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Kriss RB, Smith E, Byrd G, Schock M, Edwards MA. Considering a Utility-Centric Framework Based on "Minimum Orthophosphate" Criteria for Mitigation of Elevated Cuprosolvency in Drinking Water. Environ Sci Technol 2024; 58:5606-5615. [PMID: 38470122 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c00583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Gaps in the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) leave some consumers and their pets vulnerable to high cuprosolvency in drinking water. This study seeks to help proactive utilities who wish to mitigate cuprosolvency problems through the addition of orthophosphate corrosion inhibitors. The minimum doses of orthophosphate necessary to achieve acceptable cuprosolvency in relatively new copper pipe were estimated as a function of alkalinity via linear regressions for the 90th, 95th, and 100th percentile copper tube segments (R2 > 0.98, n = 4). Orthophosphate was very effective at reducing cuprosolvency in the short term but, in some cases, resulted in higher long-term copper concentrations than the corresponding condition without orthophosphate. Alternatives to predicting "long-term" results for copper tubes using simpler bench tests starting with fresh Cu(OH)2 solids showed promise but would require further vetting to overcome limitations such as maintaining water chemistry and orthophosphate residuals and to ensure comparability to results using copper tube.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca B Kriss
- Virginia Polytechnic and State University, Civil and Environmental Engineering, 418 Durham Hall, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Emily Smith
- Virginia Polytechnic and State University, Civil and Environmental Engineering, 418 Durham Hall, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Grace Byrd
- Virginia Polytechnic and State University, Civil and Environmental Engineering, 418 Durham Hall, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | | | - Marc A Edwards
- Virginia Polytechnic and State University, Civil and Environmental Engineering, 418 Durham Hall, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
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Tully J, Schock M, Shilling S, Bosscher V, Lytle D, Harmon S, Bennett-Stamper C. An evaluation of properly operated NSF/ANSI-53 Pb certified drinking water filters in Benton Harbor, MI. J Water Health 2024; 22:296-308. [PMID: 38421624 PMCID: wh_2024_231 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2024.231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Communities across the United States and particularly in the Midwest continue to grapple with the complications associated with aging infrastructure. This includes the presence of lead (Pb)-bearing plumbing components such as lead service lines, downstream galvanized iron pipes, and Pb/tin solder. The community of Benton Harbor, MI, experienced six Pb action level exceedances between 2018 and 2021, leading to increasing community concern and a request from the state of Michigan for the US Environmental Protection Agency involvement. Between 9 November and 17 December 2021, US EPA Region 5 and Office of Research and Development, along with the state of Michigan, conducted a water filter efficacy and Pb-nanoparticulate (<100 nm) study to evaluate the performance of NSF/ANSI-53 Pb-certified drinking water filters and the presence of nanoparticulate. In this study, a total of 199 properly installed and operated drinking water filters (combination of faucet mounted and pitcher) were tested in their residential locations. One hundred percent of the water filters were found to perform to the standard to which they were certified, with filtered drinking water Pb concentrations below 5 ppb (maximum observed was 2.5 ppb). In addition, Pb particulate was identified; however, discrete Pb-containing nanoparticles were not widely found or identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Tully
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Water Infrastructure Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA E-mail:
| | - Michael Schock
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Water Infrastructure Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
| | - Scott Shilling
- Oak Ridge Associated Universities, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Water Infrastructure Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
| | - Valerie Bosscher
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 5, Water Division, Ground Water and Drinking Water Branch, Chicago, IL 60605, USA
| | - Darren Lytle
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Water Infrastructure Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
| | - Stephen Harmon
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Water Infrastructure Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
| | - Christina Bennett-Stamper
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Water Infrastructure Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
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Triantafyllidou S, Burkhardt J, Tully J, Cahalan K, DeSantis M, Lytle D, Schock M. Variability and sampling of lead (Pb) in drinking water: Assessing potential human exposure depends on the sampling protocol. Environ Int 2021; 146:106259. [PMID: 33395926 PMCID: PMC7879988 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.106259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/31/2020] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Lead (Pb) in drinking water has re-emerged as a modern public health threat which can vary widely in space and in time (i.e., between homes, within homes and even at the same tap over time). Spatial and temporal water Pb variability in buildings is the combined result of water chemistry, hydraulics, Pb plumbing materials and water use patterns. This makes it challenging to obtain meaningful water Pb data with which to estimate potential exposure to residents. The objectives of this review paper are to describe the root causes of intrinsic Pb variability in drinking water, which in turn impacts the numerous existing water sampling protocols for Pb. Such knowledge can assist the public health community, the drinking water industry, and other interested groups to interpret/compare existing drinking water Pb data, develop appropriate sampling protocols to answer specific questions relating to Pb in water, and understand potential exposure to Pb-contaminated water. Overall, review of the literature indicated that drinking water sampling for Pb assessment can serve many purposes. Regulatory compliance sampling protocols are useful in assessing community-wide compliance with a water Pb regulatory standard by typically employing practical single samples. More complex multi-sample protocols are useful for comprehensive Pb plumbing source determination (e.g., Pb service line, Pb brass faucet, Pb solder joint) or Pb form identification (i.e., particulate Pb release) in buildings. Exposure assessment sampling can employ cumulative water samples that directly capture an approximate average water Pb concentration over a prolonged period of normal household water use. Exposure assessment may conceivably also employ frequent random single samples, but this approach warrants further investigation. Each protocol has a specific use answering one or more questions relevant to Pb in water. In order to establish statistical correlations to blood Pb measurements or to predict blood Pb levels from existing datasets, the suitability of available drinking water Pb datasets in representing water Pb exposure needs to be understood and the uncertainties need to be characterized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simoni Triantafyllidou
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions & Emergency Response, Water Infrastructure Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH, United States.
