A far-ultraviolet-driven photoevaporation flow observed in a protoplanetary disk

Most low-mass stars form in stellar clusters that also contain massive stars, which are sources of far-ultraviolet (FUV) radiation. Theoretical models predict that this FUV radiation produces photodissociation regions (PDRs) on the surfaces of protoplanetary disks around low-mass stars, which affects planet formation within the disks. We report James Webb Space Telescope and Atacama Large Millimeter Array observations of a FUV-irradiated protoplanetary disk in the Orion Nebula. Emission lines are detected from the PDR; modeling their kinematics and excitation allowed us to constrain the physical conditions within the gas. We quantified the mass-loss rate induced by the FUV irradiation and found that it is sufficient to remove gas from the disk in less than a million years. This is rapid enough to affect giant planet formation in the disk.

Formation of the methyl cation by photochemistry in a protoplanetary disk

Forty years ago, it was proposed that gas-phase organic chemistry in the interstellar medium can be initiated by the methyl cation CH3+ (refs. 1-3), but so far it has not been observed outside the Solar System4,5. Alternative routes involving processes on grain surfaces have been invoked6,7. Here we report James Webb Space Telescope observations of CH3+ in a protoplanetary disk in the Orion star-forming region. We find that gas-phase organic chemistry is activated by ultraviolet irradiation.

Revealing which Combinations of Molecular Lines are Sensitive to the Gas Physical Parameters of Molecular Clouds

Atoms and molecules have long been thought to be versatile tracers of the cold neutral gas in the universe, from high-redshift galaxies to star forming regions and proto-planetary disks, because their internal degrees of freedom bear the signature of the physical conditions where these species reside. However, the promise that molecular emission has a strong diagnostic power of the underlying physical and chemical state is still hampered by the difficulty to combine sophisticated chemical codes with gas dynamics. It is therefore important 1) to acquire self-consistent data sets that can be used as templates for this theoretical work, and 2) to reveal the diagnostic capabilities of molecular lines accurately. The advent of sensitive wideband spectrometers in the (sub)- millimeter domain (e.g., IRAM-30m/EMIR, NOEMA, …) during the 2010s has allowed us to image a significant fraction of a Giant Molecular Cloud with enough sensitivity to detect tens of molecular lines in the 70 – 116 GHz frequency range. Machine learning techniques applied to these data start to deliver the next generation of molecular line diagnostics of mass, density, temperature, and radiation field.

Learning from model grids: Tracers of the ionization fraction in the ISM

The ionization fraction in neutral interstellar clouds is a key physical parameter controlling multiple physical and chemical processes, and varying by orders of magnitude from the UV irradiated surface of the cloud to its cosmic-ray dominated central regions. Traditional observational tracers of the ionization fraction, which mostly rely on deuteration ratios of molecules like HCO+, suffer from the fact that the deuterated molecules are only detected in a tiny fraction of a given Giant Molecular Cloud (GMC). In [1], we propose a machine learning-based, semi-automatic method to search in a large dataset of astrochemical model results for new tracers of the ionization fraction, and propose several new tracers relevant in different ranges of physical conditions.

Bringing high spatial resolution to the far-infrared: A giant leap for astrophysics

The far-infrared (FIR) regime is one of the wavelength ranges where no astronomical data with sub-arcsecond spatial resolution exist. None of the medium-term satellite projects like SPICA, Millimetron, or the Origins Space Telescope will resolve this malady. For many research areas, however, information at high spatial and spectral resolution in the FIR, taken from atomic fine-structure lines, from highly excited carbon monoxide (CO), light hydrides, and especially from water lines would open the door for transformative science. A main theme will be to trace the role of water in proto-planetary discs, to observationally advance our understanding of the planet formation process and, intimately related to that, the pathways to habitable planets and the emergence of life. Furthermore, key observations will zoom into the physics and chemistry of the star-formation process in our own Galaxy, as well as in external galaxies. The FIR provides unique tools to investigate in particular the energetics of heating, cooling, and shocks. The velocity-resolved data in these tracers will reveal the detailed dynamics engrained in these processes in a spatially resolved fashion, and will deliver the perfect synergy with ground-based molecular line data for the colder dense gas.

Impact du SARS-CoV-2 sur la grossesse

Introduction

Les conséquences de l’infection à SARS-CoV-2 sur les femmes enceintes, dont la vulnérabilité face au SRAS est établie, étaient inconnues lors de la pandémie. L’objectif de l’étude est de décrire l’infection chez les femmes enceintes et l’évolution des grossesses.

Matériels et méthodes

Étude observationnelle prospective monocentrique incluant les femmes enceintes au terme supérieur à 25 semaines d’aménorrhée (SA), hospitalisées pour infection à SARS-CoV-2 confirmée par PCR ou scanner entre le 19 mars et 20 mai 2020 dans un service d’obstétrique de niveau 3, centre de référence COVID.

Résultats

Trente-quatre patientes ont été incluses : 26 suivies dans le service et 8 transférées d’autres maternités. Trente patientes étaient hospitalisées dans les 3 premières semaines du confinement, contage familial pour 13 patientes. Le terme médian était de 31 SA et la gestité moyenne de 3. Les symptômes étaient : toux (26), fièvre (16), dyspnée (14), anosmie (8). Le diagnostic était confirmé par PCR chez 26 patientes et 11 scanners étaient compatibles. Les comorbidités étaient : surpoids (20), diabète gestationnel (5), asthme (4). Deux patientes fumaient. L’hospitalisation survenait en moyenne à j6 des symptômes et durait 8 jours. Quinze patientes étaient oxygénorequérantes (débit moyen de 3 L/min) et 5 ont eu une insuffisance respiratoire aiguë (IRA) : 1 en post-partum, 4 en pré-partum. Des antibiotiques ont été prescrits chez 21 patientes, treize ont reçu deux injections de corticoïdes à visée néonatale, les patients ayant des IRA n’ont pu en bénéficier car évolution trop rapide. Pendant le séjour, 11 patientes ont accouché dont 6 naissances prématurées, 5 par césarienne en urgence (3 sauvetage maternel, 1 hématome rétro-placentaire, 1 anomalie du rythme fœtal). Deux patientes ont été transférées en réanimation. Vingt-trois grossesses se sont poursuivies avec 7 accouchements simples à distance de l’infection et 16 grossesses en cours. Le terme moyen à la naissance était de 37 SA avec 6 enfants prématurés. Deux hémorragies du post-partum se sont produites, aucun événement thrombotique. À la naissance, l’état néonatal ne semblait pas modifier par l infection maternelle, les PCR des nouveau-nés étaient négatives. Aucun décès n’est survenu.

