Randomized Phase 3 trial demonstrating high efficacy, favourable safety and convenience of a novel calcipotriol and betamethasone dipropionate cream for the treatment of psoriasis

BACKGROUND

The fixed dose combination of calcipotriene (CAL) and betamethasone dipropionate (BDP) is a well-established topical treatment option for psoriasis based on strong scientific rationale for the single agents having complementary efficacy and safety. CAL/BDP PAD-cream is an easily spreadable cream based on PAD Technology™, an innovative formulation and drug delivery system.

OBJECTIVES AND METHODS

A Phase 3, multicentre, randomized, investigator-blind, active and vehicle-controlled trial enrolling 490 patients with mild to moderate psoriasis according to the Physician Global Assessment (PGA) scale was conducted in three European countries. Products were applied once daily for 8 weeks. The aim of the trial was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of CAL/BDP PAD-cream as well as treatment acceptability compared to CAL/BDP gel and PAD-cream vehicle. Primary endpoint was percentage change in modified Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (mPASI) from baseline to Week 8.

RESULTS

The percentage mean change from baseline to Week 8 in mPASI for CAL/BDP PAD-cream (67.5%) was superior compared to PAD-cream vehicle (11.7%; p < 0.0001) and non-inferior to CAL/BDP gel (63.5%). The proportion of patients achieving PGA treatment success (at least two-step improvement to clear or almost clear) after 8 weeks was superior for CAL/BDP PAD-cream (50.7%) compared to PAD-cream vehicle (6.1%, p < 0.0001) and statistically significantly greater than CAL/BDP gel (42.7%, p = 0.0442). Patient-reported psoriasis treatment convenience score (PTCS) for CAL/BDP PAD-cream was rated superior to CAL/BDP gel at Week 8 (p < 0.0001) and the mean change in DLQI from baseline to Week 8 improved statistically significantly more in the CAL/BDP PAD-cream group compared to both PAD-cream vehicle (p < 0.0001) and CAL/BDP gel (p = 0.0110). Safety assessments during the trial demonstrated that CAL/BDP PAD-cream was well-tolerated.

CONCLUSION

CAL/BDP PAD-cream is a novel topical treatment of psoriasis that has a high efficacy and a favourable safety profile combined with a superior patient-reported treatment convenience.

Osteoporosis identification among previously undiagnosed individuals with vertebral fractures

Because osteoporosis is under-recognized in patients with vertebral fractures, we evaluated characteristics associated with osteoporosis identification. Most patients with vertebral fractures did not receive evaluation or treatment for osteoporosis. Black, younger, and male participants were particularly unlikely to have had recognized osteoporosis, which could increase their risk of negative outcomes.

INTRODUCTION

Vertebral fractures may be identified on imaging but fail to prompt evaluation for osteoporosis. Our objective was to evaluate characteristics associated with clinical osteoporosis recognition in patients who had vertebral fractures detected on their thoracolumbar spine imaging reports.

METHODS

We prospectively identified individuals who received imaging of the lower spine at primary care clinics in 4 large healthcare systems who were eligible for osteoporosis screening and lacked indications of osteoporosis diagnoses or treatments in the prior year. We evaluated characteristics of participants with identified vertebral fractures that were associated with recognition of osteoporosis (diagnosis code in the health record; receipt of bone mineral density scans; and/or prescriptions for anti-osteoporotic medications). We used mixed models to estimate adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs).

RESULTS

A total of 114,005 participants (47% female; mean age 65 (interquartile range: 57-72) years) were evaluated. Of the 8579 (7%) participants with vertebral fractures identified, 3784 (44%) had recognition of osteoporosis within the subsequent year. In adjusted regressions, Black participants (OR (95% CI): 0.74 (0.57, 0.97)), younger participants (age 50-60: 0.48 (0.42, 0.54); age 61-64: 0.70 (0.60, 0.81)), and males (0.39 (0.35, 0.43)) were less likely to have recognized osteoporosis compared to white participants, adults aged 65 + years, or females.

CONCLUSION

Individuals with identified vertebral fractures commonly did not have recognition of osteoporosis within a year, particularly those who were younger, Black, or male. Providers and healthcare systems should consider efforts to improve evaluation of osteoporosis in patients with vertebral fractures.

Long-term effectiveness of epidural steroid injections after new episodes of low back pain in older adults

BACKGROUND

There is limited research on the long-term effectiveness of epidural steroid injections (ESI) in older adults despite the high prevalence of back and leg pain in this age group. We tested the hypotheses that older adults undergoing ESI, compared to patients not receiving ESI: 1) have worse pain, disability and quality of life ("outcomes") pre-ESI, 2) have improved outcomes after ESI, and 3) have improved outcomes due to a specific ESI effect.

METHODS

We prospectively studied patients ≥65 years old presenting to primary care with new episodes of back pain in three US healthcare systems (BOLD registry). Outcomes were leg and back pain intensity, disability and quality of life, assessed at baseline and 3-, 6-, 12- and 24-month follow-ups. We categorized participants as: 1) ESI within 6 months from the index visit (n=295); 2) no ESI within 6 months (n=4,809); 3) no ESI within 6 months, propensity-score matched to group 1 (n=483). We analyzed the data using linear regression and Generalized Estimating Equations.

RESULTS

Pain intensity, disability and quality of life at baseline were significantly worse at baseline in ESI patients (group 1) than in group 2. The improvement from baseline to 24 months in all outcomes was statistically significant for group 1. However, no statistically significant differences were observed between outcome trajectories for the propensity-score matched groups 1 and 3.

CONCLUSIONS

Older adults treated with ESI have long-term improvement. However, the improvement is unlikely the result of a specific ESI effect.

A pooled analysis of randomized, controlled, phase 3 trials investigating the efficacy and safety of a novel, fixed dose calcipotriene and betamethasone dipropionate cream for the topical treatment of plaque psoriasis

BACKGROUND

Plaque psoriasis is a common, chronic and relapsing inflammatory skin disease clinically characterized by erythema and scaling desquamation. As over 90% of psoriasis patients benefit from topical therapies, local treatments continue to play an eminent role in management strategies. One such topical treatment is the fixed dose combination of calcipotriol (CAL) and betamethasone dipropionate (BDP).

OBJECTIVES

Pooled analysis of two different phase 3 clinical trails to compare superiority regarding efficacy, safety and quality of life (QoL) between CAL/BDP PAD-cream and CAL/BDP TS.

METHODS

The data from two phase 3, multicentre, randomized, investigator-blind, active and vehicle-controlled trials enrolling patients with psoriasis were pooled and analysed. Investigational products included a CAL/BDP cream based on PAD™ Technology (PAD-cream) designed for high skin penetration and increased patient preference, an active control (marketed CAL/BDP topical suspension/gel, in the following abbreviated as CAL/BDP TS) and cream vehicle, which were applied once daily for 8 weeks.