| | - Jonathan Burkhardt
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions & Emergency Response, Water Infrastructure Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Jennifer Tully
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions & Emergency Response, Water Infrastructure Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Kelly Cahalan
- Oak Ridge Associated Universities at Time of This Work, Currently New York City Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Water Supply, Distribution Science and Planning, New York City, NY, United States
| | - Michael DeSantis
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions & Emergency Response, Water Infrastructure Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Darren Lytle
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions & Emergency Response, Water Infrastructure Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Michael Schock
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions & Emergency Response, Water Infrastructure Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH, United States
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Stanek LW, Xue J, Lay CR, Helm EC, Schock M, Lytle DA, Speth TF, Zartarian VG. Modeled Impacts of Drinking Water Pb Reduction Scenarios on Children's Exposures and Blood Lead Levels. Environ Sci Technol 2020; 54:9474-9482. [PMID: 32638591 PMCID: PMC10251739 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c00479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, environmental lead (Pb) exposure through drinking water has resulted in community public health concerns. To understand potential impacts on blood Pb levels (BLLs) from drinking water Pb reduction actions (i.e., combinations of lead service lines [LSL] and corrosion control treatment [CCT] scenarios), EPA's Stochastic Human Exposure and Dose Simulation (SHEDS)-Multimedia/Integrated Exposure Uptake and Biokinetic (IEUBK) model was applied for U.S. children aged 0 to <6 years. The results utilizing a large drinking water sequential sampling data set from 15 cities to estimate model input concentration distributions demonstrated lowest predicted BLLs for the "no LSLs" with "combined CCT" scenario and highest predicted BLLs for the "yes LSLs" and "no CCT" scenario. Modeled contribution to BLLs from ingestion of residential drinking water ranged from ∼10 to 80%, with the highest estimated for formula-fed infants (age 0 to <1 year). Further analysis using a "bounding" data set spanning a range of realistic water Pb concentrations and variabilities showed BLL predictions consistent with the sequential sampling-derived inputs. Our study illustrates (1) effectiveness of LSL replacement coupled with CCT for reducing Pb in drinking water and children's BLLs, and (2) in some age groups, under realistic local and residential water use conditions, drinking water can be the dominant exposure pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay W Stanek
- US EPA, Office of Research and Development, Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, United States
| | - Jianping Xue
- US EPA, Office of Research and Development, Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, United States
| | - Claire R Lay
- Abt Associates, Division of Health and Environment, Boulder, Colorado 80302, United States
| | - Erik C Helm
- US EPA, Office of Water, Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, Washington, District of Columbia 20460, United States
| | - Michael Schock
- US EPA, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, United States
| | - Darren A Lytle
- US EPA, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, United States
| | - Thomas F Speth
- US EPA, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, United States
| | - Valerie G Zartarian
- US EPA, Office of Research and Development, Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, United States
- US EPA, Office of Research and Development, Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Boston, Massachusetts 02109, United States
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Pio CA, Legrand M, Oliveira T, Afonso J, Santos C, Caseiro A, Fialho P, Barata F, Puxbaum H, Sanchez-Ochoa A, Kasper-Giebl A, Gelencsér A, Preunkert S, Schock M. Climatology of aerosol composition (organic versus inorganic) at nonurban sites on a west-east transect across Europe. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1029/2006jd008038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Legrand M, Preunkert S, Schock M, Cerqueira M, Kasper-Giebl A, Afonso J, Pio C, Gelencsér A, Dombrowski-Etchevers I. Major 20th century changes of carbonaceous aerosol components (EC, WinOC, DOC, HULIS, carboxylic acids, and cellulose) derived from Alpine ice cores. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1029/2006jd008080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Schock M, Spillar EJ. Method for a quantitative investigation of the frozen flow hypothesis. J Opt Soc Am A Opt Image Sci Vis 2000; 17:1650-1658. [PMID: 10975375 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.17.001650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
We present a technique to test the frozen flow hypothesis quantitatively, using data from wave-front sensors such as those found in adaptive optics systems. Detailed treatments of the theoretical background of the method and of the error analysis are presented. Analyzing data from the 1.5-m and 3.5-m telescopes at the Starfire Optical Range, we find that the frozen flow hypothesis is an accurate description of the temporal development of atmospheric turbulence on time scales of the order of 1-10 ms but that significant deviations from the frozen flow behavior are present for longer time scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Schock
- Centre de Recherche Astronomique de Lyon, Observatoire de Lyon, St. Genis Laval, France
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