Cell shape regulates subcellular organelle location to control early Ca2+ signal dynamics in vascular smooth muscle cells

The shape of the cell is connected to its function; however, we do not fully understand underlying mechanisms by which global shape regulates a cell's functional capabilities. Using theory, experiments and simulation, we investigated how physiologically relevant cell shape changes affect subcellular organization, and consequently intracellular signaling, to control information flow needed for phenotypic function. Vascular smooth muscle cells going from a proliferative and motile circular shape to a contractile fusiform shape show changes in the location of the sarcoplasmic reticulum, inter-organelle distances, and differential distribution of receptors in the plasma membrane. These factors together lead to the modulation of signals transduced by the M3 muscarinic receptor/Gq/PLCβ pathway at the plasma membrane, amplifying Ca2+ dynamics in the cytoplasm, and the nucleus resulting in phenotypic changes, as determined by increased activity of myosin light chain kinase in the cytoplasm and enhanced nuclear localization of the transcription factor NFAT. Taken together, our observations show a systems level phenomenon whereby global cell shape affects subcellular organization to modulate signaling that enables phenotypic changes.

Effect of various adjuvants on the antibody response of mice to pneumococcal polysaccharides

Adjuvant effects on the serum antibody response to pneumococcal polysaccharide (pps) types 3 and 14 were studied in BALB/c mice. First, dose responses were established for the two pps types and were found to be entirely different. High (5 micrograms) and low (0.005 microgram) doses of pps 3 induced antigen-specific unresponsiveness and suppression, while 0.1 microgram induced an optimal response. The secondary response to a single dose of killed pneumococci or 0.1 microgram of pps 3 injected 2 weeks later was not higher than the primary response. Nu/Nu, athymic BALB/c mice showed high but not low dose tolerance to pps 3. In contrast, no convincing evidence for high dose tolerance to pps 14 was obtained: 25 micrograms of pps 14 induced an optimal response, whereas 0.2-0.5 microgram induced antigen-specific suppression. Secondary anti-pps 14 IgM and IgG responses, even after optimal primary doses, were only slightly higher than primary responses to a single dose of killed bacteria. Athymic BALB/c mice showed lower IgG antibody responses than euthymic mice to pps 14. Injection of detoxified endotoxin (D-LPS) 2-4 days after antigen enhanced both primary and secondary responses and reversed high dose tolerance induction. Injection of D-LPS also at least partially prevented the induction of low dose tolerance as did injection of interleukin-1, but normuramyl dipeptide (nor-MDP) failed to affect the responses to pps 3 and 14. Coupling of muramyl tripeptide to pps 3 rendered the pps more immunogenic. Administration of emulsified pps in squalene arlacel, particularly with nor-MDP incorporated in the mixture, appeared to induce a better 7S antibody response than did pps in saline, but these serum antibody levels were not sustained at a high level. Pretreatment with IgD or simultaneous injection of IgD with pps 14 enhanced both primary and secondary responses. The response to pps 3 was only slightly enhanced and low dose tolerance was not prevented by pretreatment with IgD.

Prevention by a platelet-derived factor (platelet factor 4) of induction of low dose tolerance to pneumococcal polysaccharides

It was previously shown that human or mouse serum, and platelet factor 4 (PF4) prepared from human platelet releasate, counteracts nonspecific immunosuppression induced in mice by injection of concanavalin A or syngeneic gamma-irradiated lymphoma cells. The present studies show that PF4 prepared from normal mouse or human serum by absorption to heparin-agarose and elution between 0.5 and 1.5 M NaCl is also active in this respect. The ability of PF4 to counteract antigen-specific suppression of the antibody response to pneumococcal polysaccharide (pps) was now studied. PF4 derived from human or mouse serum as well as recombinant PF4 interferes with induction of antigen-specific low dose tolerance when they are injected at the same time as a low dose (0.2 microgram) of type 14 pps 3 days before an optimal immunizing dose (25 micrograms). Furthermore, injection of platelet releasate at the time of an optimal primary immunizing dose of pps type 14 enhances the secondary response to killed bacteria injected 2 weeks later, but not the primary response itself. Both effects are interpreted as due to interference with antigen-specific suppressor cell induction during primary immunization. Injection of PF4 is much less effective in reversing low dose tolerance to an optimal immunizing dose (0.1 microgram) of type 3 pps induced by injection of 0.005 microgram of this antigen. Differences in the mechanism of tolerance induction for the two pps types that might be responsible for this are discussed.

