groups of 15 male rats and 30 male mice were exposed as described above for 2, 5, or 13 weeks for measurement of cell proliferation (BrdU labeling). No increase in cell proliferation was found in liver of rats or mice or in cells of the bronchiolar or alveolar region of the lung of rats. No increase in labeling index of type II pneumocytes was seen in mouse lungs, while at 150 and 200 ppm, an increased labeling index of Clara cells was seen after 2 weeks and in occasional mice after 5 weeks. Large variations in the labeling index among animals emphasize the need for large group sizes. For nasal tract effects, a NOAEL was not found in CD-1 mice, but in CD rats, the NOAEL was 200 ppm. For other effects, the NOAEL was 500 ppm in rats and 50 ppm in mice.

Effects of propylene oxide on nasal epithelial cell proliferation in F344 rats

In chronic inhalation studies, propylene oxide (PO), widely used in the chemical and food industries, induced nasal tumors in F344 rats. Nonneoplastic findings of the chronic studies suggest a strong cytotoxic and proliferative component in the mechanism of PO carcinogenicity. A 4-week cell proliferation study was conducted to establish a no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) for nonneoplastic changes in the nasal epithelium of rats. Male F344 rats were exposed to 0, 10, 20, 50, 150, or 525 ppm PO vapor for up to 4 weeks with up to 4 weeks of recovery. Histopathology showed that the incidence and severity of respiratory epithelial hyperplasia increased with exposure time and regressed after termination of exposure with complete recovery after 4 weeks. Similarly, cell proliferation, as determined by bromodeoxyuridine incorporation into replicating cells, was elevated following 1 and 4 weeks of exposure but decreased to control values after 1 week of recovery. Degeneration of the olfactory epithelium was found after 4 weeks of exposure with a decrease in incidence and severity after termination of exposure. Cell proliferation at this site was elevated during the 4-week exposure period and 1 week postexposure with return to control values after 4 weeks of recovery. Based on the cytotoxic and proliferative findings, the NOAEL for PO in nasal epithelium is 50 ppm.

Subchronic inhalation toxicity of methanol

The subchronic inhalation toxicity of methanol was evaluated in rats and monkeys. Animals were exposed to 0, 500, 2000, and 5000 ppm methanol vapor for 6 h/d, 5 d/w, for 4 wk. The only treatment-and dose-related effect noted was that of mucoid nasal discharge in rats, which was considered reflective of upper respiratory tract irritation. No consistent treatment-related effects were found for organ or body weights or for histopathologic or ophthalmoscopic examinations. Overall, these findings support the use of the present American Council of Governmental Industrial Hygienists threshold limit value (TLV) of 200 ppm and short-term exposure limit (STEL) of 250 ppm for exposure to methanol vapor.

Review of the toxicity of multifunctional acrylates

Multifunctional acrylates and methacrylates (MFA) represent a class of materials with considerable chemical reactivity that are used in many applications with opportunity for contact exposure. They represent appreciable eye and skin contact hazards, and several members of the class may be absorbed from skin to cause systemic effects. A number of MFAs have been identified as sensitizers. While the acute toxicity of MFAs is certain, the effects of repeated or chronic exposure are less clear. Data are presented that suggest that MFAs are not appreciable fetotoxic or teratogenic hazards and do not elicit a strong carcinogenic response following chronic dermal exposure. The use of these data for product safety purposes and research needs is discussed.

Androgen receptor-mediated genetic differences in 2-acetylaminofluorene and dimethylnitrosamine mutagenesis in vitro

When 2-acetylaminofluorene and dimethylnitrosamine mutagenesis rates in the Salmonella/liver in vitro system were studied with C3H/HeJ mouse kidney or liver postmitochondrial supernatant (S-9) fractions, sex differences (male much greater than female) of 10- to 30-fold were found in kidney but not liver. We examined male mice castrated during the neonatal period, the Tfm/Y male, and dihydrotestosterone-treated female mice. The requirement of both testosterone and the androgen receptor is shown to be important in causing the sex difference in 2-acetylaminofluorene and dimethylnitrosamine mutagenesis in the kidney. Swank et al. [J Mol Biol 81:225-243 (1973)] demonstrated that dihydrotestosterone induces beta-glucuronidase activity in the female kidney: 28- to 30-fold in BALB/cJ and SM/J, 12-fold in C3H/HeJ, and 5- to 6-fold in C57BL/6J and RF/J inbred mice. This gene regulation has been characterized and named the Gur locus. 2-Acetylaminofluorene mutagenesis--in kidney but not liver--is markedly enhanced by dihydrotestosterone (P less than 0.01) in the first three, but not the latter three, inbred strains. Covalent binding of 2-acetylaminofluorene metabolites to DNA in the presence of kidney S-9 fractions in vitro is greatly increased in the BALB/cJ but not C57BL/6J female mouse pretreated with dihydrotestosterone. These data suggest that genetic differences at the Gur locus, in combination with the androgen receptor, may play an important role in the sex-specific and tissue-specific conversion of an O-glucuronide of N-hydroxy-2-acetylaminofluorene or N-hydroxy-aminofluorene to active mutagenic intermediates.