RESULTS

Efficacy and safety of the novel CAL/BDP PAD-cream formulation for the topical treatment of psoriasis demonstrated superiority for all efficacy end points after 8 weeks of treatment. PGA treatment success for CAL/BDP PAD-cream (43.2%) was greater than CAL/BDP TS (31.9%; P < 0.0001), the mean per cent reduction in mPASI for CAL/BDP PAD-cream was 64.6% compared to 56.4% for CAL/BDP TS (P < 0.0001) and DLQI 0/1 was obtained by 43.8% in the CAL/BDP PAD-cream group versus 34.2% in the CAL/BDP TS group (P = 0.0005). There was no adverse drug reaction reported with a frequency of >1%, associated with the CAL/BDP PAD-cream.

CONCLUSIONS

The novel fixed dose combination CAL/BDP PAD-cream offers greater efficacy, superior patient QoL and equivalent favourable safety for the topical treatment of psoriasis, in comparison to the currently available topical suspension/gel.

Efficacy and safety of fixed-dose combination calcipotriol/betamethasone dipropionate foam for the treatment of psoriasis

The fixed-dose combination calcipotriol (Cal; 50 µg/g) plus betamethasone dipropionate (BD; 0.5 mg/g) ointment and gel formulations have well-established efficacy profiles in the treatment of psoriasis vulgaris (chronic plaque psoriasis); this combination has been shown to produce favourable outcomes versus either monotherapy. To improve upon the efficacy and cosmetic acceptability of these treatments Cal/BD foam was developed, demonstrating superior efficacy in Phase II/III studies compared with either of its monocomponents, Cal/BD ointment, Cal/BD gel and various other therapies for the treatment of psoriasis. Multiple outcome measures were evaluated in the clinical studies, including physician's global assessment of disease severity and modified psoriasis area and severity index. Of note, 38-55% of patients across studies achieved a physician's global assessment of 'clear' or 'almost clear' after 4 weeks of Cal/BD treatment. This superior efficacy was not associated with an increased frequency or severity of adverse events, and there was no evidence for dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis or calcium homeostasis. Overall, Cal/BD foam was efficacious, with a good tolerability profile consistent with established Cal/BD formulations.

Itch relief in patients with psoriasis: effectiveness of calcipotriol plus betamethasone dipropionate foam

BACKGROUND

Itch is common in psoriasis, adversely affecting health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and sleep.

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated the efficacy of topical fixed-dose combination calcipotriol 50 μg/g plus betamethasone dipropionate 0.5 mg/g cutaneous foam (Cal/BD foam) on itch, itch-related sleep loss and HRQoL vs. foam vehicle.

METHODS

We pooled data from three Phase II/III trials (NCT01536886/NCT01866163/NCT02132936) of Cal/BD foam vs. foam vehicle in adults with mild-severe psoriasis. For itch-related analyses, patients with baseline itch visual analogue scale (VAS) >40 (range 0-100) were analysed. Outcomes included the following: itch VAS reduction >40, ≥70% improvement in itch (Itch70) or itch-related sleep loss, 75% improvement in modified Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (excluding head; mPASI75) and Dermatology Life Quality Index (DLQI) scores 0/1 through 4 weeks.

RESULTS

Of 837 patients, 800 had baseline itch VAS >0 (Cal/BD foam, n = 610; foam vehicle, n = 190); 484 had baseline itch VAS >40. There was no correlation between itch VAS score and mPASI at baseline (R²  = 0.021). In patients with baseline itch VAS >40, more patients achieved itch VAS reduction >40 in the active vs. vehicle group from Day 5 onwards (Day 5: 57.5% vs. 40.2% [P < 0.05]; Week 4: 83.0% vs. 45.8% [P < 0.001]). More Cal/BD-foam-treated patients achieved Itch70 at Day 3 (34.2% vs. 22.5%; P < 0.05) through to Week 4 (79.3% vs. 38.1%; P < 0.001). In patients with baseline itch VAS >40 and sleep loss >20, improvements in itch-related sleep loss occurred at Week 1 and continued through 4 weeks. Itch-related improvements occurred before improvements in mPASI75. There were significant differences in the proportion of Cal/BD-foam- vs. foam-vehicle-treated patients with baseline DLQI >10 (n = 172 vs. n = 50) achieving DLQI ≤1 (25.0% vs. 4.0%; P = 0.001) and DLQI 0 (17.4% vs. 2.0%; P = 0.006) at Week 4.

CONCLUSION

Compared with foam vehicle, Cal/BD foam offers more rapid and effective itch relief, with associated significant improvements in sleep and DLQI.

Itch: an under-recognized problem in psoriasis

Psoriasis has historically been considered a nonpruritic dermatosis, in contrast with atopic dermatitis. Thus, itch has often been underappreciated and overlooked in psoriasis. However, increasing evidence over the past decade has shown that itch can be one of the most prevalent and burdensome symptoms associated with psoriasis, affecting almost every patient to some degree. Itch can involve the entire body, although it predominantly affects the legs, hands, back, body and especially the scalp. Uncontrolled itch can significantly impact all aspects of the well-being and quality of life of the patient. While there has been some progress in trying to better understand the pathophysiology of itch in psoriasis, more research effort and interest are needed. This under-recognition of itch in psoriasis is clearly reflected in the dearth of treatment options targeting itch despite significant advancement in treating the lesions themselves. Recently, however, clinical studies have begun to include itch as a study outcome. The resulting data have demonstrated concomitant antipruritic benefits and improved Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI) scores with mainstay treatments for psoriasis, such as topical corticosteroids and vitamin D analogs, phototherapies, and various systemics and biologics. This article takes a closer look at this debilitating symptom, reviewing the available epidemiology data for psoriatic itch, presenting the current understanding of psoriatic itch pathophysiology and highlighting important clinical data for various treatment options for itch. Practical considerations for increasing the recognition of itch as well as improving its management in psoriasis are also provided.

Calcipotriol plus betamethasone dipropionate aerosol foam provides superior efficacy vs. gel in patients with psoriasis vulgaris: randomized, controlled PSO-ABLE study

Background

Fixed combination calcipotriol 50 μg/g (Cal) plus betamethasone 0.5 mg/g (BD) foam has been developed as a new treatment option for patients with psoriasis.

Methods

The randomized, parallel‐group, investigator‐blinded Phase III, 12‐week PSO‐ABLE study compared the efficacy and safety of Cal/BD foam with Cal/BD gel. Patients aged ≥18 years with mild‐to‐severe psoriasis were randomized 4:4:1:1 to once‐daily Cal/BD foam, Cal/BD gel, foam vehicle or gel vehicle (NCT02132936). The primary efficacy endpoint was the proportion of patients who were clear/almost clear with a ≥ 2 grade improvement according to the physician's global assessment of disease severity (i.e. treatment success) at week 4 for Cal/BD foam vs. week 8 for Cal/BD gel. Secondary efficacy endpoints included: proportion of patients achieving at least a 75% reduction in modified psoriasis area and severity index (mPASI75), and time to treatment success (TTTS). Safety was monitored throughout.

