Grit and uncertainty: Grit predicts performance and West Point graduation during pandemic conditions

Grit, or the passionate pursuit of long-term goals, is an important predictor of performance and success across various domains, including within some military contexts. Whether grit predicts such outcomes at a military service academy during a multi-year period of prolonged uncertainty, however, is unknown. Using institutional data collected prior to the COVID-19 pandemic onset, we assessed how well grit, physical fitness test scores, and entrance examination scores predicted performance in academic, military, and physical domains, as well as on-time graduation for 817 cadets from the West Point Class of 2022. This cohort spent more than 2 years of their time at West Point functioning under the uncertainty of pandemic-related conditions. Multiple regression results showed that grit, fitness test, and entrance examination scores were all significant predictors of performance outcomes in the academic, military, and physical domains. Results from binary logistic regression showed that, in addition to physical fitness, grit scores significantly predicted graduation from West Point and accounted for unique variance. Consistent with results from pre-pandemic studies, grit was an important predictor of performance and success for West Point cadets even under pandemic conditions.

The Relationship Among Chronotype, Hardiness, Affect, and Talent and Their Effects on Performance in a Military Context

Individual preference for morning or evening activities (chronotype), affect, hardiness, and talent are associated with a variety of performance outcomes. This longitudinal study was designed to investigate the degree to which these variables are associated with academic, physical, and military performance. Self-reported measures of chronotype, affect, and hardiness were collected from 1149 cadets from the Class of 2016 upon entry to the United States Military Academy. Talent, a composite of academic, leadership, and physical fitness scores were drawn from cadet records. Academic, military, and physical performance measures were collected at graduation 4 years later. The results indicated that a morning orientation was associated with better physical and military performance. Higher talent scores, as well as lower levels of negative affect, were associated with better performance across all three performance measures. Hardiness was only associated with military performance. The findings suggest that a morning orientation and less negative affect may result in better performance overall within a challenging and structured military environment. Future studies of chronotype shifts may provide further insight into associated performance benefits.

Character strengths and performance outcomes among military brat and non-brat cadets

Although many studies have compared military vs. civilian samples on a wide variety of characteristics, few have examined these differences within the context of those who commit a portion of their life to the military. In this study, we explored how West Point cadets with ("military brat cadet") or without ("non-brat cadet") a family military background might differ in terms of their character strengths. Although the cadets shared many similarities, we found that several strengths related to self-control were higher in non-brat cadets than brat cadets and that many of these self-control-related strengths were important predictors of performance for brat cadets (but not non-brat cadets). For non-brat cadets, strengths related to a drive to fully involve themselves and navigate relationships with others were better predictors of performance. In a second study utilizing a different class of cadets, we again found support for the idea that nonmilitary brat cadets possessed more self-control than military brat cadets. Better understanding the unique strengths and weaknesses of those within the military who have vs. don't have a military background may provide important insights for future recruitment, training, and military preparation.

Cognitive and noncognitive predictors of success

When predicting success, how important are personal attributes other than cognitive ability? To address this question, we capitalized on a full decade of prospective, longitudinal data from n = 11,258 cadets entering training at the US Military Academy at West Point. Prior to training, cognitive ability was negatively correlated with both physical ability and grit. Cognitive ability emerged as the strongest predictor of academic and military grades, but noncognitive attributes were more prognostic of other achievement outcomes, including successful completion of initiation training and 4-y graduation. We conclude that noncognitive aspects of human capital deserve greater attention from both scientists and practitioners interested in predicting real-world success.

Comparison of Perceived Job Security of College Professors versus White-Collar and Blue-Collar Workers

This study compared perceived job security of 61 college professors with those of 3,442 other white-collar workers and 2,583 blue-collar workers using the 1972–1994 General Social Surveys as the database. Analysis indicated the college professors express greater security in their jobs, being less likely to think they would lose their jobs in the next year, and being more confident about finding a comparable job, if forced to do so.

