Rare earth elements detoxification mechanism in the hyperaccumulator Dicranopteris linearis: [silicon-pectin] matrix fixation

Dicranopteris linearis is the best-known hyperaccumulator species of rare earth elements (REEs) and silicon (Si), capable of dealing with toxic level of REEs. Hence, this study aimed to clarify how D. linearis leaves cope with excessive REE stress, and whether Si plays a role in REE detoxification. The results show that lanthanum (La - as a representative of the REEs) stress led to decreased biomass and an increase of metabolism related to leaf cell wall synthesis and modification. However, the La stress-induced responses, especially the increase of pectin-related gene expression level, pectin polysaccharides concentration, and methylesterase activity, could be mitigated by Si supply. Approximately 70% of the Si in D. linearis leaves interacted with the cell walls to form organosilicon Si-O-C linkages. The Si-modified cell walls contained more hydroxyl groups, leading to a more efficient REE retention compared to the Si-free ones. Moreover, this [Si-cell wall] matrix increased the pectin-La accumulation capacity by 64%, with no effect on hemicellulose-La and cellulose-La accumulation capacity. These results suggest that [Si-pectin] matrix fixation is key in REE detoxification in D. linearis, laying the foundation for the development of phytotechnological applications (e.g., REE phytomining) using this species in REE-contaminated sites.

Aluminium-silicon interactions in higher plants: an update

Aluminium (Al) and silicon (Si) are abundant in soils, but their availability for plant uptake is limited by low solubility. However, Al toxicity is a major problem in naturally occurring acid soils and in soils affected by acidic precipitation. When, in 1995, we reviewed this topic for the Journal of Experimental Botany, it was clear that under certain circumstances soluble Si could ameliorate the toxic effects of Al, an effect mirrored in organisms beyond the plant kingdom. In the 25 years since our review, it has become evident that the amelioration phenomenon occurs in the root apoplast, with the formation of hydroxyaluminosilicates being part of the mechanism. A much better knowledge of the molecular basis for Si and Al uptake by plants and of Al toxicity mechanisms has been developed. However, relating this work to amelioration by Si is at an early stage. It is now clear that co-deposition of Al and Si in phytoliths is a fairly common phenomenon in the plant kingdom, and this may be important in detoxification of Al. Relatively little work on Al-Si interactions in field situations has been done in the last 25 years, and this is a key area for future development.

Silica in higher plants

Opaline silica deposits are formed by many vascular (higher) plants. The capacity of these plants for silica absorption varies considerably according to genotype and environment. Plant communities exchange silica between soil and vegetation, especially in warmer climates. Silica deposition in epidermal cell walls offers mechanical and protective advantages. Biogenic silica particles from plants are also implicated in the causation of cancer. Recent techniques are reviewed which may aid in the identification of plant pathways for soluble silica movement to deposition sites and in the determination of ionic environments. Botanical investigations have focused on silicification of cell walls in relation to plant development, using scanning and transmission electron microscopy combined with X-ray microanalysis. Silica deposition in macrohair walls of the lemma of canary grass (Phalaris) begins at inflorescence emergence and closely follows wall thickening. The structure of the deposited silica may be determined by specific organic polymers present at successive stages of wall development. Lowering of transpiration by enclosure of Phalaris inflorescences in plastic bags reduced silica deposition in macrohairs. Preliminary freeze-substitution studies have located silicon, as well as potassium and chloride, in the cell vacuole and wall deposition sites during initial silicification.

A provisional database for the silicon content of foods in the United Kingdom

Si may play an important role in bone formation and connective tissue metabolism. Although biological interest in this element has recently increased, limited literature exists on the Si content of foods. To further our knowledge and understanding of the relationship between dietary Si and human health, a reliable food composition database, relevant for the UK population, is required. A total of 207 foods and beverages, commonly consumed in the UK, were analysed for Si content. Composite samples were analysed using inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectrometry following microwave-assisted digestion with nitric acid and H2O2. The highest concentrations of Si were found in cereals and cereal products, especially less refined cereals and oat-based products. Fruit and vegetables were highly variable sources of Si with substantial amounts present in Kenyan beans, French beans, runner beans, spinach, dried fruit, bananas and red lentils, but undetectable amounts in tomatoes, oranges and onions. Of the beverages, beer, a macerated whole-grain cereal product, contained the greatest level of Si, whilst drinking water was a variable source with some mineral waters relatively high in Si. The present study provides a provisional database for the Si content of UK foods, which will allow the estimation of dietary intakes of Si in the UK population and investigation into the role of dietary Si in human health.