Conclusion

Malgré un effectif réduit, le tableau clinique des patientes ressemblait aux infections hors grossesses. Le COVID-19 semble majorer le taux de césarienne si l’infection survient à un terme tardif avec un risque accru de prématurité en cas d’IRA maternelle, à l’instar des infections respiratoires. La majorité des hospitalisations en début de pandémie témoigne de la forte adhésion aux mesures de confinement de cette population. La présence de contage intrafamilial confirme la faible efficacité des gestes barrière à domicile. Aucune transmission verticale de l’infection par le SARS-CoV-2 n’a été détectée et l’issue prochaine des 16 grossesses permettra d’enrichir les connaissances sur l’impact du virus lors d’ infection survenue au second trimestre. Une étude plus vaste incluant des patientes non hospitalisées enrichira les connaissances du devenir maternofœtal.

Gas phase Elemental abundances in Molecular cloudS (GEMS) II. On the quest for the sulphur reservoir in molecular clouds: the H2S case

CONTEXT

Sulphur is one of the most abundant elements in the Universe. Surprisingly, sulphuretted molecules are not as abundant as expected in the interstellar medium and the identity of the main sulphur reservoir is still an open question.

AIMS

Our goal is to investigate the H2S chemistry in dark clouds, as this stable molecule is a potential sulphur reservoir.

METHODS

Using millimeter observations of CS, SO, H2S, and their isotopologues, we determine the physical conditions and H2S abundances along the cores TMC 1-C, TMC 1-CP, and Barnard 1b. The gas-grain model Nautilus is used to model the sulphur chemistry and explore the impact of photo-desorption and chemical desorption on the H2S abundance.

RESULTS

Our modeling shows that chemical desorption is the main source of gas-phase H2S in dark cores. The measured H2S abundance can only be fitted if we assume that the chemical desorption rate decreases by more than a factor of 10 when n H > 2 × 104. This change in the desorption rate is consistent with the formation of thick H2O and CO ice mantles on grain surfaces. The observed SO and H2S abundances are in good agreement with our predictions adopting an undepleted value of the sulphur abundance. However, the CS abundance is overestimated by a factor of 5 - 10. Along the three cores, atomic S is predicted to be the main sulphur reservoir.

CONCLUSIONS

The gaseous H2S abundance is well reproduced, assuming undepleted sulphur abundance and chemical desorption as the main source of H2S. The behavior of the observed H2S abundance suggests a changing desorption efficiency, which would probe the snowline in these cold cores. Our model, however, highly overestimates the observed gas-phase CS abundance. Given the uncertainty in the sulphur chemistry, we can only conclude that our data are consistent with a cosmic elemental S abundance with an uncertainty of a factor of 10.

Abundances of sulphur molecules in the Horsehead nebula First NS+ detection in a photodissociation region

CONTEXT

Sulphur is one of the most abundant elements in the Universe (S/H∼1.3×10 -5 ) and plays a crucial role in biological systems on Earth. The understanding of its chemistry is therefore of major importance.

AIMS

Our goal is to complete the inventory of S-bearing molecules and their abundances in the prototypical photodissociation region (PDR) the Horsehead nebula to gain insight into sulphur chemistry in UV irradiated regions. Based on the WHISPER (Wide-band High-resolution Iram-30m Surveys at two positions with Emir Receivers) millimeter (mm) line survey, our goal is to provide an improved and more accurate description of sulphur species and their abundances towards the core and PDR positions in the Horsehead.

METHODS

The Monte Carlo Markov Chain (MCMC) methodology and the molecular excitation and radiative transfer code RADEX were used to explore the parameter space and determine physical conditions and beam-averaged molecular abundances.

RESULTS

A total of 13 S-bearing species (CS, SO, SO2, OCS, H2CS - both ortho and para - HDCS, C2S, HCS+, SO+, H2S, S2H, NS and NS+) have been detected in the two targeted positions. This is the first detection of SO+ in the Horsehead and the first detection of NS+ in any PDR. We find a differentiated chemical behaviour between C-S and O-S bearing species within the nebula. The C-S bearing species C2S and o-H2CS present fractional abundances a factor of > two higher in the core than in the PDR. In contrast, the O-S bearing molecules SO, SO2, and OCS present similar abundances towards both positions. A few molecules, SO+, NS, and NS+, are more abundant towards the PDR than towards the core, and could be considered as PDR tracers.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first complete study of S-bearing species towards a PDR. Our study shows that CS, SO, and H2S are the most abundant S-bearing molecules in the PDR with abundances of ∼ a few 10-9. We recall that SH, SH+, S, and S+ are not observable at the wavelengths covered by the WHISPER survey. At the spatial scale of our observations, the total abundance of S atoms locked in the detected species is < 10-8, only ∼0.1% of the cosmic sulphur abundance.