A Comparison of Observer and Incumbent Ratings of Situation Awareness

The Situation Awareness Behavioral Rating Scale (SABARS) utilizes ratings by expert observer/controllers (O/Cs) to evaluate situation awareness (SA) of infantry small unit leaders. Previous research (Matthews et al., 2004) showed SABARS to be predictive of a variety of performance measures. The current study explored the question of whether small unit leaders could use SABARS to accurately rate their own behavior as an index of their SA. To evaluate this question, 12 Norwegian Army and Navy Academy cadets participating in the role of squad leader during summer training exercises were given the SABARS to complete following an infantry mission. An experienced officer O/C observed the cadets though the execution of the mission and also provided SABARS ratings on the squad leader. Results indicated that “self-SABARS” evaluations did not correlate with SABARS completed by O/C's, and were not predictive of performance criteria. O/C-completed SABARS were, however, predictive of performance criteria thus replicating findings reported previously (Matthews et al., 2004). Implications for assessing SA in the field are discussed.

Perceived Financial Status of Male and Female College Professors

Analysis of responses to 17 nationwide opinion surveys which included college professors and other professionals indicates that college professors view themselves as better off financially than do other professionals. Upon analysis, this difference held among women. The results extend earlier findings concerning the job preferences of college professors.

Job Preferences of Part-Time Workers Have Changed

Analysis of data from the General Social Surveys: 1972–1988 indicated job preferences for part-time workers were less likely for important, meaningful work and more for high pay.

What College Professors Want from a Job

This study compares the job preferences of 57 college professors and 965 other professional workers from the General Social Surveys, 1972–1988 by the Roper Center. Analysis shows college professors are significantly more likely to prefer important, meaningful work and significantly less likely to prefer high pay or chances for advancement. College professors appear to be more strongly motivated than other professionals by intrinsic job considerations.

Effects of hatchery rearing on Florida largemouth bass Micropterus floridanus resource allocation and performance under semi-natural conditions

This study examined the growth, activity, metabolism and post-release survival of three groups of Florida largemouth bass Micropterus floridanus: wild-caught fish, hatchery fish reared according to standard practice (hatchery standard) and hatchery fish reared under reduced and unpredictable food provisioning (hatchery manipulated). Hatchery-standard fish differed from wild-caught fish in all measured variables, including survival in semi-natural ponds. Hatchery-standard and hatchery-manipulated fish showed higher activity levels, faster growth and lower standard metabolic rates than wild-caught fish in the hatchery. Fish reared under the manipulated feeding regime showed increased metabolic rates and increased post-release growth, similar to wild-caught fish. Their activity levels and post-release survival, however, remained similar to those of hatchery-standard fish. Activity was negatively correlated with post-release survival and failure of the feed manipulation to reduce activity may have contributed to its failure to improve post-release survival. Activity and post-release survival may be influenced by characteristics of the rearing environment other than the feeding regime, such as stock density or water flow rates.

An examination of the association between chronic sleep restriction and electrocortical arousal in college students

OBJECTIVE

The deleterious neurocognitive effects of laboratory-controlled short-term sleep deprivation are well-known. The present study investigated neurocognitive changes arising from chronic sleep restriction outside the laboratory.

METHODS

Sleep patterns of 24 undergraduates were tracked via actigraphy across a 15-week semester. At the semester beginning, at a midpoint, and a week before finals, students performed the Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT) and cortical arousal was measured via event-related potentials (ERP) and resting state electroencephalography (EEG).

RESULTS

Average daily sleep decreased between Session 1 and Sessions 2 and 3. Calculated circadian rhythm measures indicated nighttime movement increased and sleep quality decreased from Sessions 1 and 2 to Session 3. Parallel to the sleep/activity measures, PVT reaction time increased between Session 1 and Sessions 2 and 3 and resting state alpha EEG reactivity magnitude and PVT-evoked P3 ERP amplitude decreased between Session 1 and Sessions 2 and 3. Cross-sectional regressions showed PVT reaction time was negatively associated with average daily sleep, alpha reactivity, and P3 changes; sleep/circadian measures were associated with alpha reactivity and/or P3 changes.

CONCLUSIONS

Small, but persistent sleep deficits reduced cortical arousal and impaired vigilant attention.

SIGNIFICANCE

Chronic sleep restriction impacts neurocognition in a manner similar to laboratory controlled sleep deprivation.

Sleep and sadness: exploring the relation among sleep, cognitive control, and depressive symptoms in young adults

BACKGROUND

Sleep disturbance is a common feature of depression. However, recent work has found that individuals who are vulnerable to depression report poorer sleep quality compared to their low-risk counterparts, suggesting that sleep disturbance may precede depression. In addition, both sleep disturbance and depression are related to deficits in cognitive control processes. Thus we examined if poor sleep quality predicts subsequent increases in depressive symptoms and if levels of cognitive control mediated this relation.

