Patterns of CYP26 expression in human prenatal cephalic and hepatic tissues indicate an important role during early brain development

CYP26 (P450RAI) catalyzes catabolic retinoic acid (RA) hydroxylation and thereby appears to play a critical role in retinoid signaling pathways during development. In this study, a quantitative competitive reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay was developed for evaluation of CYP26 message levels in human prenatal tissues. Statistical analyses of transcription levels in 12 prenatal human brains and six prenatal human livers demonstrated good sensitivity and reproducibility. Quantitative profiles of CYP26 gene expression in early (gestational days 57-110) prenatal cephalic and hepatic tissues and comparisons with adult counterparts are reported for the first time. Prenatal cephalic tissues at days 57-67 exhibited values of 1950+/-420 (CYP26 molecules/10(6) GAPDH molecules) whereas prenatal cephalic tissues at days 105-110 exhibited values of 22300+/-4450 (CYP26 molecules/10(6) GAPDH molecules), indicating a sharp developmental increase (approximately 11-fold). Levels in human adult cephalic tissues were slightly less than the prenatal cephalic levels measured during the earliest stages of gestation and were approximately 3-fold lower than those measured in adult human hepatic tissues. Levels in human prenatal hepatic tissues at days 63-110 gestation were less than 800 (CYP26 molecules/10(6) GAPDH molecules) and did not exhibit developmental increases. Considered together, the data have strong implications for the importance of CYP26 in early development of the human brain.

Catalysis of drug oxidation during embryogenesis in human hepatic tissues using imipramine as a model substrate

We investigated the catalysis of drug monooxygenation by human embryonic hepatic tissues at a very early stage of gestation (days 52-59). Imipramine was used as a model substrate and the metabolites generated were identified and quantified by electrospray mass spectroscopy and HPLC. The primary metabolite generated was desipramine. It was reported previously from this and other laboratories that cytochrome P-450 monooxygenase (CYP) 1A1, 1B1, 2E1, and 3A7 are each expressed in human embryonic hepatic tissues, and selective inhibitors were therefore used to elucidate their respective roles. Furafylline did not inhibit the reaction, supporting that CYP1A2 was not expressed in human embryonic hepatic tissues. Diethyldithiocarbamate also failed to inhibit the same reaction, suggesting that CYP2E1 did not play a significant role in catalyzing the reaction. Triacetyloleandomycin inhibited the reaction by approximately 90%, suggesting that CYP3A7 was primarily responsible for catalyzing the reaction. However, alpha-naphthoflavone inhibited the same reaction by approximately 70%, suggesting that CYP1A1 and/or CYP1B1 may also catalyze the reaction substantially. To explore this issue more, a cDNA-expressed human CYP3A7 (CYP3A7 SUPERSOMES) was incubated with alpha-naphthoflavone (1 microM). Generation of desipramine was inhibited by approximately 40 to 50%. The addition of the CYP3A subfamily selective inhibitor triacetyloleandomycin (1 microM) produced no statistically significant inhibition in reactions catalyzed by CYP1A1 or 1B1 SUPERSOMES. Taken together, the results indicated that CYP3A7 was the major if not sole isoform responsible for catalysis of the N-demethylation of imipramine in human hepatic tissues during embryogenesis.

Catalytic activity and quantitation of cytochrome P-450 2E1 in prenatal human brain

Cytochrome P-450 2E1 (CYP2E1) is a readily inducible hemoprotein that catalyzes the oxidation of endogenous compounds and many low molecular weight xenobiotics. As the major component of the microsomal ethanol oxidizing system, it contributes significantly to ethanol metabolism and the formation of the highly reactive metabolite acetaldehyde. The leaky property of this enzyme results in the generation of reactive oxygen species that can induce oxidative stress and cytotoxic conditions deleterious to development. To further investigate the proposed role of CYP2E1 in the etiology of alcohol teratogenesis, the current study focused on the quantification of CYP2E1 in prenatal human brain, a tissue that is highly vulnerable to the damaging effects of ethanol throughout gestation. In microsomal samples prepared from pools of brain tissues, immunoreactive protein was detected by Western blot analysis using enhanced chemiluminescence, whereas functional protein was estimated with an enzymatic assay using p-nitrophenol and an electrochemical detection system. CYP2E1 transcript was consistently detected in RNA samples prepared from individual brain tissues using the ribonuclease protection assay. Quantitative data were collected by scanning densitometry and phosphorimaging technology. There was a dramatic increase in human brain CYP2E1 content around gestational day 50 and a fairly constant level was maintained throughout the early fetal period, until at least day 113. The relatively low levels of the P-450 isoform present in conceptal brain may be sufficient to generate reactive intermediates that elicit neuroembryotoxicity following maternal alcohol consumption.