Oxygen fractionation in dense molecular clouds

We have developed the first gas-grain chemical model for oxygen fractionation (also including sulphur fractionation) in dense molecular clouds, demonstrating that gas-phase chemistry generates variable oxygen fractionation levels, with a particularly strong effect for NO, SO, O2, and SO2. This large effect is due to the efficiency of the neutral 18O + NO, 18O + SO, and 18O + O2 exchange reactions. The modeling results were compared to new and existing observed isotopic ratios in a selection of cold cores. The good agreement between model and observations requires that the gas-phase abundance of neutral oxygen atoms is large in the observed regions. The S16O/S18O ratio is predicted to vary substantially over time showing that it can be used as a sensitive chemical proxy for matter evolution in dense molecular clouds.

Gas phase Elemental abundances in Molecular cloudS (GEMS): I. The prototypical dark cloud TMC 1

GEMS is an IRAM 30m Large Program whose aim is determining the elemental depletions and the ionization fraction in a set of prototypical star-forming regions. This paper presents the first results from the prototypical dark cloud TMC 1. Extensive millimeter observations have been carried out with the IRAM 30m telescope (3 mm and 2 mm) and the 40m Yebes telescope (1.3 cm and 7 mm) to determine the fractional abundances of CO, HCO+, HCN, CS, SO, HCS+, and N2H+ in three cuts which intersect the dense filament at the well-known positions TMC 1-CP, TMC 1-NH3, and TMC 1-C, covering a visual extinction range from A V ~ 3 to ~20 mag. Two phases with differentiated chemistry can be distinguished: i) the translucent envelope with molecular hydrogen densities of 1-5×103 cm-3; and ii) the dense phase, located at A V > 10 mag, with molecular hydrogen densities >104 cm-3. Observations and modeling show that the gas phase abundances of C and O progressively decrease along the C+/C/CO transition zone (A V ~ 3 mag) where C/H ~ 8×10-5 and C/O~0.8-1, until the beginning of the dense phase at A V ~ 10 mag. This is consistent with the grain temperatures being below the CO evaporation temperature in this region. In the case of sulfur, a strong depletion should occur before the translucent phase where we estimate a S/H ~ (0.4 - 2.2) ×10-6, an abundance ~7-40 times lower than the solar value. A second strong depletion must be present during the formation of the thick icy mantles to achieve the values of S/H measured in the dense cold cores (S/H ~8×10-8). Based on our chemical modeling, we constrain the value of ζ H2 to ~ (0.5 - 1.8) ×10-16 s-1 in the translucent cloud.

ALMA observations of the young protostellar system Barnard 1b: signatures of an incipient hot corino in B1b-S

The Barnard 1b core shows signatures of being at the earliest stages of low-mass star formation, with two extremely young and deeply embedded protostellar objects. Hence, this core is an ideal target to study the structure and chemistry of the first objects formed in the collapse of prestellar cores. We present ALMA Band 6 spectral line observations at ~0.6″ of angular resolution towards Barnard 1b. We have extracted the spectra towards both protostars, and used a Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium (LTE) model to reproduce the observed line profiles. B1b-S shows rich and complex spectra, with emission from high energy transitions of complex molecules, such as CH₃OCOH and CH₃CHO, including vibrational level transitions. We have tentatively detected for the first time in this source emission from NH₂CN, NH₂CHO, CH₃CH₂OH, CH₂OHCHO, CH₃CH₂OCOH and both aGg' and gGg' conformers of (CH₂OH)₂. This is the first detection of ethyl formate (CH₃CH₂OCOH) towards a low-mass star forming region. On the other hand, the spectra of the FHSC candidate B1b-N are free of COMs emission. In order to fit the observed line profiles in B1b-S, we used a source model with two components: an inner hot and compact component (200 K, 0.35″) and an outer and colder one (60 K, 0.6″). The resulting COM abundances in B1b-S range from 10^-13 for NH₂CN and NH₂CHO, up to 10^-9 for CH₃OCOH. Our ALMA Band 6 observations reveal the presence of a compact and hot component in B1b-S, with moderate abundances of complex organics. These results indicate that a hot corino is being formed in this very young Class 0 source.

High-speed molecular cloudlets around the Galactic center's supermassive black hole

We present 1″-resolution ALMA observations of the circumnuclear disk (CND) and the interstellar environment around Sgr A*. The images unveil the presence of small spatial scale 12CO (J=3-2) molecular "cloudlets" (≲20,000 AU size) within the central parsec of the Milky Way, in other words, inside the cavity of the CND, and moving at high speeds, up to 300 km s-1 along the line-of-sight. The 12CO-emitting structures show intricate morphologies: extended and filamentary at high negative-velocities (vLSR ≲-150 km s-1), more localized and clumpy at extreme positive-velocities (vLSR ≳+200 km s-1). Based on the pencil-beam 12CO absorption spectrum toward Sgr A* synchrotron emission, we also present evidence for a diffuse molecular gas component producing absorption features at more extreme negative-velocities (vLSR <-200 km s-1). The CND shows a clumpy spatial distribution traced by the optically thin H13CN (J=4-3) emission. Its motion requires a bundle of non-uniformly rotating streams of slightly different inclinations. The inferred gas density peaks, molecular cores of a few 105 cm-3, are lower than the local Roche limit. This supports that CND cores are transient. We apply the two standard orbit models, spirals vs. ellipses, invoked to explain the kinematics of the ionized gas streamers around Sgr A*. The location and velocities of the 12CO cloudlets inside the cavity are inconsistent with the spiral model, and only two of them are consistent with the Keplerian ellipse model. Most cloudlets, however, show similar velocities that are incompatible with the motions of the ionized streamers or with gas bounded to the central gravity. We speculate that they are leftovers of more massive molecular clouds that fall into the cavity and are tidally disrupted, or that they originate from instabilities in the inner rim of the CND that lead to fragmentation and infall from there. In either case, we show that molecular cloudlets, all together with a mass of several 10 M ⊙, exist around Sgr A*. Most of them must be short-lived, ≲104 yr: photoevaporated by the intense stellar radiation field, G 0≃105.3 to 104.3, blown away by winds from massive stars in the central cluster, or disrupted by strong gravitational shears.