METHODS

Thirty-five undergraduate students participated in two experimental sessions separated by 3 weeks. Participants wore an actigraph watch between sessions, which provided an objective measure of sleep patterns. We assessed self-reported sleep quality and depressive symptoms at both sessions. Last, individuals completed an exogenous cuing task, which measured ability to disengage attention from neutral and negative stimuli during the second session.

RESULTS

Using path analyses, we found that both greater self-reported sleep difficulty and more objective sleep stability measures significantly predicted greater difficulty disengaging attention (i.e., less cognitive control) from negative stimuli. Less cognitive control over negative stimuli in turn predicted increased depression symptoms at the second session. Exploratory associations among the circadian locomotor output cycles kaput gene, CLOCK, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), rs11932595, as well as sleep assessments and depressive symptoms also are presented.

CONCLUSIONS

These preliminary results suggest that sleep disruptions may contribute to increases in depressive symptoms via their impact on cognitive control. Further, variation in the CLOCK gene may be associated with sleep quality.

Comprehensive soldier fitness: building resilience in a challenging institutional context

The Comprehensive Soldier Fitness (CSF) program is designed to increase psychological strength and positive performance and to reduce the incidence of maladaptive responses of the entire U.S. Army. Based on the principles of positive psychology, CSF is a historically unique approach to behavioral health in a large (1.1 million members) organization. There are four program elements: (a) the assessment of emotional, social, family, and spiritual fitness; (b) individualized learning modules to improve fitness in these domains; (c) formal resilience training; and (d) training of Army master resilience trainers (MRTs) to instill better thinking skills and resilience in their subordinates. In contrast to traditional approaches, CSF is proactive; rather than waiting to see who has a negative outcome following stress, it provides ways of improving resilience for all members of the Army. CSF aims to move the full spectrum of responses to trauma and adversity-ranging from stress-related disorders to ordinary resilience-toward personal growth. This program may provide a model for implementing similar interventions in other very large institutions.

The Effects of 24-hour Sleep Deprivation on the Exploration-Exploitation Trade-off

Sleep deprivation has a complex set of neurological effects that go beyond a mere slowing of mental processes. While cognitive and perceptual impairments in sleep deprived individuals are widespread, some abilities remain intact. In an effort to characterize these effects, some have suggested an impairment of complex decision making ability despite intact ability to follow simple rules. To examine this trade-off, 24-hour total sleep deprived individuals performed two versions of a resource acquisition foraging task, one in which exploration is optimal (to succeed, abandon low value, high saliency options) and another in which exploitation is optimal (to succeed, refrain from switching between options). Sleep deprived subjects exhibited decreased performance on the exploitation task compared to non-sleep deprived controls, yet both groups exhibited increased performance on the exploratory task. These results speak to previous neuropsychological work on cognitive control.

The effects of sleep deprivation on dissociable prototype learning systems

BACKGROUND

The cognitive neural underpinnings of prototype learning are becoming clear. Evidence points to 2 different neural systems, depending on the learning parameters. A/not-A (AN) prototype learning is mediated by posterior brain regions that are involved in early perceptual learning, whereas A/B (AB) is mediated by frontal and medial temporal lobe regions.

STUDY OBJECTIVES

To investigate the effects of sleep deprivation on AN and AB prototype learning and to use established prototype models to provide insights into the cognitive-processing locus of sleep-deprivation deficits.

DESIGN

Participants performed an AN and an AB prototype learning task twice, separated by a 24-hour period, with or without sleep between testing sessions.

PARTICIPANTS

Eighteen West Point cadets participated in the sleep-deprivation group, and 17 West Point cadets participated in a control group.

MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS

Sleep deprivation led to an AN, but not an AB, performance deficit. Prototype model analyses indicated that the AN deficit was due to changes in attentional focus and a decrease in confidence that is reflected in an increased bias to respond non-A.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that AN, but not AB, prototype learning is affected by sleep deprivation. Prototype model analyses support the notion that the effect of sleep deprivation on AN is consistent with lapses in attentional focus that are more detrimental to AN than to AB. This finding adds to a growing body of work that suggests that different performance changes associated with sleep deprivation can be attributed to a common mechanism of changes in simple attention and vigilance.