The use of root growth and modelling data to investigate amelioration of aluminium toxicity by silicon in Picea abies seedlings

Three-week-old Picea abies seedlings were grown for 7 days in 100 microM aluminium (Al), combined with 1000 or 2000 microM silicon (Si). Solution pH was adjusted to 4.00, 4.25, 4.50, 4.75, or 5.00. In the absence of Si, solution pH had no effect on the decrease in root growth caused by 100 microM Al. Silicon did not ameliorate toxic effects of Al on root growth at pH 4.00, 4.25 and 4.50, whereas significant, and apparently complete, amelioration was found at pH 4.75 and 5.00. An equilibrium speciation model (EQ3NR), with a current thermodynamic database, was used to predict the behaviour of Al and Si in growth solutions. When Si was not present in the 100 microM Al solutions, Al(3+) declined from 92.4% of total Al at pH 4.00 to 54.6% at pH 5.00, and there was a concomitant increase in hydroxyaluminium species as pH increased. The addition of 1000 microM Si to the 100 microM Al solutions caused a reduction in Al(3+) content over the whole pH range: at pH 4.00 Al(3+) fell from 92.4 to 83.3% in the presence of Si; and at pH 5.00 the fall was from 54.6 to 17.7%. These falls were attributed to the formation of hydroxyaluminosilicate (HAS) species. Similar, but somewhat greater, changes were observed in solutions containing 2000 microM Si. The match between root growth observations and the modelling data was not very good. Modelling predicted that change in Al(3+) content with pH in the presence of Si was gradual, but root growth was markedly increased between pH 4.50 and 4.75. Differences between root growth and modelling data may be due to the model not correctly predicting solution chemistry or to in planta effects which override the influence of solution chemistry.

X-ray microanalytical studies of mineral localization in the needles of white pine (Pinus strobus L.)

Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.) shoots from mature trees were collected from two sites of contrasting soil pH: the Glendon campus of York University in Toronto, Ontario (pH 6.7 at 40 cm); and Muskoka near Huntsville, Ontario (pH 4.2 at 40 cm). Needles of ages 1-3 years were removed from the shoots, and the percentage of ash and silica was determined for all ages. Other needles were frozen in liquid nitrogen and kept in a cryo-biological storage system before x-ray microanalysis. Percentages of ash and silica were higher in the needles from Muskoka. Ash and silica increased with needle age for trees from the Muskoka site, but less so at the Toronto site. Of the 13 elements (Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, K, Ca, Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn) detected by microanalysis, Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn were detected in small amounts in the epidermis, endodermis and transfusion tissue (the layer of tracheids and parenchyma immediately surrounding the vascular bundles), and K, P, S and Cl were almost ubiquitous in distribution. Sodium was occasionally detected in the transfusion tissue, and magnesium was concentrated in the endodermal cells. The epidermal walls, transfusion tissue and endodermis were major sites of calcium localization. Silicon was concentrated in the extreme tips of the needles in all tissues, but particularly in the transfusion tissue, and more so in the Muskoka samples. Microanalysis revealed a higher Al content in the Muskoka needles, that Al was concentrated in the needle tips and that the transfusion tissues were major sites of accumulation.

Antibacterial activity of lidocaine in mixtures with Diprivan

We have studied the antibacterial activity of different concentrations of 0.005-2% lidocaine (lignocaine) in mixtures with Diprivan (propofol), against micro-organisms commonly implicated in sepsis as a result of extrinsically contaminated Diprivan. Bacterial colony counts were reduced progressively with increasing concentrations of lidocaine. Bacteriostatic and bactericidal concentrations of lidocaine were 0.2-2%. Lidocaine 2% was not bactericidal for one of the seven organisms tested. By inhibiting bacterial replication, lidocaine, when added to Diprivan to reduce pain on injection, may possibly reduce the harmful consequences if extrinsic contamination occurs.

Detecting plant silica fibres in animal tissue by confocal fluorescence microscopy

Silica fibres from the inflorescence bracts of the grass Phalaris canariensis L. cause dermatitis, and have been implicated in the aetiology of oesophageal cancer in northeastern Iran. Here we describe a method for labelling these fibres so that they can be located in mammalian tissue. Fluorescein was covalently linked to isolated, purified fibres with the silane coupling agent 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane. The labelled hairs were then rubbed into the backs of mice. These were later killed and their skin fixed, stained and sliced at a thickness of 250 microns. A confocal laser scanning microscope gave brilliant images of the fibres at any depth up to 100 microns or more beneath the surface of the slice. Fibres penetrated deeply into the dermis. Several cubic millimetres of tissue could be surveyed in 1 h. The number of fibres present was approximately 2 mm-3 initially, falling to 0.1 mm-3 after 7 days.

Localization of aluminium in the roots of Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] inoculated with Paxillus involutus Fr

Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] seed lots from populations growing on acid soil in the Black Forest (BF), and from a calcareous soil in the Schwäbische Alb (SA), West Germany, were grown in perlite and treated with 0 and 6 mM Al. Some of the plants were inoculated with the fungus Paxillus involutes Fr., while some were not. Fungus was associated with the roots of the inoculated plants, but mycorrhizas did not form. Mineral element distribution in the roots was investigated using X-ray microanalysis of freeze substituted sections in TEM. Seven elements were detected: aluminium, silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine, potassium, and calcium. Aluminium was almost entirely confined to the cortical cell walls, and was not detectable inside the endodermis. The presence of P. involutus significantly increased aluminium concentrations in the cortical cell walls of both seed lots, while silicon concentrations in the aluminium-tolerant (BF) plants increased in response to aluminium treatment.