Results

A total of 463 patients were randomized: Cal/BD foam (n = 185), Cal/BD gel (n = 188), foam vehicle (n = 47), gel vehicle (n = 43); overall completion rate was 90%. Cal/BD foam achieved higher treatment success rates (38% vs. 22%; P < 0.001) and mPASI75 (52% vs. 35%; P < 0.001) by week 4 than Cal/BD gel by week 8. Median TTTS with Cal/BD foam was 6 weeks; this could not be determined for Cal/BD gel as 50% treatment success was not achieved (P < 0.001). Adverse drug reactions were reported in 14 (7.6%) Cal/BD aerosol foam patients and 7 (3.7%) Cal/BD gel patients; all were single events except for itch with Cal/BD aerosol foam (n = 5; 2.7%) and worsening psoriasis with Cal/BD gel (n = 3; 1.6%).

Conclusion

Cal/BD aerosol foam showed significantly greater efficacy after 4 weeks, than 8 weeks of treatment with Cal/BD gel, with similar tolerability.

Ivermectin 1% cream for rosacea

The etiology of papulopustular rosacea (PPR) is not well understood yet appears to involve both the innate and adaptive immune response in addition to possible infestation with Demodex mites. Current treatments for PPR consist mainly of antibiotics. Ivermectin cream 1%, a new topical treatment for PPR, possesses both anti-inflammatory and anti-parasitic properties. After 12 weeks of treatment, subjects treated with ivermectin cream 1% had significantly greater reductions in PPR symptoms and enhanced diseaserelated quality of life improvements compared to subjects who received vehicle. Furthermore, PPR symptoms continued to improve with prolonged treatment (40 weeks). Ivermectin cream 1% offers a multi-pronged approach to combat the complex pathophysiology of rosacea.

Systemic autoimmune disease mortality and occupational exposures

OBJECTIVE

To generate hypotheses regarding occupational exposures that may cause systemic autoimmune diseases.

METHODS

Based on examination of US death certificates, we identified deaths in 26 states for which a cause was listed as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) (n = 36,178), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) (n = 7,241), systemic sclerosis (n = 5,642), or other systemic autoimmune disease (n = 4,270). Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were calculated to estimate associations between occupation and death from any systemic autoimmune disease, and from RA, SLE, and systemic sclerosis, specifically. Additionally, we estimated risks associated with occupational exposures, which were assigned using job-exposure matrices.

RESULTS

A broad array of occupations was associated with death from systemic autoimmune diseases, including several of a priori interest. Farming occupation was associated with death from any systemic autoimmune disease (OR 1.3 [95% CI 1.2-1.4]), and increased risk was also seen with occupational exposure to animals and pesticides. Several industrial occupations were associated with death from any systemic autoimmune disease, including mining machine operators (OR 1.3 [95% CI 1.1-1.5]), miscellaneous textile machine operators (OR 1.2 [95% CI 1.0-1.4]), and hand painting, coating, and decorating occupations (OR 1.8 [95% CI 1.0-2.9]). These occupations were also significantly associated with death from the specific autoimmune diseases examined. Certain occupations entailing exposure to the public, such as teachers, were associated with systemic autoimmune disease-related death, whereas others, such as waiters and waitresses, were not.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that death from systemic autoimmune diseases may be associated with occupational exposures encountered in farming and industry. The hypotheses generated in this study provide leads for future research on determinants of these diseases.

Compendium of chemical carcinogens by target organ: results of chronic bioassays in rats, mice, hamsters, dogs, and monkeys

A compendium of carcinogenesis bioassay results organized by target organ is presented for 738 chemicals that are carcinogenic in chronic-exposure, long-term bioassays in at least 1 species. This compendium is based primarily on experiments in rats or mice; results in hamsters, monkeys, and dogs are also reported. The compendium can be used to identify chemicals that induce tumors at particular sites and to determine whether target sites are the same for chemicals positive in more than 1 species. The source of information is the Carcinogenic Potency Database (CPDB). which includes results of 6073 experiments on 1458 chemicals (positive or negative for carcinogenicity) that have been reported in Technical Reports of the National Cancer Institute/National Toxicology Program or in papers in the general published literature. The published CPDB includes detailed analyses of each test and citations. The CPDB is publicly available in several formats (http://potency.berkeley.edu). Chemical carcinogens are reported for 35 different target organs in rats or mice. Target organs in humans are also summarized for 82 agents that have been evaluated as human carcinogens at a particular target site by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Comparisons are provided of target organs for mutagens versus nonmutagens and rats versus mice.

Paracelsus to parascience: the environmental cancer distraction

Entering a new millennium seems a good time to challenge some old ideas, which in our view are implausible, have little supportive evidence, and might best be left behind. In this essay, we summarize a decade of work, raising four issues that involve toxicology, nutrition, public health, and government regulatory policy. (a) Paracelsus or parascience: the dose (trace) makes the poison. Half of all chemicals, whether natural or synthetic, are positive in high-dose rodent cancer tests. These results are unlikely to be relevant at the low doses of human exposure. (b) Even Rachel Carson was made of chemicals: natural vs. synthetic chemicals. Human exposure to naturally occurring rodent carcinogens is ubiquitous, and dwarfs the general public's exposure to synthetic rodent carcinogens. (c) Errors of omission: micronutrient inadequacy is genotoxic. The major causes of cancer (other than smoking) do not involve exogenous carcinogenic chemicals: dietary imbalances, hormonal factors, infection and inflammation, and genetic factors. Insufficiency of many micronutrients, which appears to mimic radiation, is a preventable source of DNA damage. (d) Damage by distraction: regulating low hypothetical risks. Putting huge amounts of money into minuscule hypothetical risks damages public health by diverting resources and distracting the public from major risks.