Production of auto-anti-idiotypic antibody during the normal immune response. XII. Enhanced auto-anti-idiotypic antibody production as a mechanism for apparent B-cell tolerance in rabbits after feeding antigen

Rabbits fed trinitrophenylated bovine serum albumin (TNP-BSA) generated fewer anti-TNP plaque-forming cells but greater numbers of hapten (TNP)-augmentable IgM and IgG PFC following immunization with TNP-Ficoll or TNP-Brucella abortus than did animals not previously fed antigen. Spleen and mesenteric and bronchial lymph nodes were similarly affected. In addition more auto-anti-idiotype (Id) antibody (anti-anti-TNP) was eluted by hapten from spleen cells of antigen-fed rabbits than from spleen cells of control rabbits not prefed antigen. Gel filtration studies ruled out the possibility that the Id binding activity in the eluates was due to immune complexes. The isotype of the anti-Id was IgG except in one rabbit where it was IgM. The results are consistent with the interpretation that the production of auto-anti-Id antibody is one of the factors responsible for the specific depression of the IgM and IgG immune responses which follows antigen feeding. In contrast the antigen feeding resulted in priming for an IgA anti-TNP response without detectable hapten-augmentable IgA PFC.

Reversal of Con A-induced suppression by a platelet-derived factor which binds to activated suppressor T cells

A platelet-derived factor found in serum as well as in platelet releasate prepared either with calcium ionophore or with thrombin was shown to reverse Con A-induced suppression of the plaque forming cell (PFC) response to sheep erythrocytes (SRBC) in vivo in (CB6)F1 mice. In addition, as shown previously, lymphoma cell-induced suppression in SJL mice was similarly reversed. The factor could be injected prior to Con A on the day before SRBC injection, or on the same day as antigen with comparable results. It also enhanced PFC responses in the absence of Con A. Suppressor cell induction by Con A in vivo, as demonstrated by assay on PFC responses of normal spleen cells in vitro, was abrogated by simultaneous injection of the platelet factor. Cells from mouse spleen and lymph node, but not from thymus could absorb the factor from human serum at 4 degrees C. The phenotype of the relevant spleen cells was L3T4-, Ly1-, Ly2+, Thy1+, Ly22+, Qa1+, Qa4+, Qa5+, and Ly6.IE+. These results suggest that this factor binds to activated peripheral T cells of the suppressor cell phenotype.

Protease-induced immunoregulatory activity of platelet factor 4

Intravenous injection of human or mouse serum or platelet material secreted from appropriately stimulated platelets ("releasate") together with antigen alleviates the immunosuppression in SJL/J mice induced by injection of irradiated lymphoma cells or in (CB6)F1 mice induced by injection of concanavalin A. We now report that injection of releasate from 10(6) human platelets restores plaque-forming cells to the unsuppressed number; greater amounts increase responses further. Immunoregulatory activity is released from platelets exposed to thrombin in parallel with other alpha-granule components. Heparin-agarose absorbs activity. Purified platelet factor 4 (PF4) has activity; beta-thromboglobulin and platelet-derived growth factor have little or none. Activity in serum is neutralized by goat anti-human PF4. An enzymatic step is necessary for production of immunoregulatory activity. Releasates boiled immediately after platelet aggregation with 250 nM A23187 or those produced by adding A23187 in the presence of 100 microM serine protease inhibitor (p-amidinophenyl)methanesulfonyl fluoride (APMSF) are ineffective, whereas releasates boiled or mixed with APMSF after incubation for 60 min are active. Activity is generated by incubating a mixture of heparin-absorbed releasate (as enzyme source) and heparin-agarose eluate of releasate made in the presence of APMSF (as substrate source). The enzymatic step does not alter the heparin-neutralizing activity of PF4. Apparently a secreted platelet protease converts PF4 to a form with immunoregulatory activity.