High-velocity hot CO emission close to Sgr A*: Herschel/HIFI★ , ★★ submillimeter spectral survey toward Sgr A

The properties of molecular gas, the fuel that forms stars, inside the cavity of the circumnuclear disk (CND) are not well constrained. We present results of a velocity-resolved submillimeter scan (~480 to 1250 GHz) and [C ii] 158 μm line observations carried out with Herschel/HIFI toward Sgr A*; these results are complemented by a ~2'×2' ¹²CO (J=3-2) map taken with the IRAM 30 m telescope at ~7″ resolution. We report the presence of high positive-velocity emission (up to about +300 km s^-1) detected in the wings of ¹²CO J=5-4 to 10-9 lines. This wing component is also seen in H₂O (1_1,0-1_0,1), a tracer of hot molecular gas; in [C ii]158 μm, an unambiguous tracer of UV radiation; but not in [C i] 492, 806 GHz. This first measurement of the high-velocity ¹²CO rotational ladder toward Sgr A* adds more evidence that hot molecular gas exists inside the cavity of the CND, relatively close to the supermassive black hole (< 1 pc). Observed by ALMA, this velocity range appears as a collection of ¹²CO (J=3-2) cloudlets lying in a very harsh environment that is pervaded by intense UV radiation fields, shocks, and affected by strong gravitational shears. We constrain the physical conditions of the high positive-velocity CO gas component by comparing with non-LTE excitation and radiative transfer models. We infer T _k≃400 K to 2000 K for n _H≃(0.2-1.0)·10⁵ cm^-3. These results point toward the important role of stellar UV radiation, but we show that radiative heating alone cannot explain the excitation of this ~10-60 M _⊙ component of hot molecular gas inside the central cavity. Instead, strongly irradiated shocks are promising candidates.

Structure of photodissociation fronts in star-forming regions revealed by observations of high-J CO emission lines with Herschel

CONTEXT

In bright photodissociation regions (PDRs) associated to massive star formation, the presence of dense "clumps" that are immersed in a less dense interclump medium is often proposed to explain the difficulty of models to account for the observed gas emission in high-excitation lines.

AIMS

We aim at presenting a comprehensive view of the modeling of the CO rotational ladder in PDRs, including the high-J lines that trace warm molecular gas at PDR interfaces.

METHODS

We observed the 12CO and 13CO ladders in two prototypical PDRs, the Orion Bar and NGC 7023 NW using the instruments onboard Herschel. We also considered line emission from key species in the gas cooling of PDRs (C+, O, H2) and other tracers of PDR edges such as OH and CH+. All the intensities are collected from Herschel observations, the literature and the Spitzer archive and are analyzed using the Meudon PDR code.

RESULTS

A grid of models was run to explore the parameter space of only two parameters: thermal gas pressure and a global scaling factor that corrects for approximations in the assumed geometry. We conclude that the emission in the high-J CO lines, which were observed up to J up =23 in the Orion Bar (J up =19 in NGC 7023), can only originate from small structures of typical thickness of a few 10-3 pc and at high thermal pressures (Pth ~ 108 K cm-3).

CONCLUSIONS

Compiling data from the literature, we found that the gas thermal pressure increases with the intensity of the UV radiation field given by G0, following a trend in line with recent simulations of the photoevaporation of illuminated edges of molecular clouds. This relation can help rationalising the analysis of high-J CO emission in massive star formation and provides an observational constraint for models that study stellar feedback on molecular clouds.

Clustering the Orion B giant molecular cloud based on its molecular emission

CONTEXT

Previous attempts at segmenting molecular line maps of molecular clouds have focused on using position-position-velocity data cubes of a single molecular line to separate the spatial components of the cloud. In contrast, wide field spectral imaging over a large spectral bandwidth in the (sub)mm domain now allows one to combine multiple molecular tracers to understand the different physical and chemical phases that constitute giant molecular clouds (GMCs).

AIMS

We aim at using multiple tracers (sensitive to different physical processes and conditions) to segment a molecular cloud into physically/chemically similar regions (rather than spatially connected components), thus disentangling the different physical/chemical phases present in the cloud.

METHODS

We use a machine learning clustering method, namely the Meanshift algorithm, to cluster pixels with similar molecular emission, ignoring spatial information. Clusters are defined around each maximum of the multidimensional Probability Density Function (PDF) of the line integrated intensities. Simple radiative transfer models were used to interpret the astrophysical information uncovered by the clustering analysis.

RESULTS

A clustering analysis based only on the J = 1 - 0 lines of three isotopologues of CO proves suffcient to reveal distinct density/column density regimes (n_H ~ 100 cm^-3, ~ 500 cm^-3, and > 1000 cm^-3), closely related to the usual definitions of diffuse, translucent and high-column-density regions. Adding two UV-sensitive tracers, the J = 1 - 0 line of HCO⁺ and the N = 1 - 0 line of CN, allows us to distinguish two clearly distinct chemical regimes, characteristic of UV-illuminated and UV-shielded gas. The UV-illuminated regime shows overbright HCO⁺ and CN emission, which we relate to a photochemical enrichment effect. We also find a tail of high CN/HCO⁺ intensity ratio in UV-illuminated regions. Finer distinctions in density classes (n_H ~ 7 × 10³ cm^-3 ~ 4 × 10⁴ cm^-3) for the densest regions are also identified, likely related to the higher critical density of the CN and HCO⁺ (1 - 0) lines. These distinctions are only possible because the high-density regions are spatially resolved.

CONCLUSIONS

Molecules are versatile tracers of GMCs because their line intensities bear the signature of the physics and chemistry at play in the gas. The association of simultaneous multi-line, wide-field mapping and powerful machine learning methods such as the Meanshift clustering algorithm reveals how to decode the complex information available in these molecular tracers.