Supplement to the Carcinogenic Potency Database (CPDB): results of animal bioassays published in the general literature in 1993 to 1994 and by the National Toxicology Program in 1995 to 1996

The Carcinogenic Potency Database (CPDB) is a systematic and unifying analysis of results of chronic, long-term cancer tests. This paper presents a supplemental plot of the CPDB, including 513 experiments on 157 test compounds published in the general literature in 1993 and 1994 and in Technical Reports of the National Toxicology Program in 1995 and 1996. The plot standardizes the experimental results (whether positive or negative for carcinogenicity), including qualitative data on strain, sex, route of compound administration, target organ, histopathology, and author's opinion and reference to the published paper, as well as quantitative data on carcinogenic potency, statistical significance, tumor incidence, dose-response curve shape, length of experiment, duration of dosing, and dose rate. A numerical description of carcinogenic potency, the TD(subscript)50(/subscript), is estimated for each set of tumor incidence data reported. When added to the data published earlier, the CPDB now includes results of 5,620 experiments on 1,372 chemicals that have been reported in 1,250 published papers and 414 National Cancer Institute/National Toxicology Program Technical Reports. The plot presented here includes detailed analyses of 25 chemicals tested in monkeys for up to 32 years by the National Cancer Institute. Half the rodent carcinogens that were tested in monkeys were not carcinogenic, despite usually strong evidence of carcinogenicity in rodents and/or humans. Our analysis of possible explanatory factors indicates that this result is due in part to the fact that the monkey studies lacked power to detect an effect compared to standard rodent bioassays. Factors that contributed to the lack of power are the small number of animals on test; a stop-exposure protocol for model rodent carcinogens; in a few cases, toxic doses that resulted in stoppage of dosing or termination of the experiment; and in a few cases, low doses administered to monkeys or early termination of the experiment even though the doses were not toxic. Among chemicals carcinogenic in both monkeys and rodents, there is some support for target site concordance, but it is primarily restricted to liver tumors. Potency values are highly correlated between rodents and monkeys. The plot in this paper can be used in conjunction with the earlier results published in the CRC Handbook of Carcinogenic Potency and Genotoxicity Databases [Gold LS, Zeiger E, eds. Boca Raton FL:CRC Press, 1997] and with our web site (http://potency.berkeley.edu), which includes a guide to the plot of the database, a complete description of the numerical index of carcinogenic potency (TD50), and a discussion of the sources of data, the rationale for the inclusion of particular experiments and particular target sites, and the conventions adopted in summarizing the literature. Two summary tables permit easy access to the literature of animal cancer tests by target organ and by chemical. For readers using the CPDB extensively, a combined plot on diskette or other format is available from the first author. It includes all results published earlier and in this paper, ordered alphabetically by chemical. A SAS database is also available.

The causes and prevention of cancer: the role of environment

The idea that synthetic chemicals such as DDT are major contributors to human cancer has been inspired, in part, by Rachel Carson's passionate book, Silent Spring. This chapter discusses evidence showing why this is not true. We also review research on the causes of cancer, and show why much cancer is preventable. Epidemiological evidence indicates several factors likely to have a major effect on reducing rates of cancer: reduction of smoking, increased consumption of fruits and vegetables, and control of infections. Other factors are avoidance of intense sun exposure, increases in physical activity, and reduction of alcohol consumption and possibly red meat. Already, risks of many forms of cancer can be reduced and the potential for further reductions is great. If lung cancer (which is primarily due to smoking) is excluded, cancer death rates are decreasing in the United States for all other cancers combined. Pollution appears to account for less than 1% of human cancer; yet public concern and resource allocation for chemical pollution are very high, in good part because of the use of animal cancer tests in cancer risk assessment. Animal cancer tests, which are done at the maximum tolerated dose (MTD), are being misinterpreted to mean that low doses of synthetic chemicals and industrial pollutants are relevant to human cancer. About half of the chemicals tested, whether synthetic or natural, are carcinogenic to rodents at these high doses. A plausible explanation for the high frequency of positive results is that testing at the MTD frequently can cause chronic cell killing and consequent cell replacement, a risk factor for cancer that can be limited to high doses. Ignoring this greatly exaggerates risks. Scientists must determine mechanisms of carcinogenesis for each substance and revise acceptable dose levels as understanding advances. The vast bulk of chemicals ingested by humans is natural. For example, 99.99% of the pesticides we eat are naturally present in plants to ward off insects and other predators. Half of these natural pesticides tested at the MTD are rodent carcinogens. Reducing exposure to the 0.01% that are synthetic will not reduce cancer rates. On the contrary, although fruits and vegetables contain a wide variety of naturally-occurring chemicals that are rodent carcinogens, inadequate consumption of fruits and vegetables doubles the human cancer risk for most types of cancer. Making them more expensive by reducing synthetic pesticide use will increase cancer. Humans also ingest large numbers of natural chemicals from cooking food. Over a thousand chemicals have been reported in roasted coffee: more than half of those tested (19/28) are rodent carcinogens. There are more rodent carcinogens in a single cup of coffee than potentially carcinogenic pesticide residues in the average American diet in a year, and there are still a thousand chemicals left to test in roasted coffee. This does not mean that coffee is dangerous but rather that animal cancer tests and worst-case risk assessment, build in enormous safety factors and should not be considered true risks. The reason humans can eat the tremendous variety of natural chemical "rodent carcinogens" is that humans, like other animals, are extremely well protected by many general defense enzymes, most of which are inducible (i.e., whenever a defense enzyme is in use, more of it is made). Since the defense enzymes are equally effective against natural and synthetic chemicals one does not expect, nor does one find, a general difference between synthetic and natural chemicals in ability to cause cancer in high-dose rodent tests. The idea that there is an epidemic of human cancer caused by synthetic industrial chemicals is false. In addition, there is a steady rise in life expectancy in the developed countries. Linear extrapolation from the maximum tolerated dose in rodents to low level exposure in humans has led to grossly exaggerated mortality forecasts. Such extrapo

The prevention of cancer

1. The major causes of cancer are as follows: (a) Smoking: about a third of U.S. cancer (90% of lung cancer). (b) Dietary imbalances, e.g., lack of dietary fruits and vegetables: The quarter of the population eating the least fruits and vegetables has double the cancer rate for most types of cancer compared to the quarter eating the most; micronutrients may account for much of the protective effect of fruits and vegetables. Excess calories may also contribute to cancer. (c) Chronic infections: mostly in developing countries. (d) Hormonal factors influenced by life-style. 2. There is no epidemic of cancer, except for lung cancer due to smoking. Cancer mortality rates have declined 16% since 1950 (excluding lung cancer and adjusted for the increased life span of the population). 3. Regulatory policy that is focused on traces of synthetic chemicals is based on misconceptions about animal cancer tests. Recent research contradicts these ideas: (a) Rodent carcinogens are not rare. Half of all chemicals tested in standard high-dose animal cancer tests, whether occurring naturally or produced synthetically, are "carcinogens." (b) There are high-dose effects in these rodent cancer tests that are not relevant to low-dose human exposures and which can explain the high proportion of carcinogens. (c) Though 99.9% of the chemicals humans ingest are natural, the focus of regulatory policy is on synthetic chemicals. Over 1000 chemicals have been described in coffee: 27 have been tested and 19 are rodent carcinogens. Plants that we eat contain thousands of natural pesticides which protect plants from insects and other predators: 64 have been tested and 35 are rodent carcinogens. 4. There is no convincing evidence that synthetic chemical pollutants are important for human cancer. Regulations that try to eliminate minuscule levels of synthetic chemicals are enormously expensive: EPA estimates that total expenditures on environmental regulations cost $140 billion/year. It has been estimated by others that the United States spends 100 times more to prevent one hypothetical, highly uncertain death from a synthetic chemical than it spends to save a life by medical intervention. Attempting to reduce tiny hypothetical risks also has costs; for example, if reducing synthetic pesticides makes fruits and vegetables more expensive, thereby decreasing consumption, then cancer will be increased. 5. Improved health will come from knowledge due to biomedical research and from life-style changes by individuals. Little money is spent on biomedical research or on educating the public about lifestyle hazards, compared to the cost of regulations.