Ability of chicken B cells from different compartments to respond to TNP-Ficoll

The responsiveness of chicken B cells from various compartments to T-independent antigens was studied by immune transfers of spleen and bursa cells into immunosuppressed recipients. Bursa cells from 8- to 10-wk-old donors failed to respond to trinitrophenylated Ficoll (TNP-F) even when thymus cells or splenic T cells were added. Spleen cells from the same donors transferred responses, as judged both by anti-TNP plaque-forming cells (PFC) per spleen and serum anti-TNP titers. In contrast, responses to TNP-Brucella abortus (TNP-BA) were transferred at least as well as by bursa as by spleen cells. Rabbit anti-chicken T cell serum plus complement treatment of the spleen cells reduced their ability to transfer responses to sheep erythrocytes, but either did not affect or enhanced serum antibody responses to TNP-BA and TNP-F. In intact animals, responsiveness to i.v. injected TNP-F was found to develop slowly after hatching in the chicken. At the age of 2 and 3 mo, PFC/spleen on day 4 after TNP-F injection were only 20% and 40%, respectively, of the adult response. Thymectomy at hatching further delayed this development, resulting in 12% and 45% of the adult control response at ages of 3 and 4 mo. It is concluded that responsiveness to the TI-2 antigen, TNP-F, develops slower than that to the TI-1 antigen, TNP-BA, and is restricted to the splenic B cell compartment. In addition, this development appears to be faster in the presence rather than in the absence of the thymus. In view of the previously shown effect of thymus on bursa development, these data suggest that the maturation of TI-1 antigen (TNP-F)-respondent chicken B cells requires residence in both the bursa and spleen before the development of responsiveness to such antigens.

Ability of chicken B cells from different compartments to respond to TNP-Ficoll

The responsiveness of chicken B cells from various compartments to T-independent antigens was studied by immune transfers of spleen and bursa cells into immunosuppressed recipients. Bursa cells from 8- to 10-wk-old donors failed to respond to trinitrophenylated Ficoll (TNP-F) even when thymus cells or splenic T cells were added. Spleen cells from the same donors transferred responses, as judged both by anti-TNP plaque-forming cells (PFC) per spleen and serum anti-TNP titers. In contrast, responses to TNP-Brucella abortus (TNP-BA) were transferred at least as well as by bursa as by spleen cells. Rabbit anti-chicken T cell serum plus complement treatment of the spleen cells reduced their ability to transfer responses to sheep erythrocytes, but either did not affect or enhanced serum antibody responses to TNP-BA and TNP-F. In intact animals, responsiveness to i.v. injected TNP-F was found to develop slowly after hatching in the chicken. At the age of 2 and 3 mo, PFC/spleen on day 4 after TNP-F injection were only 20% and 40%, respectively, of the adult response. Thymectomy at hatching further delayed this development, resulting in 12% and 45% of the adult control response at ages of 3 and 4 mo. It is concluded that responsiveness to the TI-2 antigen, TNP-F, develops slower than that to the TI-1 antigen, TNP-BA, and is restricted to the splenic B cell compartment. In addition, this development appears to be faster in the presence rather than in the absence of the thymus. In view of the previously shown effect of thymus on bursa development, these data suggest that the maturation of TI-1 antigen (TNP-F)-respondent chicken B cells requires residence in both the bursa and spleen before the development of responsiveness to such antigens.

A platelet-derived immunoregulatory serum factor with T cell affinity

A factor in mouse and human serum which enhances immune responses to SRBC and TNP-Ficoll in mice has been described. This factor completely reverses immunosuppression induced by syngeneic lymphoma (RCS) or allogeneic lymph node cells. T lymphocytes bind this factor, since the activity can be removed from serum by absorption with T cell containing spleen cells or cloned cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Furthermore, the factor is active only in the presence of mature T cells. Platelet alpha-granules seem to be the source of this serum factor because 1) the activity is lacking in plasma, in serum prepared in the absence of platelets, and in serum prepared from a patient lacking platelet alpha-granules and 2) isolated mouse or human platelets release an immunostimulatory factor with very similar properties upon incubation with thrombin.