First Detection of Interstellar S2H

We present the first detection of gas phase S2H in the Horsehead, a moderately UV-irradiated nebula. This confirms the presence of doubly sulfuretted species in the interstellar medium and opens a new challenge for sulfur chemistry. The observed S2H abundance is ~5×10-11, only a factor 4-6 lower than that of the widespread H2S molecule. H2S and S2H are efficiently formed on the UV-irradiated icy grain mantles. We performed ice irradiation experiments to determine the H2S and S2H photodesorption yields. The obtained values are ~1.2×10-3 and <1×10-5 molecules per incident photon for H2S and S2H, respectively. Our upper limit to the S2H photodesorption yield suggests that photo-desorption is not a competitive mechanism to release the S2H molecules to the gas phase. Other desorption mechanisms such as chemical desorption, cosmic-ray desorption and grain shattering can increase the gaseous S2H abundance to some extent. Alternatively, S2H can be formed via gas phase reactions involving gaseous H2S and the abundant ions S+ and SH+. The detection of S2H in this nebula could be therefore the result of the coexistence of an active grain surface chemistry and gaseous photo-chemistry.

The interstellar chemistry of C3H and C3H2 isomers

We report the detection of linear and cyclic isomers of C3H and C3H2 towards various starless cores and review the corresponding chemical pathways involving neutral (C3Hx with x=1,2) and ionic (C3Hx+ with x = 1,2,3) isomers. We highlight the role of the branching ratio of electronic Dissociative Recombination (DR) reactions of C3H2+ and C3H3+ isomers showing that the statistical treatment of the relaxation of C3H* and C3H2* produced in these DR reactions may explain the relative c,l-C3H and c,l-C3H2 abundances. We have also introduced in the model the third isomer of C3H2 (HCCCH). The observed cyclic-to-linear C3H2 ratio vary from 110 ± 30 for molecular clouds with a total density around 1×104 molecules.cm-3 to 30 ± 10 for molecular clouds with a total density around 4×105 molecules.cm-3, a trend well reproduced with our updated model. The higher ratio for low molecular cloud densities is mainly determined by the importance of the H + l-C3H2 → H + c-C3H2 and H + t-C3H2 → H + c-C3H2 isomerization reactions.

Evidence for disks at an early stage in class 0 protostars?

AIMS

The formation epoch of protostellar disks is debated because of the competing roles of rotation, turbulence, and magnetic fields in the early stages of low-mass star formation. Magnetohydrodynamics simulations of collapsing cores predict that rotationally supported disks may form in strongly magnetized cores through ambipolar diffusion or misalignment between the rotation axis and the magnetic field orientation. Detailed studies of individual sources are needed to cross check the theoretical predictions.

METHODS

We present 0.06 - 0.1 ″ resolution images at 350 GHz toward B1b-N and B1b-S, which are young class 0 protostars, possibly first hydrostatic cores. The images have been obtained with ALMA, and we compare these data with magnetohydrodynamics simulations of a collapsing turbulent and magnetized core.

RESULTS

The submillimeter continuum emission is spatially resolved by ALMA. Compact structures with optically thick 350 GHz emission are detected toward both B1b-N and B1b-S, with 0.2 and 0.35″ radii (46 and 80 au at the Perseus distance of 230 pc), within a more extended envelope. The flux ratio between the compact structure and the envelope is lower in B1b-N than in B1b-S, in agreement with its earlier evolutionary status. The size and orientation of the compact structure are consistent with 0.2″ resolution 32 GHz observations obtained with the Very Large Array as a part of the VANDAM survey, suggesting that grains have grown through coagulation. The morphology, temperature, and densities of the compact structures are consistent with those of disks formed in numerical simulations of collapsing cores. Moreover, the properties of B1b-N are consistent with those of a very young protostar, possibly a first hydrostatic core. These observations provide support for the early formation of disks around low-mass protostars.

Chemical segregation in the young protostars Barnard 1b-N and S Evidence of pseudo-disk rotation in Barnard 1b-S

The extremely young Class 0 object B1b-S and the first hydrostatic core (FSHC) candidate, B1b-N, provide a unique opportunity to study the chemical changes produced in the elusive transition from the prestellar core to the protostellar phase. We present 40"×70" images of Barnard 1b in the 13CO 1→0, C18O 1→0, NH2D 11,1a→10,1s, and SO 32→21 lines obtained with the NOEMA interferometer. The observed chemical segregation allows us to unveil the physical structure of this young protostellar system down to scales of ∼500 au. The two protostellar objects are embedded in an elongated condensation, with a velocity gradient of ∼0.2-0.4 m s-1 au-1 in the east-west direction, reminiscent of an axial collapse. The NH2D data reveal cold and dense pseudo-disks (R∼500-1000 au) around each protostar. Moreover, we observe evidence of pseudo-disk rotation around B1b-S. We do not see any signature of the bipolar outflows associated with B1b-N and B1b-S, which were previously detected in H2CO and CH3OH, in any of the imaged species. The non-detection of SO constrains the SO/CH3OH abundance ratio in the high-velocity gas.

Spatially resolved images of reactive ions in the Orion Bar,★★

We report high angular resolution (4.9″×3.0″) images of reactive ions SH+, HOC+, and SO+ toward the Orion Bar photodissociation region (PDR). We used ALMA-ACA to map several rotational lines at 0.8 mm, complemented with multi-line observations obtained with the IRAM 30 m telescope. The SH+ and HOC+ emission is restricted to a narrow layer of 2″- to 10″-width (≈800 to 4000 AU depending on the assumed PDR geometry) that follows the vibrationally excited [Formula: see text] emission. Both ions efficiently form very close to the H/H2 transition zone, at a depth of Av≲1 mag into the neutral cloud, where abundant C+, S+, and [Formula: see text] coexist. SO+ peaks slightly deeper into the cloud. The observed ions have low rotational temperatures (Trot≈10-30 K≪Tk) and narrow line-widths (~2-3 km s-1), a factor of ≃2 narrower that those of the lighter reactive ion CH+. This is consistent with the higher reactivity and faster radiative pumping rates of CH+ compared to the heavier ions, which are driven relatively faster toward smaller velocity dispersion by elastic collisions and toward lower Trot by inelastic collisions. We estimate column densities and average physical conditions from an excitation model (n(H2)≈105-106 cm-3, n(e-)≈10 cm-3, and Tk≈200 K). Regardless of the excitation details, SH+ and HOC+ clearly trace the most exposed layers of the UV-irradiated molecular cloud surface, whereas SO+ arises from slightly more shielded layers.