What do animal cancer tests tell us about human cancer risk?: Overview of analyses of the carcinogenic potency database

Many important issues in carcinogenesis can be addressed using our Carcinogenic Potency Database, which analyzes and standardizes the literature of chronic carcinogenicity tests in laboratory animals. This review is an update and overview of our analyses during the past 15 years, using the current database that includes results of 5152 experiments on 1298 chemicals. We address the following: 1. More than half the 1298 chemicals tested in long-term experiments have been evaluated as carcinogens. We describe this positivity rate for several subsets of the data (including naturally occurring and synthetic chemicals), and we hypothesize and important role in the interpretation of results for increased cell division due to administration of high doses. 2. Methodological issues in the interpretation of animal cancer tests: constraints on the estimation of carcinogenic potency and validity problems associated with using the limited data from bioassays to estimate human risk, reproducibility of results in carcinogenesis bioassays, comparison of lifetable and summary methods of analysis, and summarizing carcinogenic potency when multiple experiments on a chemical are positive. 3. Positivity is compared in bioassays for two closely related species, rats and mice, tested under similar experimental conditions. We assess what information such a comparison can provide about interspecies extrapolation. 4. Rodent carcinogens induce tumors in 35 different target organs. We describe the frequency of chemicals that induce tumors in rats or mice at each target site, and we compare target sites of mutagenic and nonmutagenic rodent carcinogens. 5. A broad perspective on evaluation of possible cancer hazards from rodent carcinogens is given, by ranking 74 human exposures (natural and synthetic) on the HERP indes.

Environmental pollution, pesticides, and the prevention of cancer: misconceptions

The major causes of cancer are: 1) smoking, which accounts for about a third of U.S. cancer and 90% of lung cancer; 2) dietary imbalances: lack of sufficient amounts of dietary fruits and vegetables. The quarter of the population eating the fewest fruits and vegetables has double the cancer rate for most types of cancer than the quarter eating the most; 3) chronic infections, mostly in developing countries; and 4) hormonal factors, influenced primarily by lifestyle. There is no cancer epidemic except for cancer of the lung due to smoking. Cancer mortality rates have declined by 16% since 1950 (excluding lung cancer). Regulatory policy that focuses on traces of synthetic chemicals is based on misconceptions about animal cancer tests. Recent research indicates that rodent carcinogens are not rare. Half of all chemicals tested in standard high-dose animal cancer tests, whether occurring naturally or produced synthetically, are "carcinogens"; there are high-dose effects in rodent cancer tests that are not relevant to low-dose human exposures and which contribute to the high proportion of chemicals that test positive. The focus of regulatory policy is on synthetic chemicals, although 99.9% of the chemicals humans ingest are natural. More than 1000 chemicals have been described in coffee: 28 have been tested and 19 are rodent carcinogens. Plants in the human diet contain thousands of natural "pesticides" produced by plants to protect themselves from insects and other predators: 63 have been tested and 35 are rodent carcinogens. There is no convincing evidence that synthetic chemical pollutants are important as a cause of human cancer. Regulations targeted to eliminate minuscule levels of synthetic chemicals are enormously expensive: the Environmental Protection Agency has estimated that environmental regulations cost society $140 billion/year. Others have estimated that the median toxic control program costs 146 times more per hypothetical life-year saved than the median medical intervention. Attempting to reduce tiny hypothetical risks has other costs as well: if reducing synthetic pesticides makes fruits and vegetables more expensive, thereby decreasing consumption, then the cancer rate will increase, especially for the poor. The prevention of cancer will come from knowledge obtained from biomedical research, education of the public, and lifestyle changes made by individuals. A reexamination of priorities in cancer prevention, both public and private, seems called for.

The causes and prevention of cancer: gaining perspective

Epidemiological studies have identified several factors that are likely to have a major effect on reducing rates of cancer: reduction of smoking, increased consumption of fruits and vegetables, and control of infections. Other factors include avoidance of intense sun exposure, increased physical activity, and reduced consumption of alcohol and possibly red meat. Risks of many types of cancer can already be reduced, and the potential for further reductions is great. In the United States, cancer death rates for all cancers combined are decreasing, if lung cancer (90% of which is due to smoking), is excluded from the analysis. We review the research on causes of cancer and show why much cancer is preventable. The idea that traces of synthetic chemicals, such as DDT, are major contributors to human cancer is not supported by the evidence, yet public concern and resource allocation for reduction of chemical pollution are very high, in part because standard risk assessment uses linear extrapolation from limited data in high-dose animal cancer tests. These tests are done at the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) and are typically misinterpreted to mean that low doses of synthetic chemicals and industrial pollutants are relevant to human cancer. About half the chemicals tested, whether synthetic or natural, are carcinogenic to rodents at such high doses. Almost all chemicals in the human diet are natural. For example, 99.99% of the pesticides we eat are naturally present in plants to ward off insects and other predators. Half of the natural pesticides that have been tested at the MTD are rodent carcinogens. Cooking food produces large numbers of natural dietary chemicals. Roasted coffee, for example, contains more than 1000 chemicals: of 27 tested, 19 are rodent carcinogens. Increasing evidence supports the idea that the high frequency of positive results in rodent bioassays is due to testing at the MTD, which frequently can cause chronic cell killing and consequent cell replacement-a risk factor for cancer that can be limited to high doses. Because default risk assessments use linear extrapolation, which ignores effects of the high dose itself, low-dose risks are often exaggerated.

Trichloroethylene cancer risk: simplified calculation of PBPK-based MCLs for cytotoxic end points

Cancer risk assessments for trichloroethylene (TCE) based on linear extrapolation from bioassay results are questionable in light of new data on TCE's likely mechanism of action involving induced cytotoxicity, for which a threshold-type dose-response model may be more appropriate. Previous studies have shown that if a genotoxic mechanism for TCE is assumed, algebraic methods can considerably simplify the use of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models to estimate virtually safe environmental concentrations for humans based on rodent cancer-bioassay data. We show here how such methods can be extended to the case in which TCE is assumed to induce cancer via cytotoxicity, to estimate environmentally safe concentrations based on rodent toxicity data. These methods can be substituted for the numerical methods typically used to calculate PBPK-effective doses when these are defined as peak concentrations. We selected liver and kidney as plausible target tissues, based on an analysis of rodent TCE-bioassay data and on a review of related data bearing on mechanism. Tumor patterns in rodent bioassays are shown to be consistent with our estimates of PBPK-based, effective cytotoxic doses to mice and rats used in these studies. When used with a margin of exposure of 1000, our method yielded maximum concentration levels for TCE of 16 ppb (87 micrograms/m3) for TCE in air respired 24 hr/day, 700 ppb (3.8 mg/m3) for TCE in air respired for relatively brief daily periods (e.g., 0.5 hr while showering/bathing), and 210 micrograms/liter for TCE in drinking water assuming a daily 2-liter ingestion. Cytotoxic effective doses were also estimated for occupational respiratory exposures. These estimates indicate that the current OSHA permissible exposure limit for TCE would produce metabolite concentrations that exceed an acute no observed adverse effect level for hepatotoxicity in mice. On this basis, the OSHA TCE limit is not expected to be protective.