A platelet-derived immunoregulatory serum factor with T cell affinity

A factor in mouse and human serum which enhances immune responses to SRBC and TNP-Ficoll in mice has been described. This factor completely reverses immunosuppression induced by syngeneic lymphoma (RCS) or allogeneic lymph node cells. T lymphocytes bind this factor, since the activity can be removed from serum by absorption with T cell containing spleen cells or cloned cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Furthermore, the factor is active only in the presence of mature T cells. Platelet alpha-granules seem to be the source of this serum factor because 1) the activity is lacking in plasma, in serum prepared in the absence of platelets, and in serum prepared from a patient lacking platelet alpha-granules and 2) isolated mouse or human platelets release an immunostimulatory factor with very similar properties upon incubation with thrombin.

Defective bursa regeneration after irradiation of young thymectomized chickens

The ability of the bursa of Fabricius to regenerate after gamma-irradiation and bone marrow reconstitution was examined in chickens thymectomized (TX) immediately after hatching. Irradiation (2 X 500 R) 3 weeks after hatching was followed by impaired bursa regeneration, as judged both by bursa/body weight ratios and by bursa follicle development 3-6 weeks later in TX as compared to control birds. Germinal center formation in the spleen was deficient, and immune responses to sheep erythrocytes (SRBC) and B. abortus (BA) were moderately reduced in the TX as compared to control birds irradiated at 3 weeks but not in TX birds irradiated at 5 weeks of age.

Effects of deoxycoformycin in mice. I. Suppression and enhancement of in vivo antibody responses to thymus-dependent and -independent antigens

The effect of 2'-deoxycoformycin (DCF) on the PFC responses of AKR mice to SE, TNP-Ficoll, and TNP-B. abortus was examined. Subcutaneous injection of DCF 4 days before antigen caused suppression of all three responses by 70 to 78%. In contrast, injection of DCF 1 day after antigen caused enhancement of both the anti-SE and the anti-TNP-Ficoll responses. Although a single high dose of cortisone acetate injected 4 days before antigen caused a similar suppression, the effect of DCF was not mediated via a steroid release, inasmuch as DCF also suppressed the immune response in adrenalectomized mice. The response of BALB/c mice to TNP-Ficoll was also inhibited by DCF pretreatment and enhanced by injection of DCF after antigen. In contrast, in athymic mice DCF caused suppression of the anti-TNP-Ficoll PFC response, whether injected before or after antigen. These results are interpreted as suggesting that DCF causes suppression primarily via an effect on B cells. The enhancement seen in normal but not in athymic mice may possibly be ascribed to an effect on suppressor T cells. Apparently the enhancement of both TD and TI responses caused by DCF injected 1 day after antigen in normal mice is the net result of these two opposing effects. The results imply that helper T cells are resistant to DCF.

Effects of deoxycoformycin in mice. I. Suppression and enhancement of in vivo antibody responses to thymus-dependent and -independent antigens

The effect of 2'-deoxycoformycin (DCF) on the PFC responses of AKR mice to SE, TNP-Ficoll, and TNP-B. abortus was examined. Subcutaneous injection of DCF 4 days before antigen caused suppression of all three responses by 70 to 78%. In contrast, injection of DCF 1 day after antigen caused enhancement of both the anti-SE and the anti-TNP-Ficoll responses. Although a single high dose of cortisone acetate injected 4 days before antigen caused a similar suppression, the effect of DCF was not mediated via a steroid release, inasmuch as DCF also suppressed the immune response in adrenalectomized mice. The response of BALB/c mice to TNP-Ficoll was also inhibited by DCF pretreatment and enhanced by injection of DCF after antigen. In contrast, in athymic mice DCF caused suppression of the anti-TNP-Ficoll PFC response, whether injected before or after antigen. These results are interpreted as suggesting that DCF causes suppression primarily via an effect on B cells. The enhancement seen in normal but not in athymic mice may possibly be ascribed to an effect on suppressor T cells. Apparently the enhancement of both TD and TI responses caused by DCF injected 1 day after antigen in normal mice is the net result of these two opposing effects. The results imply that helper T cells are resistant to DCF.