Spatial distribution of FIR rotationally excited CH+ and OH emission lines in the Orion Bar PDR

CONTEXT

The methylidyne cation (CH⁺) and hydroxyl (OH) are key molecules in the warm interstellar chemistry, but their formation and excitation mechanisms are not well understood. Their abundance and excitation are predicted to be enhanced by the presence of vibrationally excited H₂ or hot gas (~500-1000 K) in photodissociation regions with high incident FUV radiation field. The excitation may also originate in dense gas (> 10⁵ cm^-3) followed by nonreactive collisions with H₂, H, and electrons. Previous observations of the Orion Bar suggest that the rotationally excited CH⁺ and OH correlate with the excited CO, a tracer of dense and warm gas, and formation pumping contributes to CH⁺ excitation.

AIMS

Our goal is to examine the spatial distribution of the rotationally excited CH⁺ and OH emission lines in the Orion Bar in order to establish their physical origin and main formation and excitation mechanisms.

METHODS

We present spatially sampled maps of the CH⁺ J=3-2 transition at 119.8 µm and the OH Λ-doublet at 84 µm in the Orion Bar over an area of 110″×110″ with Herschel (PACS). We compare the spatial distribution of these molecules with those of their chemical precursors, C⁺, O and H₂, and tracers of warm and dense gas (high-J CO). We assess the spatial variation of CH⁺ J=2-1 velocity-resolved line profile at 1669 GHz with Herschel HIFI spectrometer observations.

RESULTS

The OH and especially CH⁺ lines correlate well with the high-J CO emission and delineate the warm and dense molecular region at the edge of the Bar. While notably similar, the differences in the CH⁺ and OH morphologies indicate that CH⁺ formation and excitation are strongly related to the observed vibrationally excited H₂. This, together with the observed broad CH⁺ line widths, indicates that formation pumping contributes to the excitation of this reactive molecular ion. Interestingly, the peak of the rotationally excited OH 84 µm emission coincides with a bright young object, proplyd 244-440, which shows that OH can be an excellent tracer of UV-irradiated dense gas.

CONCLUSIONS

The spatial distribution of CH⁺ and OH revealed in our maps is consistent with previous modeling studies. Both formation pumping and nonreactive collisions in a UV-irradiated dense gas are important CH⁺ J=3-2 excitation processes. The excitation of the OH Λ-doublet at 84 µm is mainly sensitive to the temperature and density.

The first CO+ image: I. Probing the HI/H2 layer around the ultracompact HII region Mon R2

The CO⁺ reactive ion is thought to be a tracer of the boundary between a HII region and the hot molecular gas. In this study, we present the spatial distribution of the CO⁺ rotational emission toward the Mon R2 star-forming region. The CO⁺ emission presents a clumpy ring-like morphology, arising from a narrow dense layer around the HII region. We compare the CO⁺ distribution with other species present in photon-dominated regions (PDR), such as [CII] 158 µm, H₂ S(3) rotational line at 9.3 µm, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and HCO⁺. We find that the CO⁺ emission is spatially coincident with the PAHs and [CII] emission. This confirms that the CO⁺ emission arises from a narrow dense layer of the HI/H₂ interface. We have determined the CO⁺ fractional abundance, relative to C⁺ toward three positions. The abundances range from 0.1 to 1.9 ×10^-10 and are in good agreement with previous chemical model, which predicts that the production of CO⁺ in PDRs only occurs in dense regions with high UV fields. The CO⁺ linewidth is larger than those found in molecular gas tracers, and their central velocity are blue-shifted with respect to the molecular gas velocity. We interpret this as a hint that the CO⁺ is probing photo-evaporating clump surfaces.

Ionization fraction and the enhanced sulfur chemistry in Barnard 1

CONTEXT

Barnard B1b has revealed as one of the most interesting globules from the chemical and dynamical point of view. It presents a rich molecular chemistry characterized by large abundances of deuterated and complex molecules. Furthermore, it hosts an extremely young Class 0 object and one candidate to First Hydrostatic Core (FHSC) proving the youth of this star forming region.

AIMS

Our aim is to determine the cosmic ray ionization rate, [Formula: see text], and the depletion factors in this extremely young star forming region. These parameteres determine the dynamical evolution of the core.

METHODS

We carried out a spectral survey towards Barnard 1b as part of the IRAM Large program ASAI using the IRAM 30-m telescope at Pico Veleta (Spain). This provided a very complete inventory of neutral and ionic C-, N- and S- bearing species with, up to our knowledge, the first secure detections of the deuterated ions DCS+ and DOCO+. We use a state-of-the-art pseudo-time-dependent gas-phase chemical model that includes the ortho and para forms of [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] to determine the local value of the cosmic ray ionization rate and the depletion factors.

RESULTS

Our model assumes n(H2)=105 cm-3 and T k =12 K, as derived from our previous works. The observational data are well fitted with ζH2 between 3×10-17 s-1 and 10-16 s-1, and the following elemental abundances: O/H=3 10-5, N/H=6.4-8 10-5, C/H=1.7 10-5 and S/H between 6.0 10-7 and 1.0 10-6. The large number of neutral/protonated species detected, allows us to derive the elemental abundances and cosmic ray ionization rate simultaneously. Elemental depletions are estimated to be ~10 for C and O, ~1 for N and ~25 for S.