Concordance between rats and mice in bioassays for carcinogenesis

According to current policy, chemicals are evaluated for possible cancer risk to humans at low dose by testing in bioassays in which high doses of the chemical are given to rodents. Thus, risk is extrapolated from high dose in rodents to low dose in humans. The accuracy of these extrapolations is generally unverifiable because data on humans are limited. However, it is feasible to examine the accuracy of extrapolations from mice to rats. If mice and rats are similar with respect to carcinogenesis, this provides some evidence in favor of interspecies extrapolations; conversely, if mice and rats are different, this casts doubt on the validity of extrapolations from mice to humans. One measure of interspecies agreement is concordance, the percentage of chemicals that are classified the same way as to carcinogenicity in mice and rats. Observed concordance in National Cancer Institute/National Toxicology Program bioassays is about 75%, which may seem on the low side because mice and rats are closely related species tested under the same experimental conditions. However, observed concordance could underestimate true concordance due to measurement error in the bioassays-a possibility demonstrated by Piegorsch et al. (Risk Anal. 12, 115-121, 1992). Expanding on this work, we show that the bias in observed concordance can be either positive or negative: an observed concordance of 75% can arise if the true concordance is anything between 20 and 100%. In particular, observed concordance can seriously overestimate true concordance.

Sixth plot of the carcinogenic potency database: results of animal bioassays published in the General Literature 1989 to 1990 and by the National Toxicology Program 1990 to 1993

This paper presents two types of information from the Carcinogenic Potency Database (CPDB): (a) the sixth chronological plot of analyses of long-term carcinogenesis bioassays, and (b) an index to chemicals in all six plots, including a summary compendium of positivity and potency for each chemical (Appendix 14). The five earlier plots of the CPDB have appeared in this journal, beginning in 1984 (1-5). Including the plot in this paper, the CPDB reports results of 5002 experiments on 1230 chemicals. This paper includes bioassay results published in the general literature between January 1989 and December 1990, and in Technical Reports of the National Toxicology Program between January 1990 and June 1993. Analyses are included on 17 chemicals tested in nonhuman primates by the Laboratory of Chemical Pharmacology, National Cancer Institute. This plot presents results of 531 long-term, chronic experiments of 182 test compounds and includes the same information about each experiment in the same plot format as the earlier papers: the species and strain of test animal, the route and duration of compound administration, dose level and other aspects of experimental protocol, histopathology and tumor incidence, TD50 (carcinogenic potency) and its statistical significance, dose response, author's opinion about carcinogenicity, and literature citation. We refer the reader to the 1984 publications (1,6,7) for a detailed guide to the plot of the database, a complete description of the numerical index of carcinogenic potency, and a discussion of the sources of data, the rationale for the inclusion of particular experiments and particular target sites, and the conventions adopted in summarizing the literature. The six plots of the CPDB are to be used together since results of individual experiments that were published earlier are not repeated. Appendix 14 is designed to facilitate access to results on all chemicals. References to the published papers that are the source of experimental data are reported in each of the published plots. For readers using the CPDB extensively, a combined plot is available of all results from the six separate plot papers, ordered alphabetically by chemical; the combined plot in printed form or on computer tape or diskette is available from the first author. A SAS database is also available.

Quick estimate of the regulatory virtually safe dose based on the maximum tolerated dose for rodent bioassays

With a limited subset of National Cancer Institute/National Toxicology Program (NCI/NTP) bioassays, Gaylor (Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 9, 101-108, 1989) showed that the regulatory virtually safe dose (VSD), corresponding to an estimated lifetime cancer risk of less than 10(-6), could be estimated within a factor of 10 simply by dividing the maximum tolerated dose (MTD), estimated from the results of a 90-day study, by 380,000. The purpose of this current study was to extend the analysis to all carcinogens in the Carcinogenic Potency Database (CPDB) utilizing the TD50 (average daily dose rate in mg/kg body wt/day that was estimated to halve the probability of remaining tumor-free at a specified tissue site throughout a 2-year study). Using the relationship between the upper bound on the low-dose slope (q1*) and the TD50 reported by Krewski et al. (Risk Anal. 13, 383-398, 1993) and the ratio of the maximum dose tested (Max-D)/TD50 obtained in our present analysis, an estimate of the regulatory VSD was given by the MTD/740,000, for NCI/NTP rodent carcinogens. This was about a factor of two lower than the limited analysis conducted by Gaylor. There was little difference when the chemicals were divided into mutagens and nonmutagens. Ninety-six percent (134 of the 139 NCI/NTP rodent carcinogens) of the regulatory VSDs calculated from the individual TD50s obtained from the 2-year bioassays were within a factor of 10 of the MTD/740,000.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The causes and prevention of cancer

Epidemiological evidence indicates that avoidance of smoking, increased consumption of fruits and vegetables, and control of infections will have a major effect on reducing rates of cancer. Other factors include avoidance of intense sun exposure, increases in physical activity, and reduction of alcohol consumption and possibly red meat. A substantial reduction in breast cancer is likely to require modification of sex hormone levels, and development of practical methods for doing so is a high research priority. Resolution of the potential protective roles of specific antioxidants and other constituents of fruits and vegetables deserves major attention. Mechanistic studies of carcinogenesis indicate an important role of endogenous oxidative damage to DNA that is balanced by elaborate defense and repair processes. Also key is the rate of cell division, which is influenced by hormones, growth, cytotoxicity, and inflammation, as this determines the probability of converting DNA lesions to mutations. These mechanisms may underlie many epidemiologic observations.