Inhibition of human prenatal biosynthesis of all-trans-retinoic acid by ethanol, ethanol metabolites, and products of lipid peroxidation reactions: a possible role for CYP2E1

Biotransformation of all-trans-retinol (t-ROH) and all-trans-retinal (t-RAL) to all-trans-retinoic acid (t-RA) in human prenatal hepatic tissues (53-84 gestational days) was investigated with HPLC using human adult hepatic tissues as positive controls. Catalysis of the biotransformation of t-ROH by prenatal human cytosolic fractions resulted in accumulation of t-RAL with minimal t-RA. Oxidations of t-ROH catalyzed by prenatal cytosol were supported by both NAD+ and NADP+, although NAD+ was a much better cofactor. In contrast, catalysis of the oxidation of t-RAL to t-RA appeared to be solely NAD+ dependent. Substrate Km values for conversions of t-ROH to t-RAL and of t-RAL to t-RA were 82.4 and 65.8 microM, respectively. At concentrations of 10 and 90 mM, ethanol inhibited the conversion of t-ROH to t-RAL by 25 and 43%, respectively, but did not inhibit the conversion of t-RAL to t-RA significantly. In contrast, acetaldehyde reduced the conversion of t-RAL to t-RA by 25 and 87% at 0.1 and 10 mM respective concentrations. Several alcohols and aldehydes known to be generated from lipid peroxides also exhibited significant inhibition of t-RA biosynthesis in human prenatal hepatic tissues. Among the compounds tested, 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE) was highly effective in inhibiting the conversion of t-RAL to t-RA. A 20% inhibition was observed at a concentration of only 0.001 mM, and nearly complete inhibition was produced at 0.1 mM. Human fetal and embryonic hepatic tissues each exhibited significant CYP2E1 expression as assessed with chlorzoxazone 6-hydroxylation, a highly sensitive western blotting technique, and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (RT-PCR), suggesting that lipid peroxidation can be initiated via CYP2E1-catalyzed ethanol oxidation in human embryonic hepatic tissues. In summary, these studies suggest that ethanol may affect the biosynthesis of t-RA in human prenatal hepatic tissues directly and indirectly. Ethanol and its major oxidative metabolite, acetaldehyde, both inhibit the generation of t-RA. Concurrently, the CYP2E1-catalyzed oxidation of ethanol can initiate lipid peroxidation via generation of a variety of free radicals. The lipid peroxides thereby generated could then be further converted via CYP2E1-catalyzed reactions to alcohols and aldehydes, including 4-HNE, that act as potent inhibitors of t-RA synthesis.

Human liver carboxylesterase hCE-1: binding specificity for cocaine, heroin, and their metabolites and analogs

Purified human liver carboxylesterase (hCE-1) catalyzes the hydrolysis of cocaine to form benzoylecgonine, the deacetylation of heroin to form 6-acetylmorphine, and the ethanol-dependent transesterification of cocaine to form cocaethylene. In this study, the binding affinities of cocaine, cocaine metabolites and analogs, heroin, morphine, and 6-acetylmorphine for hCE-1 were evaluated by measuring their kinetic inhibition constants with 4-methylumbelliferyl acetate in a rapid spectrophotometric assay. The naturally occurring (R)-(-)-cocaine isomer displayed the highest affinity of all cocaine and heroin analogs or metabolites. The pseudo- or allopseudococaine isomers of cocaine exhibited lower affinity indicating that binding to the enzyme is stereoselective. The methyl ester, benzoyl, and N-methyl groups of cocaine play important roles in binding because removal of these groups increased K(i) values substantially. Compounds containing a variety of hydrophobic substitutions at the benzoyl group of cocaine bound to the enzyme with high affinity. The high K(i) value obtained for cocaethylene relative to cocaine is consistent with weaker binding to the esterase and a longer elimination half-life reported for the metabolite. The spectrophotometric competitive inhibition assay used here represents an effective method to identify drug or environmental esters metabolized by carboxylesterases like hCE-1.