CONCLUSIONS

Barnard B1b presents similar depletions of C and O than those measured in pre-stellar cores. The depletion of sulfur is higher than that of C and O but not as extreme as in cold cores. In fact, it is similar to the values found in some bipolar outflows, hot cores and photon-dominated regions. Several scenarios are discussed to account for these peculiar abundances. We propose that it is the consequence of the initial conditions (important outflows and enhanced UV fields in the surroundings) and a rapid collapse (~0.1 Myr) that permits to maintain most S- and N-bearing species in gas phase to great optical depths. The interaction of the compact outflow associated with B1b-S with the surrounding material could enhance the abundances of S-bearing molecules, as well.

Compression and ablation of the photo-irradiated molecular cloud the Orion Bar

The Orion Bar is the archetypal edge-on molecular cloud surface illuminated by strong ultraviolet radiation from nearby massive stars. Owing to the close distance to Orion (about 1,350 light-year), the effects of stellar feedback on the parental cloud can be studied in detail. Visible-light observations of the Bar1 show that the transition between the hot ionised gas and the warm neutral atomic gas (the ionisation front) is spatially well separated from the transition from atomic to molecular gas (the dissociation front): about 15 arcseconds or 6,200 astronomical units. (One astronomical unit is the Earth-Sun distance.) Static equilibrium models2,3 used to interpret previous far-infrared and radio observations of the neutral gas in the Bar4,5,6 (typically at 10-20 arcsecond resolution) predict an inhomogeneous cloud structure consisting of dense clumps embedded in a lower density extended gas component. Here we report 1 arcsecond resolution millimetre-wave images that allow us to resolve the molecular cloud surface and constrain the gas density and temperature structures at small spatial scales. In contrast to stationary model predictions7,8,9, there is no appreciable offset between the peak of the H₂ vibrational emission (delineating the H/H₂ transition) and the edge of the observed CO and HCO⁺ emission. This implies that the H/H₂ and C⁺/C/CO transition zones are very close. These observations reveal a fragmented ridge of high-density substructures, photo-ablative gas flows and instabilities at the molecular cloud surface. They suggest that the cloud edge has been compressed by a high-pressure wave that currently moves into the molecular cloud. The images demonstrate that dynamical and nonequilibrium effects are important. Thus, they should be included in any realistic description of irradiated interstellar matter.

The interstellar chemistry of H2C3O isomers

We present the detection of two H2C3O isomers, propynal and cyclopropenone, toward various starless cores and molecular clouds, together with upper limits for the third isomer propadienone. We review the processes controlling the abundances of H2C3O isomers in interstellar media showing that the reactions involved are gas-phase ones. We show that the abundances of these species are controlled by kinetic rather than thermodynamic effects.

VELOCITY-RESOLVED [C ii] EMISSION AND [C ii]/FIR MAPPING ALONG ORION WITH HERSCHEL

We present the first ~7.5'×11.5' velocity-resolved (~0.2 km s^-1) map of the [C ii] 158 μm line toward the Orion molecular cloud 1 (OMC 1) taken with the Herschel/HIFI instrument. In combination with far-infrared (FIR) photometric images and velocity-resolved maps of the H41α hydrogen recombination and CO J=2-1 lines, this data set provides an unprecedented view of the intricate small-scale kinematics of the ionized/PDR/molecular gas interfaces and of the radiative feedback from massive stars. The main contribution to the [C ii] luminosity (~85 %) is from the extended, FUV-illuminated face of the cloud (G₀>500, n_H>5×10³ cm^-3) and from dense PDRs (G≳10⁴, n_H≳10⁵ cm^-3) at the interface between OMC 1 and the H ii region surrounding the Trapezium cluster. Around ~15 % of the [C ii] emission arises from a different gas component without CO counterpart. The [C ii] excitation, PDR gas turbulence, line opacity (from [¹³C ii]) and role of the geometry of the illuminating stars with respect to the cloud are investigated. We construct maps of the L[C ii]/L_FIR and L_FIR/M_Gas ratios and show that L[C ii]/L_FIR decreases from the extended cloud component (~10^-2-10^-3) to the more opaque star-forming cores (~10^-3-10^-4). The lowest values are reminiscent of the "[C ii] deficit" seen in local ultra-luminous IR galaxies hosting vigorous star formation. Spatial correlation analysis shows that the decreasing L[C ii]/L_FIR ratio correlates better with the column density of dust through the molecular cloud than with L_FIR/M_Gas. We conclude that the [C ii] emitting column relative to the total dust column along each line of sight is responsible for the observed L[C ii]/L_FIR variations through the cloud.

Probing non polar interstellar molecules through their protonated form: Detection of protonated cyanogen (NCCNH+)

Cyanogen (NCCN) is the simplest member of the series of dicyanopolyynes. It has been hypothesized that this family of molecules can be important constituents of interstellar and circumstellar media, although the lack of a permanent electric dipole moment prevents its detection through radioastronomical techniques. Here we present the first solid evidence of the presence of cyanogen in interstellar clouds through the detection of its protonated form toward the cold dark clouds TMC-1 and L483. Protonated cyanogen (NCCNH+) has been identified through the J = 5 - 4 and J = 10 - 9 rotational transitions using the 40m radiotelescope of Yebes and the IRAM 30m telescope. We derive beam averaged column densities for NCCNH+ of (8.6 ± 4.4) × 1010 cm-2 in TMC-1 and (3.9 ± 1.8) × 1010 cm-2 in L483, which translate to fairly low fractional abundances relative to H2, in the range (1-10) × 10-12. The chemistry of protonated molecules in dark clouds is discussed, and it is found that, in general terms, the abundance ratio between the protonated and non protonated forms of a molecule increases with increasing proton affinity. Our chemical model predicts an abundance ratio NCCNH+/NCCN of ~ 10-4, which implies that the abundance of cyanogen in dark clouds could be as high as (1-10) × 10-8 relative to H2, i.e., comparable to that of other abundant nitriles such as HCN, HNC, and HC3N.