Heterocyclic amines formed by cooking food: comparison of bioassay results with other chemicals in the Carcinogenic Potency Database

Results in the Carcinogenic Potency Database (CPDB) on 11 mutagenic heterocyclic amines (HA) tested for carcinogenicity in rats, mice and cynomolgus monkeys are compared to results for other chemicals. An analysis of strength of evidence of carcinogenicity for HA vs. other mutagenic carcinogens and vs. all rodent carcinogens, indicates strong carcinogenicity of HA in terms of positivity rates and multiplicity of target sites. The liver is the most frequent target site in each species. Despite several target sites in each species, concordance in target sites between rats and mice is restricted to the liver for each HA except one. In cynomolgus monkeys, liver tumors have been induced rapidly by 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ). Human exposures to HA in cooked animal foods are small, in the low ppb range. A comparison of possible carcinogenic hazards from a variety of exposures to rodent carcinogens in the American diet is presented, using an index (Human Exposure/Rodent Potency, HERP) that relates human exposure to carcinogenic potency in rodents. Results indicate that there is a large background of exposures to naturally-occurring rodent carcinogens in typical portions of common foods, and that possible hazards from HA rank below those of most natural pesticides and products of cooking or food preparation; synthetic pesticide residues also rank low.

DNA lesions, inducible DNA repair, and cell division: three key factors in mutagenesis and carcinogenesis

DNA lesions that escape repair have a certain probability of giving rise to mutations when the cell divides. Endogenous DNA damage is high: 10(6) oxidative lesions are present per rat cell. An exogenous mutagen produces an increment in lesions over the background rate of endogenous lesions. The effectiveness of a particular lesion depends on whether it is excised by a DNA repair system and the probability that it gives rise to a mutation when the cell divides. When the cell divides, an unrepaired DNA lesion has a certain probability of giving rise to a mutation. Thus, an important factor in the mutagenic effect of an exogenous agent whether it is genotoxic or non-genotoxic, is the increment it causes over the background cell division rate (mitogenesis) in cells that appear to matter most in cancer, the stem cells, which are not on their way to being discarded. Increasing their cell division rate increases mutation and therefore cancer. There is little cancer from nondividing cells. Endogenous cell division rates can be influenced by hormone levels, decreased by calorie restriction, or increased by high doses of chemicals. If both the rate of DNA lesions and cell division are increased, then there will be a multiplicative effect on mutagenesis (and carcinogenesis), for example, by high doses of a mutagen that also increases mitogenesis through cell killing. The defense system against reactive electrophilic mutagens, such as the glutathione transferases, are also almost all inducible and buffer cells against increments in active forms of chemicals that can cause DNA lesions. A variety of DNA repair defense systems, almost all inducible, buffer the cell against any increment in DNA lesions. Therefore, the effect of a particular chemical insult depends on the level of each defense, which in turn depends on the past history of exposure. Exogenous agents can influence the induction and effectiveness of these defenses. Defenses can be partially disabled by lack of particular micronutrients in the diet (e.g., antioxidants).

How tautological are interspecies correlations of carcinogenic potencies?

Crouch and Wilson demonstrated a strong correlation between carcinogenic potencies in rats and mice, supporting the extrapolation from mouse to man. Bernstein et al., however, show that the observed correlation is mainly a statistical artifact of bioassay design. Crouch et al. have a comeback. This paper will review the arguments and present some new data. The correlation is largely (but not totally) tautological, confirming results in Bernstein et al.

Prediction of carcinogenicity from two versus four sex-species groups in the carcinogenic potency database

Prediction of a positive result in rodent carcinogenesis bioassays using two instead of four sex-species groups is examined for the subset of chemicals in the Carcinogenic Potency Database that have been tested in four sex-species groups and are positive in at least one (n = 212). Under the conditions of these bioassays, a very high proportion of rodent carcinogens that are identified as positive by tests in four groups is also identified by results from one sex of each species (86-92%). Additionally, chemicals that are classified as "two-species carcinogens" or "multiple-site carcinogens" on the basis of results from four sex-species groups are also identified as two-species or multiple-site carcinogens on the basis of two sex-species groups. Carcinogenic potency (TD50) values for the most potent target site are similar when based on results from two compared to four sex-species groups. Eighty-five percent of the potency values are within a factor of 2 of those obtained from tests in 4 sex-species groups, 94% are within a factor of 4, and 98% are within a factor of 10. This result is expected because carcinogenic potency values are constrained to a narrow range about the maximum dose tested in a bioassay, and the maximum doses administered to rats and mice are highly correlated and similar in dose level. Information that can be known in advance of a 2-yr bioassay (mutagenicity, class, route, and maximum dose to test) does not identify groups of rodent carcinogens for which four sex-species groups are required to identify carcinogenicity. The range of accurate prediction of carcinogenicity using only male rats and female mice is 93% among mutagens and 88% among nonmutagens; for various routes of administration, 88-100%; for various chemical classes, 75-100%; and for various levels of the maximum dose tested, 81-100%. Results are similar for the pair male rats and male mice. Using a strength of evidence approach, weaker carcinogens are somewhat less likely than stronger carcinogens to be identified by two sex-species groups. Strength of evidence is measured using the proportion of experiments on a chemical that are positive, the extent to which tumors occur in animals that die before terminal sacrifice, and whether the chemical induces tumors at more than one site and in more than one species.

The fifth plot of the Carcinogenic Potency Database: results of animal bioassays published in the general literature through 1988 and by the National Toxicology Program through 1989

This paper is the fifth plot of the Carcinogenic Potency Database (CPDB) that first appeared in this journal in 1984 (1-5). We report here results of carcinogenesis bioassays published in the general literature between January 1987 and December 1988, and in technical reports of the National Toxicology Program between July 1987 and December 1989. This supplement includes results of 412 long-term, chronic experiments of 147 test compounds and reports the same information about each experiment in the same plot format as the earlier papers: the species and strain of test animal, the route and duration of compound administration, dose level and other aspects of experimental protocol, histopathology and tumor incidence, TD50 (carcinogenic potency) and its statistical significance, dose response, author's opinion about carcinogenicity, and literature citation. We refer the reader to the 1984 publications (1,5,6) for a guide to the plot of the database, a complete description of the numerical index of carcinogenic potency, and a discussion of the sources of data, the rationale for the inclusion of particular experiments and particular target sites, and the conventions adopted in summarizing the literature. The five plots of the database are to be used together, as results of individual experiments that were published earlier are not repeated. In all, the five plots include results of 4487 experiments on 1136 chemicals. Several analyses based on the CPDB that were published earlier are described briefly, and updated results based on all five plots are given for the following earlier analyses: the most potent TD50 value by species, reproducibility of bioassay results, positivity rates, and prediction between species.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Comparison of target organs of carcinogenicity for mutagenic and non-mutagenic chemicals