Purification and cloning of a broad substrate specificity human liver carboxylesterase that catalyzes the hydrolysis of cocaine and heroin

A human liver carboxylesterase (hCE-2) that catalyzes the hydrolysis of the benzoyl group of cocaine and the acetyl groups of 4-methylumbelliferyl acetate, heroin, and 6-monoacetylmorphine was purified from human liver. The purified enzyme exhibited a single band on SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with a subunit mass of approximately 60 kDa. The native enzyme was monomeric. The isoelectric point of hCE-2 was approximately 4.9. Treatment with endoglycosidase H caused an increase in electrophoretic mobility indicating that the liver carboxylesterase was a glycoprotein of the high mannose type. The complete cDNA nucleotide sequence was determined. The authenticity of the cDNA was confirmed by a perfect sequence match of 78 amino acids derived from the hCE-2 purified from human liver. The mature 533-amino acid enzyme encoded by this cDNA shared highest sequence identity with the rabbit liver carboxylesterase form 2 (73%) and the hamster liver carboxylesterase AT51p (67%). Carboxylesterases with high sequence identity to hCE-2 have not been reported in mouse and rat liver. hCE-2 exhibited different drug ester substrate specificity from the human liver carboxylesterase called hCE-1, which hydrolyzes the methyl ester of cocaine. hCE-2 had higher catalytic efficiencies for hydrolysis of 4-methylumbelliferyl acetate, heroin, and 6-monoacetylmorphine and greater inhibition by eserine than hCE-1. hCE-2 may play an important role in the degradation of cocaine and heroin in human tissues.

Metabolism of cocaine and heroin is catalyzed by the same human liver carboxylesterases

Concomitant i.v. use of cocaine and heroin ("speedballing") is prevalent among drug-abusing populations. Heroin is rapidly metabolized by sequential deacetylation of two separate ester bonds to yield 6-monoacetylmorphine and morphine. Hydrolysis of heroin to 6-monoacetylmorphine is catalyzed by pseudocholinesterase. The pathway for hydrolysis of 6-monoacetylmorphine to morphine in vivo has yet to be established. Pseudocholinesterase and two human liver carboxylesterases [human liver carboxylesterase form 1 (hCE-1) and human liver carboxylesterase form 2 (hCE-2)] catalyze the rapid hydrolysis of ester linkages in cocaine. This investigation examined the relative catalytic efficiencies of hCE-1, hCE-2 and pseudocholinesterase for heroin metabolism and compared them with cocaine hydrolysis. Enzymatic formation of 6-monoacetylmorphine and morphine was determined by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. All three enzymes rapidly catalyzed hydrolysis of heroin to 6-monoacetylmorphine (hCE-1 kcat = 439 min-1, hCE-2 kcat = 2186 min-1 and pseudocholinesterase kcat = 13 min-1). The catalytic efficiency, under first-order conditions, for hCE-2-catalyzed formation of 6-monoacetylmorphine (314 min-1 mM-1) was much greater than that for either hCE-1 or pseudocholinesterase (69 and 4 min-1 mM-1, respectively). Similarly, the catalytic efficiency for hydrolysis of 6-monoacetylmorphine to morphine by hCE-2 (22 min-1 mM-1) was substantially greater than that for hCE-1 (0.024 min-1 mM-1). Cocaine competitively inhibited hCE-1-, hCE-2- and pseudocholinesterase-catalyzed hydrolysis of heroin to 6-monoacetylmorphine (Ki = 530, 460 and 130 microM, respectively) and 6-monoacetylmorphine hydrolysis to morphine (Ki = 710, 220 and 830 microM, respectively). These data demonstrate that metabolism of cocaine and heroin in humans is mediated by common metabolic pathways. The role of hepatic hCE-2 is particularly important for the hydrolysis of heroin to 6-monoacetylmorphine and of 6-monoacetylmorphine to morphine.