An exploratory study of differences in emotional intelligence in U.S. and Norwegian undergraduate students

The present study explored sex and cultural differences in Emotional Intelligence scores in samples from Norway (n = 297) and the United States (n = 234). Significant main effects for sex were found in overall Emotional Intelligence scores and the Empathy factor. In addition, results revealed a small but significant effect for culture in the Self-control factor, as well as support for an interaction between sex and culture in the Handling Relationships factor. The results are discussed in light of cultural differences between U.S. and Norwegian societies.

The effects of sleep deprivation on information-integration categorization performance

BACKGROUND

Sleep deprivation is a serious problem facing individuals in many critical societal roles. One of the most ubiquitous tasks facing individuals is categorization. Sleep deprivation is known to affect rule-based categorization in the classic Wisconsin Card Sorting Task, but, to date, information-integration categorization has not been examined.

STUDY OBJECTIVES

To investigate the effects of sleep deprivation on information-integration category learning.

DESIGN

Participants performed an information-integration categorization task twice, separated by a 24-hour period, with or without sleep between testing sessions.

PARTICIPANTS

Twenty-one West Point cadets participated in the sleep-deprivation group and 28 West Point cadets participated in a control group.

MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS

Sleep deprivation led to an overall performance deficit during the second testing session-that is, whereas participants allowed to sleep showed a significant performance increase during the second testing session, sleepless participants showed a small (but nonsignificant) performance decline during the second testing session. Model-based analyses indicated that a major contributor to the sleep-deprivation effect was the poor second-session performance of a subgroup of sleep-deprived participants who shifted from optimal information-integration strategies at the end of the first session to less-optimal rule-based strategies at the start of the second session. Sleep-deprived participants who used information-integration strategies in both sessions showed no drop in performance in the second session, mirroring the behavior of control participants.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that the neural systems underlying information-integration strategies are not strongly affected by sleep deprivation but, rather, that the use of an information-integration strategy in a task may require active inhibition of rule-based strategies, with this inhibitory process being vulnerable to the effects of sleep deprivation.

Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals

The importance of intellectual talent to achievement in all professional domains is well established, but less is known about other individual differences that predict success. The authors tested the importance of 1 noncognitive trait: grit. Defined as perseverance and passion for long-term goals, grit accounted for an average of 4% of the variance in success outcomes, including educational attainment among 2 samples of adults (N=1,545 and N=690), grade point average among Ivy League undergraduates (N=138), retention in 2 classes of United States Military Academy, West Point, cadets (N=1,218 and N=1,308), and ranking in the National Spelling Bee (N=175). Grit did not relate positively to IQ but was highly correlated with Big Five Conscientiousness. Grit nonetheless demonstrated incremental predictive validity of success measures over and beyond IQ and conscientiousness. Collectively, these findings suggest that the achievement of difficult goals entails not only talent but also the sustained and focused application of talent over time.

Dispositional optimism and self-assessed situation awareness in a Norwegian military training exercise

The current study examined the relationship between dispositional optimism and situation awareness. A sample of 77 Royal Norwegian Naval Academy and 57 Royal Norwegian Army Academy cadets were administered the Life Orientation Test prior to participating in a field-training exercise involving a series of challenging missions. Following an infantry mission component of the exercise, situation awareness was measured using the Mission Awareness Rating Scale (MARS), a self-assessment tool. The analysis indicated that dispositional optimism correlated negatively with situation awareness under these conditions. The role of intrapersonal variables in mediating situation awareness and decision-making in stressful situations is discussed.

Training and assessing complex decision-making in a virtual environment

The current report describes a procedure for training and assessing complex decision-making in a virtual environment. Focusing on small unit leaders, 7 experienced and 7 inexperienced Army platoon leaders performed missions in a combat simulator, where they were required to direct the activities of 3 subordinate leaders and computer-generated forces in 4 different operations in a virtual urban setting. Objective and subjective assessments of the training value of the simulations showed that both experienced an inexperienced platoon leaders improved their decision-making across the four missions, and both groups rated this "virtual environment" training procedure as useful and positive. Lessons learned and implications for designing similar training protocols for other domains are discussed.