Nascent bipolar outflows associated with the first hydrostatic core candidates Barnard 1b-N and 1b-S

In the theory of star formation, the first hydrostatic core (FHSC) phase is a critical step in which a condensed object emerges from a prestellar core. This step lasts about one thousand years, a very short time compared with the lifetime of prestellar cores, and therefore is hard to detect unambiguously. We present IRAM Plateau de Bure observations of the Barnard 1b dense molecular core, combining detections of H₂CO and CH₃OH spectral lines and dust continuum at 2.3" resolution (~ 500 AU). The two compact cores B1b-N and B1b-S are detected in the dust continuum at 2mm, with fluxes that agree with their spectral energy distribution. Molecular outflows associated with both cores are detected. They are inclined relative to the direction of the magnetic field, in agreement with predictions of collapse in turbulent and magnetized gas with a ratio of mass to magnetic flux somewhat higher than the critical value, μ ~ 2 - 7. The outflow associated with B1b-S presents sharp spatial structures, with ejection velocities of up to ~ 7 kms^-1 from the mean velocity. Its dynamical age is estimated to be ~ 2000 yr. The B1b-N outflow is smaller and slower, with a short dynamical age of ~ 1000 yr. The B1b-N outflow mass, mass-loss rate, and mechanical luminosity agree well with theoretical predictions of FHSC. These observations confirm the early evolutionary stage of B1b-N and the slightly more evolved stage of B1b-S.

Chemical complexity in the horsehead photodissociation region

The interstellar medium is known to be chemically complex. Organic molecules with up to 11 atoms have been detected in the interstellar medium, and are believed to be formed on the ices around dust grains. The ices can be released into the gas-phase either through thermal desorption, when a newly formed star heats the medium around it and completely evaporates the ices; or through non-thermal desorption mechanisms, such as photodesorption, when a single far-UV photon releases only a few molecules from the ices. The first mechanism dominates in hot cores, hot corinos and strongly UV-illuminated PDRs, while the second dominates in colder regions, such as low UV-field PDRs. This is the case of the Horsehead were dust temperatures are approximately eual to 20-30 K, and therefore offers a clean environment to investigate the role of photodesorption. We have carried out an unbiased spectral line survey at 3, 2 and 1mm with the IRAM-30m telescope in the Horsehead nebula, with an unprecedented combination of bandwidth, high spectral resolution and sensitivity. Two positions were observed: the warm PDR and a cold condensation shielded from the UV field (dense core), located just behind the PDR edge. We summarize our recently published results from this survey and present the first detection of the complex organic molecules HCOOH, CH2CO, CH3CHO and CH3CCH in a PDR. These species together with CH3CN present enhanced abundances in the PDR compared to the dense core. This suggests that photodesorption is an efficient mechanism to release complex molecules into the gas-phase in far-UV illuminated regions.

Revised spectroscopic parameters of SH(+) from ALMA and IRAM 30m observations

Hydrides represent the first steps of interstellar chemistry. Sulfanylium (SH(+)), in particular, is a key tracer of energetic processes. We used ALMA and the IRAM 30 m telescope to search for the lowest frequency rotational lines of SH(+) toward the Orion Bar, the prototypical photo-dissociation region illuminated by a strong UV radiation field. On the basis of previous Herschel/HIFI observations of SH(+), we expected to detect emission of the two SH(+) hyperfine structure (HFS) components of the NJ = 10-01 fine structure (FS) component near 346 GHz. While we did not observe any lines at the frequencies predicted from laboratory data, we detected two emission lines, each ~15 MHz above the SH(+) predictions and with relative intensities and HFS splitting expected for SH(+). The rest frequencies of the two newly detected lines are more compatible with the remainder of the SH(+) laboratory data than the single line measured in the laboratory near 346 GHz and previously attributed to SH(+). Therefore, we assign these new features to the two SH(+) HFS components of the NJ = 10-01 FS component and re-determine its spectroscopic parameters, which will be useful for future observations of SH(+), in particular if its lowest frequency FS components are studied. Our observations demonstrate the suitability of these lines for SH(+) searches at frequencies easily accessible from the ground.

CH2D(+), the search for the holy grail

CH2D+, the singly deuterated counterpart of CH3(+), offers an alternative way to mediate formation of deuterated species at temperatures of several tens of Kelvin, as compared to the release of deuterated species from grains. We report a longstanding observational search for this molecular ion, whose rotational spectroscopy is not yet completely secure. We summarize the main spectroscopic properties of this molecule and discuss the chemical network leading to the formation of CH2D+, with explicit account of the ortho/para forms of H2, H3(+), and CH3(+). Astrochemical models support the presence of this molecular ion in moderately warm environments at a marginal level.

Hydride spectroscopy of the diffuse interstellar medium: new clues on the gas fraction in molecular form and cosmic ray ionization rate in relation to H3+

The Herschel-guaranteed time key programme PRobing InterStellar Molecules with Absorption line Studies (PRISMAS)(1) is providing a survey of the interstellar hydrides containing the elements C, O, N, F and Cl. As the building blocks of interstellar molecules, hydrides provide key information on their formation pathways. They can also be used as tracers of important physical and chemical properties of the interstellar gas that are difficult to measure otherwise. This paper presents an analysis of two sight-lines investigated by the PRISMAS project, towards the star-forming regions W49N and W51. By combining the information extracted from the detected spectral lines, we present an analysis of the physical properties of the diffuse interstellar gas, including the electron abundance, the fraction of gas in molecular form, and constraints on the cosmic ray ionization rate and the gas density.