Gender-specific differences in activity and protein levels of cocaine carboxylesterase in rat tissues

The gender-specific differences in the content of cocaine methyl esterase and ethyl transferase activities are examined in rat tissues and related to differences in hydrolase A protein in rat liver, lung, and kidney reported previously. The rat hydrolase A catalyzes the conversion of cocaine to benzoylecgonine and the ethyl transesterification of cocaine to form cocaethylene. An HPLC assay was used to quantitate and compare cocaine esterase activities in male and female rat tissues. The cocaine methyl esterase and ethyl transferase activities are 1.4 to 2.5 fold greater in male than in female liver and slightly greater in female than in male lung. No gender-specific differences were detected in the kidney. Gel electrophoresis was used to separate three non-specific carboxylesterases (hydrolases A, B, and C) in rat tissues and the isoenzymes were visualized with a hydrolase activity stain using 4-methylumbelliferyl acetate as substrate. The activity of cocaine methyl esterase and content of hydrolase A protein are not consistently different in the lung or the kidney of male versus female rats. Activity of hydrolase A in gels of male liver is greater than in female liver. Similarly, the content of the corresponding hydrolase A immunoreactive protein in male liver is 1.6 fold greater than in female liver. In contrast to hydrolase A, hydrolase C activity is greater in gels of female than male liver extracts. The greater content of cocaine methyl esterase and ethyl transferase activity in male versus female rat livers suggests that there may be gender-specific differences in pharmacokinetics of cocaine metabolism and extent of cocaine-induced hepatotoxicity in rats.

Tissue distribution of cocaine methyl esterase and ethyl transferase activities: correlation with carboxylesterase protein

The tissue distribution of cocaine methyl esterase and ethanol-dependent ethyl transferase activities was determined in the rat and compared to the tissue distribution of three distinct non-specific hydrolases. Rates of formation of benzoylecgonine from cocaine and cocaethylene from ethanol and cocaine were measured in serum and tissue homogenate-supernatants of the brain, heart, kidney, liver, lung and spleen. The tissue distribution of three nonspecific esterases, A, B and C, was defined by nondenaturing gel electrophoresis and measuring the hydrolysis of 4-methylumbelliferyl acetate in the gels. Immunoreactive protein was localized by using Western blot analysis with polyclonal rabbit antihuman liver cocaine methyl esterase antibody after denaturing and nondenaturing gel electrophoresis. The rat liver, lung, kidney and heart exhibited cocaine methyl esterase and ethyl transferase activities and immunoreactive protein. The brain had cocaine methyl esterase activity but no ethyl transferase activity; neither activity was found in serum or spleen. The dominant immunoreactive bands in the liver, lung, kidney and heart comigrated with the 59 kD band of purified human liver cocaine methyl esterase. The rat liver, lung and kidney exhibited a band of nonspecific esterase activity that migrated with purified human liver cocaine methyl esterase and rat hydrolase A. These observations suggest that rat hydrolase A is similar to human cocaine methyl esterase. The lack of straight forward correlation between cocaine methyl esterase activity and immunoreactive protein and nonspecific esterase activity suggests that more than one enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of cocaine to benzoylecgonine in the rat.

Purification and characterization of a human liver cocaine carboxylesterase that catalyzes the production of benzoylecgonine and the formation of cocaethylene from alcohol and cocaine

The psychomotor stimulant cocaine is inactivated primarily by hydrolysis to benzoylecgonine, the major urinary metabolite of the drug. A non-specific carboxylesterase was purified from human liver that catalyzes the hydrolysis of the methyl ester group of cocaine to form benzoylecgonine. In the presence of ethanol, the enzyme also catalyzes the transesterification of cocaine producing the pharmacologically active metabolite cocaethylene (benzoylecgonine ethyl ester). The carboxylesterase obeys simple Michaelis-Menten kinetics with Km values of 116 microM for cocaine and 43 mM for ethanol. The enzymatic activity suggests that it may play an important role in regulating the detoxication of cocaine and in the formation of the active metabolite cocaethylene. Additionally, the enzyme catalyzes the formation of ethyloleate from oleic acid and ethanol. The carboxylesterase was purified from autopsy liver by gel filtration, chromatofocusing, ion-exchange, and hydrophobic interaction chromatography to purity by SDS-PAGE and agarose gel isoelectric focusing. The subunit molecular weight was determined to be 59,000 and the native molecular weight was estimated to be 170,000 from a calibrated gel filtration column, suggesting that the active enzyme is a trimer. The isoelectric point was approximately 5.8. Digestion of carbohydrate residues on the protein with an acetylglucosaminidase plus binding to several lectins indicates that the enzyme is glycosylated. The esterase was cleaved with two proteases, and the amino acid sequences from fourteen peptides were used to search GenBank. Two identical matches were found corresponding to carboxylesterase cDNAs from human liver and lung.