Case report on a diver with type II decompression sickness and viral meningitis

A 33-yr-old man came to the emergency department with the chief complaint of a severe headache and decreased sensation in his right hand following a deep dive on scuba. Physical examination before recompression treatment was remarkable only for hypesthesia on the right hand. We diagnosed type II decompression sickness and the patient underwent standard recompression therapy. The patient experienced near-complete resolution of his symptoms, his only residual complaint being that of neck pain with head movement. To investigate other causes of headache, a computed tomography of the head was performed which was normal, and a lumbar puncture was performed which was consistent with viral meningitis. This is the first reported case of recompression treatment on a patient with viral meningitis and decompression sickness.

Attitudes of women toward homosexual behavior as a function of veteran status

Analysis of data from the General Social Surveys: 1972–1992 indicated no difference between 49 women who were veterans of military service and 5402 women who were not veterans in approval of homosexual behavior.

Attitudes toward homosexual behavior: effects of veteran status

The present study examined the attitudes toward homosexual behavior of veterans of United States military service and nonveterans. Using a nationwide survey as the database, 1,293 veterans did not differ from 2,330 nonveterans in approval of homosexual behavior, as over 74% of each group expressed disapproval.

Comparison of Supervisors' and Incumbents' Estimates of the Worth of Workers to Their Organizations: A Brief Report

The purpose of the current study was to compare estimates of the economic value of workers to their organization obtained from supervisors with those obtained from job incumbents. The measure of value used, SDy, is a utility analysis term which translates workers' performance into dollars and cents. Among a sample of 18 task scientists and 13 of their supervisors, the workers and their supervisors provided substantially and significantly different measures of SDy. This suggests that such estimates obtained from workers and their supervisors not be pooled for analysis.

Work Satisfaction of Females with Full-Time Employment and Full-Time Housekeeping: 15 Years Later

Comparison of National Opinion Survey data from 1972 and 1973 with similar data from 1987 and 1988 suggests that, in contrast to the earlier data which showed no difference, women who work full-time outside the home now report greater work satisfaction than women engaged in full-time housekeeping. These results suggest that sex-role socialization in American society no longer prepares women strictly for the domestic role.

A Methodological Note on Predicting Attrition

Comparison of two regression models for predicting attrition among 49,668 Air Force recruits indicate the importance of defining turnover in terms which are conceptually related to the predictor variables.

Effects of glutamic acid on operant behavior, activity, and open-field behavior in rats

The current study examined the effects of dietary administration of glutamic acid and/or Vitmin B0 on operant behavior, activity, and open-field behavior in rats. Compared to controls, experimental subjects showed prolonged extinction of the lever-press task and entered more squares in the open-field. Experimental groups did not differ among themselves on these measures. No differences between experimental groups and controls were found for acquisition of the lever-press response, activity measured on an activity wheel, and number of defecations in the open-field. Results were partially supportive of previous studies showing significant effects of peripherally administered glutamic acid on measures of operant behavior.

Behavioral Effects of Response-Independent Termination of Aversive Stimulation

In the current study, the effects of noncontingent termination of aversive stimulation on the development and organization of behavior were examined. Rats were removed from cold water independent of their behavior, and changes in their behavior when replaced in the cold water were observed. Contrary to a classic interpretation of the effects of noncontingent reinforcement as “superstition,” stable and predictable patterns of behavior developed under these conditions. The results were interpreted as supporting the view that reinforcers do not act arbitrarily on behavior, but their effects are instead closely related to the motivational state of an organism and its surrounding stimulus conditions.

Prevention of endomyometritis using antibiotic irrigation during cesarean section

After double-blind controlled studies demonstrated cefamandole nafate irrigation of the uterus during cesarean section to be effective in reducing the rate of endomyometritis, antibiotic irrigation was adopted as a standard procedure at Tripler Army Medical Center. The present study analyzes the outcome in patients undergoing cesarean section before (comparison group) and after (treatment group) routine use of antibiotic irrigation began. The incidence of endomyometritis in 100 patients from the comparison group was 20% and in 298 patients from the treatment group 1.7% (P less than .0001). Serum analysis for cefamandole nafate demonstrated little systemic absorption of the antibiotic. Cefamandole nafate intrauterine irrigation at cesarean section effectively prevents endomyometritis.

Anaphylaxis to suxamethonium--a case report

A case history is presented of a woman who developed very severe bronchospasm, hypotension, "lobster-red" erythema and later angio edema of the head and neck after induction of anaesthesia for caesarean section. Intradermal testing at a later date, showed immediate-type sensitivity to suxamethonium. Reference is made to the other few reactions to suxamethonium reported in the world literature.