Differing degrees of coal-tar shampoo-induced mutagenesis in the Salmonella/liver test system in vitro

Hexane extracts of four commercial preparations of coal tar shampoos were studied for their mutagenic properties in the Salmonella/liver test system in vitro. Three of the four shampoos were highly mutagenic, whereas the fourth was not - under our experimental conditions. By high-performance liquid chromatographic, gas-liquid chromatographic, and gas-liquid chromatography-mass spectrometric analyses, more than 35 distinct fractions could be resolved; seven polycyclic aromatic chemicals believed to be present in coal tar were tentatively assigned as the major component of some of these fractions. The shampoo extract that was most mutagenic had a greater number of distinct fractions and contained approximately 50 times more benzo[a]pyrene, compared with the one shampoo extract that was not mutagenic under our experimental conditions. The possible clinical hazards of this observed mutagenicity of certain coal tar shampoos are presently not known.

Production of a dimer of 2-acetylaminofluorene during the sulfation of N-hydroxy-2-acetylaminofluorene in vitro

During the sulfation of N-hydroxy-2-acetylaminofluorene (NOH-2AAF) by rat liver 100,000 g supernatant fraction in vitro, an unidentified metabolite is produced which accounts for 22% of the N-OH-2AAF metabolized. This product has been characterized as the 2AAF dimer, 1-(N-2'-fluorenylacetamido-2-acetylaminofluorene) by comparing its TLC, HPLC, UV, and mass spectral properties with a synthetic standard which was prepared from the reaction of N-acetoxy-2-acetylaminofluorene (N-AcO-2AAF) with 2AAF. Increasing amounts of 2AAF added to the incubation mixture of N-OH-[acetyl-14C]2AAF and rat liver 100,000 g supernatant fraction decreased the irreversible binding of 14C to protein, and increased the formation of 2AAF dimer proportionately. This suggests that the 2AAF dimer is formed from the reaction of 2AAF and the electrophilic species produced from the sulfated N-OH-2AAF. In the presence of the 9,000 g fraction of rat liver, the dimer of 2AAF was aroximately 1/25 as active as 2AAF in producing mutations in the Salmonella mutagenesis test system.

Kinetic evidence for multiple chemically reactive intermediates in the breakdown of phenacetin N-O-glucuronide

N-hydroxyphenacetin glucuronide has been previously shown to be an unstable compound (half-life 8.7 h) that breaks down to phenacetin, 2-hydroxyphenacetin glucuronide, acetaminophen, acetamide, and a deethylated metabolite that covalently binds to protein. Evidence was presented that the acetamide, acetaminophen and a compound that binds covalently were formed from a common intermediate which was postulated to be N-acetylimidoquinone. In the presence of phosphate buffer, 3-hydroxyphenacetin phosphate is formed at the expense of acetaminophen, acetamide and covalent binding. Phosphate buffer, however, only partially blocks covalent binding to protein suggesting that two deethylated reactive metabolites are formed that can covalently bind to protein. These metabolites also may be converted to acetaminophen but only one of them leads to acetamide. Since the phosphate conjugate contains the ethyl group apparently a third reactive intermediate, which can react with phosphate but not with protein, serves as a precursor of one of the metabolites.

Characterization and induction of aryl hydrocarbon (benzo(a)pyrene) hydroxylase in rabbit bone marrow

Benzo(a)pyrene hydroxylase activity was found in the bone marrow of control and 3MC-induced New Zealand white rabbits. This activity was localized in the microsomal fraction, was NADPH dependent and CO sensitive. The reaction was inhibited by 7,8-benzoflavone indicating that it was mediated by the 3MC-inducible form of cytochrome P-450. BP hydroxylase activity in rabbit bone marrow was located primarily in white cells, and was considerably higher than that previously reported for cultured human lymphocytes and monocytes. A possible role for the bone marrow mixed-function oxygenase in the production of hemopoietic toxicity is considered.