A comparison of target organs for mutagens and non-mutagens is presented for 351 rodent carcinogens in the Carcinogenic Potency Database (CPDB) with mutagenicity evaluations in Salmonella. Results are consistent with the hypotheses that in high-dose rodent tests mitogenesis is important in the carcinogenic response for mutagens and non-mutagens alike, and that mutagens have a multiplicative interaction for carcinogenicity because they can both damage DNA directly and cause cell division at high doses. These hypotheses would lead one to expect several results that are found in the analysis: First, a high proportion of both mutagens and non-mutagens induce tumors in rodent bioassays at the MTD. Second, mutagens compared to non-mutagens are: (a) more likely to be carcinogenic; (b) more likely to induce tumors at multiple target sites; and (c) more likely to be carcinogenic in two species. Among carcinogens that induce tumors at multiple sites in both rats and mice, 81% are mutagens; in comparison, among carcinogens that are positive at only a single target site in one species and are negative in the other, 42% are mutagens. Since tissue distribution and pharmacokinetics would not be expected to differ systematically between mutagens and non-mutagens, one would not expect systematic differences in the particular organs in which tumors are induced. Results do not support the idea that mutagens and non-mutagens induce tumors in different target organs. Both mutagens and non-mutagens induce tumors in a wide variety of sites, and most organs are target sites for both. Moreover, the same sites tend to be the most common sites for both: 79% or more of both mutagenic and non-mutagenic carcinogens are positive in each species in at least one of the 8 most frequent target sites: liver, lung, mammary gland, stomach, vascular system, kidney, hematopoietic system and urinary bladder. Species differences are discussed as well as results for particular target organs: liver, Zymbal's gland and kidney.

Rodent carcinogens: setting priorities

The human diet contains an enormous background of natural chemicals, such as plant pesticides and the products of cooking, that have not been a focus of carcinogenicity testing. A broadened perspective that includes these natural chemicals is necessary. A comparison of possible hazards for 80 daily exposures to rodent carcinogens from a variety of sources is presented, using an index (HERP) that relates human exposure to carcinogenic potency in rodents. A similar ordering would be expected with the use of standard risk assessment methodology for the same human exposure values. Results indicate that, when viewed against the large background of naturally occurring carcinogens in typical portions of common foods, the residues of synthetic pesticides or environmental pollutants rank low. A similar result is obtained in a separate comparison of 32 average daily exposures to natural pesticides and synthetic pesticide residues in the diet. Although the findings do not indicate that these natural dietary carcinogens are important in human cancer, they cast doubt on the relative importance for human cancer of low-dose exposures to synthetic chemicals.

Four triggering factors in loudness adaptation

A factor analysis was used to determine whether induced loudness adaptation (Botte, Canevet, & Scharf, 1982; Scharf, 1983) and adaptation measured by Hood's (1950) classic Simultaneous Dichotic Loudness Balance technique (SDLB) would cluster on the same factors. The two phenomena did not cluster on the same factors; thus, induced adaptation cannot replace SDLB adaptation. Four independent factors that trigger auditory adaptation were identified in the factor analysis.

The Carcinogenic Potency Database: analyses of 4000 chronic animal cancer experiments published in the general literature and by the U.S. National Cancer Institute/National Toxicology Program

The Carcinogenic Potency Database (CPDB) is an easily accessible, standardized resource of positive and negative long-term animal cancer tests. The CPDB has been published in four earlier papers that include results for approximately 4000 experiments on 1050 chemicals. This paper describes the CPDB: goals, inclusion criteria, fields of information, and published plot format. It also presents an overview of our published papers using the CPDB. The CPDB as published in plot format readily permits comparisons of carcinogenic potency and many other aspects of cancer tests, including for each experiment the species and strain of test animals, the route and duration of compound administration, dose level and other aspects of experimental protocol, histopathology and tumor incidence, TD50 (carcinogenic potency) and its statistical significance, dose response, author's opinion about carcinogenicity, and literature citation. A combined plot of all results from the four separate papers, which is ordered alphabetically by chemical, is available from L. S. Gold, in printed form or on computer tape or diskette. A computer readable (SAS) database is also available. The overview of papers includes descriptions of work on methods of estimating carcinogenic potency, reproducibility of results in near-replicate cancer tests, correlation in potency between species, ranking possible carcinogenic hazards, comparison of positivity and target organ in rats and mice, comparison of mutagens and nonmutagens, proportion of chemicals positive in animal tests, natural compared to synthetic chemicals, and mechanistic issues in interspecies extrapolation.

Endogenous mutagens and the causes of aging and cancer

A very large oxidative damage rate to DNA occurs as part of normal metabolism. In each rat cell the steady-state level is estimated to be about 10(6) oxidative adducts and about 10(5) new adducts are formed daily. It is argued that this endogenous DNA damage is a major contributor to aging and the degenerative diseases of aging, such as cancer. The oxidative damage rate in mammalian species with a high metabolic rate, short life span, and high age-specific cancer rate is much higher than the rate in humans, a long-lived creature with a lower metabolic rate and a lower age-specific cancer rate. It is argued that deficiency of micronutrients, such as dietary antioxidants or folate, is a major contributor to human cancer and degenerative diseases. Understanding the role of mitogenesis in mutagenesis is critical for clarifying the mechanisms of carcinogenesis and interpreting high-dose animal cancer tests. High-dose animal cancer tests have been done mainly on synthetic industrial chemicals, yet almost all of the chemicals humans are exposed to are natural. About half of natural chemicals tested in high-dose animal cancer tests are rodent carcinogens, a finding that is consistent with the view that high-dose tests frequently increase mitogenesis rates. Animals have numerous defenses against toxins that make them very well buffered against low doses of almost all toxins, whether synthetic or natural.

Target organs in chronic bioassays of 533 chemical carcinogens

A compendium of carcinogenesis bioassay results organized by target organ is presented for 533 chemicals that are carcinogenic in at least one species. This compendium is based primarily on experiments in rats or mice; results in hamsters, nonhuman primates, and dogs are also reported. The compendium can be used to identify chemicals that induce tumors at particular sites, and to determine whether target sites are the same for chemicals positive in more than one species. The Carcinogenic Potency Database (CPDB), which includes results of 3969 experiments, is used in the analysis. The published CPDB includes details on each test, and literature references. Chemical carcinogens are reported for 35 different target organs in rats or mice. More than 80% of the carcinogens in each of these species are positive in at least one of the 8 most frequent target sites: liver, lung, mammary gland, stomach, vascular system, kidney, hematopoietic system, and urinary bladder. An analysis is presented of how well one can predict the carcinogenic response in mice from results in rats, or vice versa. Among chemicals tested in both species, 76% of rat carcinogens are positive in mice, and 71% of mouse carcinogens are positive in rats. Prediction is less accurate to the same target site: 52% of rat carcinogens are positive in the same site in mice, and 48% of mouse carcinogens are positive in the same site in rats. The liver is the most frequent site in common between rats and mice.

Chemical carcinogenesis: too many rodent carcinogens

The administration of chemicals at the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) in standard animal cancer tests is postulated to increase cell division (mitogenesis), which in turn increases rates of mutagenesis and thus carcinogenesis. The animal data are consistent with this mechanism, because a high proportion--about half--of all chemicals tested (whether natural or synthetic) are indeed rodent carcinogens. We conclude that at the low doses of most human exposures, where cell killing does not occur, the hazards to humans of rodent carcinogens may be much lower than is commonly assumed.