Regulation of immune responses in SJL and F1 hybrid mice by gamma-irradiated syngeneic lymphoma cells

Syngeneic mixed lymphocyte-stimulating la+ lymphomas of SJL mice [reticulum cell sarcoma(s) (RCS)] were found to modulate immune responses in vivo. Simultaneous injection of 2 X 10(7) gamma-irradiated or glutaraldehyde-fixed RCS cells with the antigen sheep red blood cells (SRBC) or 2,4,6-trinitrophenol (TNP)-Ficoll markedly suppressed the subsequent plaque-forming cell response in the spleen. The suppression of the anti-SRBC response was prevented by pretreatment of the mice with cyclophosphamide, whereas the suppression of the anti-TNP-Ficoll response was not affected. RCS injection induced high interferon serum titers within 24 hours after injection, which were not prevented by pretreatment with cyclophosphamide. Injection of gamma-irradiated RCS cells (gamma-RCS) or RCS cell extract 2 days prior to antigen enhanced the anti-SRBC but markedly suppressed the anti- TNP-Ficoll response. Injection of RCS both on day -2 and day 0 enhanced the anti-SRBC response. SJL mice 8-9 months of age showed much less or no suppression when gamma-RCS cells were injected on day 0. Certain F1 hybrids of SJL also showed the gamma-RCS-induced suppression of the anti-SRBC response. Suppression was seen in SJL X BALB.B but not in SJL X BALB/c mice and in SJL X A.TH but not in SJL X A.TL mice, suggesting an I-region effect. F1 hybrids of SJL by B10 background mice showed no significant suppression. Enhancement of the anti-SRBC response by prior injection of gamma-RCS was seen in all F1 hybrid mice examined.

Influence of lymphokines on the anti-TNP-Ficoll response of normal and X-linked B lymphocyte-defective mice

Immunodeficient CBA/N and F1 hybrids of CBA/N X SJL or DBA/2Ha mice were induced to make an antibody response to TNP-Ficoll by i.v. injections of lymphokines together with the antigen. The best responses (up to 12,000 PFC/spleen on day 4) were obtained by repeated i.v. lymphokine injections on days 0, 1, 2, and 3. Lymphokines obtained from PHA-stimulated LBRM-33 cells were less effective than those in supernatants (SN) from cocultures of SJL lymph node and gamma-RCS lymphoma cells, although in each case 100 U IL 2 were given per injection. Similar SN injections caused two- to threefold increases in responses of nondefective F1 hybrids. Pretreatment with lymphokine before TNP-Ficoll injection had no effect. Additional injection of monoclonal anti-IgD decreased the effect of lymphokine. Responses to TNP-Ficoll of CBA/J spleen cells were enhanced in vitro by SN as shown previously. Although responses by CBA/N spleen cells to TNP-polyacrylamide were increased by SN, however, responses to TNP-Ficoll could not be obtained with spleen cells from the xid mice in vitro.

Influence of lymphokines on the anti-TNP-Ficoll response of normal and X-linked B lymphocyte-defective mice

Immunodeficient CBA/N and F1 hybrids of CBA/N X SJL or DBA/2Ha mice were induced to make an antibody response to TNP-Ficoll by i.v. injections of lymphokines together with the antigen. The best responses (up to 12,000 PFC/spleen on day 4) were obtained by repeated i.v. lymphokine injections on days 0, 1, 2, and 3. Lymphokines obtained from PHA-stimulated LBRM-33 cells were less effective than those in supernatants (SN) from cocultures of SJL lymph node and gamma-RCS lymphoma cells, although in each case 100 U IL 2 were given per injection. Similar SN injections caused two- to threefold increases in responses of nondefective F1 hybrids. Pretreatment with lymphokine before TNP-Ficoll injection had no effect. Additional injection of monoclonal anti-IgD decreased the effect of lymphokine. Responses to TNP-Ficoll of CBA/J spleen cells were enhanced in vitro by SN as shown previously. Although responses by CBA/N spleen cells to TNP-polyacrylamide were increased by SN, however, responses to TNP-Ficoll could not be obtained with spleen cells from the xid mice in vitro.